Sustainable

Energy & Fuels

PAPER

Determination of the sustainability index along with

Cite this: Sustainable Energy Fuels,
energy–exergy–emission–economic analysis of
2023, 7, 3342 a VCR diesel engine fuelled with diesel–
bioethanol–Al2O3 nanoparticles
Taraprasad Mohapatra,a Sudhansu S. Mishra *b and Sudhansu S. Sahooc

One of the biofuels made from waste rice straw was mixed with diesel in different percentages [e-diesel
(R10, R15, R20)] and diesel–bioethanol blends with 25 ppm Al2O3 nanoparticles [nanofuel (NF0, NF10,
NF15, NF20)] were tested in a VCR CI engine under varying load intensities (0 kg-no load, 10 kg-full load)
and at different compression ratios (CR: 14 and 18). Brake thermal efficiency in energy efficiency, exergy
efficiency, brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC), heat release rate (HRR), peak cylinder pressure, and
the emission of CO, HC, and NOx are the output parameters of the current investigation. The cost of e-
diesel and nanofuel was then predicted using economic analysis to compare them with regular diesel
fuel. Except for BSFC, it was seen that other parameters rise when the load changes from zero to full.
Similar to this, all metrics, except BSFC, CO, and HC emissions, increase when the CR is increased from
14 to 18 and drop as the fuel type is changed from diesel to e-diesel and nanofuel. For the maximum
load and CR condition, the NF0 exhibits maximum energy efficiency of 30.42%, maximum exergy
efficiency of 63.5%, an HRR of 61 J per degree, peak cylinder pressure of 84 bar, relative cost of
−10.215%, and minimum BSFC of 0.463 kg kW−1 h−1, whereas the NF15 and F0 exhibit minimum
Received 2nd April 2023
Accepted 4th June 2023
emission of CO of 0.157%, HC of 43 ppm, and NOx of 422 ppm. NF0 attains a higher sustainability index
of 1.817 compared to other fuels due to a lower depletion rate, followed by NF10, F0, and NF15 of 1.803,
DOI: 10.1039/d3se00431g
1.781, and 1.772, respectively. A higher waste energy ratio is observed for R20 of 0.751, followed by R15,
rsc.li/sustainable-energy NF20, and NF15 of 0.727, 0.704, and 0.651, respectively.

bioconversion of rice straw into cellulose had a greater overall

1. Introduction trend. Aer 7 days of fermentation, the combined method of
The production of bioethanol from rice straw plays a vital role to acid pretreatment with ultrasonic and subsequent enzyme
encounter the high cost of fossil fuels and protect the envi- treatment resulted in the largest conversion of lignocellulose in
ronment. Rice straw can create 205 billion litres of bioethanol rice straw to sugar and, as a result, the highest ethanol
per year or nearly 5% of global consumption, which is the most concentration.1 Rice straw has an average caloric value of
ever produced from a single biomass source. In India, 420 lakh 3308.29 cal g−1. Rice straw, on the other hand, is not suitable for
hectares of land are used for rice cultivation. India is placed in most large-scale conversion technologies due to its physical and
the second position for rice production in the world. Every chemical qualities. Co-ring combustion with coal is the most
kilogram of grain harvested produces 1–1.5 kg of rice straw. feasible solution for energy conversion. While the off-site usage
Typically, the waste is eliminated by burning it onsite. There- of rice straw is energetically viable, the main impediments are
fore, rice straw can be transformed into bioethanol and used as currently economic viability.2 Many scholars have taken
a source of bioenergy to tackle the waste problem without different types of biofuels solely or blended with pilot fuel and
harming the environment. have used the fuel in compression ignition engines. The impact
Rice straw had varying susceptibilities to cellulose when it of synthetic magnesium additions in chicken fat biodiesel on
comes to converting it to sugars. The study also showed that the engine performance and emissions was investigated. The
results showed that adding 10% chicken fat biodiesel to the
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, C. V. Raman Global University,
engine had no inuence on torque, but the specic fuel
Bhubaneswar, India consumption increased by 5.2% due to the low caloric content
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Government College of Engineering, of biodiesel.3 In a variety of settings, the performance of a VCR
Keonjhar, India. E-mail: sudhansumishra_fme@gcekjr.ac.in; Tel: +91-9438533060 diesel engine was tested utilizing jatropha diesel blends. When
c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Odisha University of Technology and 50% jatropha was combined with diesel, the maximum brake
Research, Bhubaneswar, India

3342 | Sustainable Energy Fuels, 2023, 7, 3342–3360 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2023
Paper Sustainable Energy & Fuels

torque and BSFC were obtained (B50). B10 had the highest put through a number of test runs at a constant speed of
volumetric efficiency under the same testing conditions.4 When 1500 rpm to anticipate its performance and emission charac-
compared to diesel engines, the BSFC and BTE of CI engines teristics by varying input factors including engine load, CR, and
using B10 and B20 were enhanced, according to experimental fuel mode of operation.15 The performance parameters of a CI
data. In multifuel mode, the HC and CO emissions of KOME- engine using biodiesel–diesel blends at various compression
blended fuels were lower than diesel, but the NOx emissions ratios have been predicted using a zero-dimensional model. In
were higher.5 Recent research has focused on comparing MATLAB, the corresponding thermodynamic and mathematical
innovative composite oil biodiesel with n-propanol and diesel interactions have been resolved.16 Using AVL FIRE soware,
fuel-based ternary fuel blends to binary fuel blends in terms of a 3D model of the Pt SCR catalyst's NOx conversion efficiency
their engine performance, combustion, and emission proper- has been created. Based on experimental testing done on
ties.6 Not all engine settings resulted in the decrease of NOx in a single-cylinder engine, the simulation was run. At various
biodiesel–hydrogen, biodiesel–diesel, or biodiesel–CNG engine speeds, the exhaust gas from the engine that enters the
combustion. Reducing NOx emissions can also be accom- catalyst was measured for various fuel blends.17 The CI engine's
plished by delaying injection timing, lowering injection pres- performance, emissions, and combustion properties were
sure, and increasing EGR by more than 30%.7 For increased examined using diesel and soybean as fuels. The ndings
performance, a CI engine is tested in single-fuel and dual-fuel demonstrated that biodiesel demonstrated an earlier start of
mode with methyl ester of Thevetia peruviana (METP) and combustion than soybean oil, which displayed similar
hydrogen gas.8 Using n-butanol as a co-solvent, an experiment combustion phases to those of diesel.18 A naturally aspirated CI
was carried out to improve the stability of the ethanol/jatropha engine's performance, emissions, and combustion character-
biodiesel (JME) mixture. The inclusion of ethanol can lower the istics were studied in relation to the impacts of adding soybean
BSFC values when compared to JME fuel. Ethanol dramatically oil to diesel. Diesel and soybean oil have different qualities. For
reduced CO, UHC, and NOx production by 40%, 40%, and 40%, soybean oil, there was a little decrease in BTE and an increase in
respectively, when added to the mix.9 Using greater injection BSFC.19 Employing pure diesel and three ternary mixes made of
pressures with nanometer-sized cerium oxide additions, it is ethanol, palm oil, and diesel to examine the impact of EGR rates
possible to improve engine performance while reducing emis- on the performance, emission, and combustion characteristics
sions in a biodiesel engine. This reduces the need for of CRDI CI engines with double injection strategies.20 The
petroleum-based fuels while simultaneously preventing the performance, emission, and combustion characteristics of
release of pollutants into the atmosphere.10 The effects of a CRDI CI engine running on diesel–tung oil–ethanol blend
ternary fuel mixtures, which include liqueed propane–butane– fuels at various volume fraction ratios have been examined
hydrogen as additives and methanol, ethanol, iso-octane, experimentally. For the test engine, various injection tactics
hexane, benzene, toluene, and gasoline as primary fuels, are were used at various engine loads.21 The goal of the current
investigated using a combustion model to examine how they study is to use the RSM technique to maximize the combined
affect performance specications such as variation in power, effects of engine load, fuel blend, and compression ratio on the
thermal efficiency, exergy efficiency, and NO of a spark ignition output and emissions of a typical diesel engine running on
(SI) engine.11 One easy and effective technique to improve the a waste plastic oil diesel blend. Using the RSM technique, the
low-temperature ow performance of biodiesel–diesel blends is best engine performance, including the highest BTE and lowest
to add a pour point depressant; however, the molecular struc- NOx emissions, is determined for three different engine input
ture will always have an impact on the enhancing effect of parameters, namely, engine load, compression ratios, and fuel
polymeric PPDs. In this study, tetradecyl methacrylate-maleic mix ratio.22
anhydride, tetradecyl methacrylate-itaconic anhydride, and By running simulation operations on the model, the effects
tetradecyl methacrylate-citraconic anhydride were synthesized of diesel, biodiesel, and n-butanol mixes on diesel engine
and mixed to 20 vol% biodiesel-80 vol% diesel to explore the performance, combustion, and emissions characteristics were
correlations between molecular structure and activity.12 A dual- examined. According to the ndings, all mixes' BTE and soot
fuel engine's performance and exhaust characteristics are being generation are higher and lower than D100 at 75% load,
examined for various blends of the innovative fuel diethyl ether/ respectively. However, the engine's braking capacity was
biogas/diesel. The different biogas ow rates and diethyl ether decreased, the brake ratio's fuel consumption rose, and NOx
fractions in conventional diesel at various engine loads were emissions rose.23 The use of mathematical models to forecast
studied. Response surface technique was used to assess the the brake-specic fuel consumption and exhaust emissions of
researched variables to get the best model.13 The combined a diesel engine in terms of variables such as load and volume
effects of injection time and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR) on percentages of Fe3O4 magnetic nanoparticles.24 Using ANN, the
diesel engines running on neat algal biodiesel was investigated. inuence of a ternary blend of diesel (80%), ethanol (10%), and
Algal oil methyl ester (AOME), which was obtained by the n-butanol (10%) on the combustion and emission parameters
transesterication process, had most of the same fuel proper- were examined.25 BSFC increased by 5.2%, CO and smoke
ties as diesel.14 Calophyllum inophyllum oil, diesel, producer gas, emissions reduced by 13% and 9%, respectively, while NOx
and a mixture of the two have an effect on a variable compres- increased by 5% when chicken fat biodiesel was mixed with
sion ratio compression ignition engine, and the performance magnesium nanoparticles and blended with diesel (10 : 90).26
and emission characteristics were assessed. The test engine was Nanoparticles, graphene nanoplatelets affect the combustion

This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2023 Sustainable Energy Fuels, 2023, 7, 3342–3360 | 3343
Sustainable Energy & Fuels Paper

and emission characteristics of a turbocharged diesel engine. necessitate additional research. Once more, literature on the
Among the investigated additions, graphene oxide was discov- energy, exergy, environmental, sustainability, and economic
ered to have a decreased propensity to soot, but graphene study of nanoparticles mixed with biodiesel is scarce. With
nanoplatelets had improved NOx, CO, and HC emission miti- these primary gaps identied in the literature, the present study
gation capabilities.27 Regardless of NOx emissions or vibration aims to use e-diesel (a blend of diesel and bioethanol produced
levels, the combined action of titanium dioxides and cerium from waste biomass, such as rice straw) and nanoparticles in e-
acetate hydrate nanoparticles mixed with diesel effectively diesel as the test fuel in a VCR CI engine to predict its perfor-
reduced pollutants emissions.28 Adding TiO2 to waste cooking mance, emission, and economic characteristics. To determine
oil improved brake engine torque and power by 10.20% and the test engine's energy efficiency, exergy efficiency, emission
9.74%, respectively, and decreased BSFC by 27.73% and 28.37% characteristics, sustainability analysis, and economic viability,
when compared to blends without the addition.29 The greatest various test runs using diesel fuel, bioethanol, and diesel fuel
BTE of all nanodoped fuels was produced by juliora biodiesel blend, and Al2O3 nanoparticles in diesel fuel and bioethanol
when it was combined with nanoadditives (ZnO:TiO2), and the blend are conducted. For the aforementioned test fuels, peak
inclusion of nanoparticles also boosted peak HRR and cylinder pressure and heat release rate (HRR) were also pre-
decreased ignition delay time.30 A modied common rail direct dicted. These ndings are discussed in greater depth in the
injection (CRDI) diesel engine's performance and emission subsequent sections.
characteristics when running on Ricinus communis biodiesel
(RCME20), diesel (80%), and their mixes with strontium–zinc
oxide (Sr@ZnO) nanoparticle additions have been tested.31 2. Materials and methods
A thorough analysis of the literature reveals that most 2.1. Fuel preparation method
alternative fuels such as biooil, natural gas, waste cooking oils,
2.1.1. Preparation of bioethanol. Since burning activities
vegetable oils, and producer gas have been researched in CI
cause harm to the surrounding environment, converting the
engines with different fuel modes, illustrating engine combus-
rice straw into bioethanol is a more practical option to solve this
tion, performance, and emission characteristics as well as usage
waste problem. Biochemicals such as enzymes and microor-
of numerous optimization techniques toward improvement in
ganisms are commonly used to convert biomass to biofuel or
overall performance. Bioethanol is another widely used alter-
bioproducts, and the whole process of preparation of the same
native fuel produced from large renewable energy sources such
has been presented in Fig. 1. Once the biomass has been
as starch, sugarcane, corn, cellulose, beet, and molasses. Bio-
collected, it is transported to processing facilities. Following
ethanol, commonly referred to as ethanol, was initially
that, the pretreatment stage began, in which enzymes were used
researched to replace SI engine fuel, but its utility in CI engines
to breakdown the biomass components into cellulose, hemi-
was later revealed. Numerous studies on CI engines with diesel
celluloses, and lignin with little presence of steam or water.
and bioethanol blends have been conducted; however, studies
Enzymes then carry out a chemical process known as hydrolysis
on bioethanol prepared from rice straw are uncommon and
to break the chains of cellulose and hemicellulose into glucose

Fig. 1 An illustration of the experimental setup.

3344 | Sustainable Energy Fuels, 2023, 7, 3342–3360 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2023
Paper Sustainable Energy & Fuels

Table 1 Chemical composition of waste rice straw Table 3 Magnetic stirrer specification

Ingredients Quantity (wt%) S. no. Properties Value

Glucose 38 1 Type Magnetic

Xylose 20 2 Make Tarson Product Pvt Ltd
Arabinose 2.7 3 Input potential 220–240 volt
Mannose 1.8 4 Capacity 2 litres
Galactose 0.4 5 Speed 100–1000 rpm
Acid soluble lignin 3.4 6 Temperature Upto 100 °C
Acid insoluble lignin 14 7 Size of the top plate (180 × 180) mm2
Ash & silica 8.1 8 Dimension 320 × 240 × 120 mm
Other ingredients 15

Table 4 Ultrasonicator specification

Table 2 Fuel sample characterization of both diesel and bioethanol
S. no. Properties Value
Rice straw oil
Parameter Diesel (bioethanol) 1 Type Automatic
2 Make MJL lab instruments & equipment
Density (ASTM D 4052) 830 806 3 Input potential 220–240 volt
Viscosity (cst) (ASTM D445) 2.63 1.3 4 Capacity 1.5 litres
Pour point (°C) (ASTM D97) 6 −10 5 Timer Digital
Flash point (°C) (ASTM D93) 63 9 6 Frequency 33 kHz
Caloric value (kJ kg−1) (ASTM D224) 45 300 27 614 7 Size of the tank 240 × 140 × 65 mm
Acid value (ASTM D1293) 0.07 4.07
Cetane index (ASTM D13) 49 7
Ignition temperature 262 371
A magnetic stirrer is used to prepare the nanofuel from a blend
Oxygen content (%) (ASTM D5-291) — 33.7
of Al2O3 nanoparticles and diesel or e-diesel at a rate of 1000 rpm.
For the preparation of a stable nanofuel, the dispersion of nano-
particles in diesel or e-diesel was carried out in an ultrasonicator
and xylose, respectively. Glucose and xylose are fermentable
for 1 h. The detailed specication of the magnetic stirrer and
sugars, and during the fermentation process, the mixture is
ultrasonicator are given in Tables 3 and 4, respectively. The sedi-
inoculated with microbes, which digest the sugar and convert it
mentation technique was used to determine the stability of the
into bioethanol or biofuel in 3 to 5 days. The oil is separated by
nanouid, which is measured using gravity. Here, zeta potential
distillation, which is a method of separating lignin residue from
was used to measure the stability of the nanouid. Zeta potential
the liquid. The chemical composition of waste rice straw is
is denoted by z and can be measured with the units of mV.
given in Table 1, and the characterization of test fuels is shown
in Table 2.
2.1.2. Preparation of e-diesel (diesel fuel and bioethanol 2.2. Experimental investigation
blend). By weight, 10%, 15%, and 20% bioethanol and 90%,
85%, and 80% diesel fuel were mixed and placed in separate 2.2.1. Test engine setup. A variable compression ratio (12 :
containers. The formed mixtures were stirred for one and 1 to 18 : 1) diesel engine with xed injection timing of 23° bTDC
a half h in a stirring unit to prepare the e-diesel. The e-diesel has been taken as the test engine in this experimental work. The
used in this study is denoted by Rx, where x represents the
volume fraction, i.e., R10, R15, and R20. Following mixture Table 5 Specification of the diesel engine
preparation, the rst mixture (R10) was lled in the blended
fuel tank, and readings were taken. Similar tests were per- S. no. Particulars Specication
formed for R15 and R20, and readings were taken.
1 Engine Kirloskar
2.1.3. Preparation of nanofuel (25 ppm Al2O3 nanoparticles 2 Power with speed 3.5 kW @ 1500 rpm
and diesel or e-diesel blend). The nanofuel used in this work as 3 Starting procedure Electric start
a test fuel is a mixture of diesel, bioethanol, and nanoparticles 4 No. of cylinder Single
that can be prepared in a one-step or two-step method. In this 5 Cylinder diameter 87.5 mm
6 Length of stroke 110 mm
experimental work, the one-step method is used for the prepa-
7 Types of cooling Water cooled
ration of the nanofuel from 25 ppm Al2O3 nanoparticles (Nano 8 Types of dynamometer Eddy current dynamometer
Lab, India) and diesel or e-diesel blend. The nanofuels, i.e., NF0 9 Peak pressure 90 kg cm−2
(100% diesel and 25 ppm Al2O3 nanoparticles), NF10 (90% 10 Dynamometer arm length 185 mm
diesel, 10% bioethanol, and 25 ppm Al2O3 nanoparticles), NF15 11 Connecting rod length 231 mm
12 Oil tank number 2 (15 litre each)
(85% diesel, 15% bioethanol, and 25 ppm Al2O3 nanoparticles),
13 Data logger soware Engine so LV1
and NF20 (containing 80% diesel, 20% bioethanol, and 25 ppm 14 Rotameter 40–400 LPH
Al2O3 nanoparticles) were thus prepared. 15 Dimension 2000 mm × 2500 mm × 1500 mm

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Sustainable Energy & Fuels Paper

Fig. 2 Image of Al2O3 nanoparticles by (a) SEM and (b) TEM.

detailed specication of the engine is given in Table 5. The 2.2.2.3. Experiment with nanofuel. The engine was started
experimental setup shown in Fig. 1 contains a VCR engine, air with nanofuel, i.e., 25 ppm Al2O3 nanoparticles and diesel blend
box, the piezo sensor of 5000 psi (for measuring cylinder pres- (NF0), 25 ppm Al2O3 nanoparticles, diesel, and bioethanol blend
sure), crank angle sensor (speed 5500 rpm with TDC pulse), of 10% (NF10), 15% (NF15), and 20% (NF20), respectively, and
eddy current dynamometer (0–50 kg), diesel tank, nanodiesel allowed to run without any load for 10 to 12 min to attain steady
blend tank, and exhaust gas analyzer. condition at 1500 rpm. Similar to the testing of diesel and e-diesel,
This experimental test bench can change its compression the test runs were conducted with nanofuels, and readings were
ratio by tilting the cylinder block. Online performance assess- taken.
ment is carried out using Engine so LV1, a commercial engine The calculation procedure for BTE, BSFC, cylinder pressure,
performance analysis program. An eddy current dynamometer crank angle, and heat removal rate are the same for all types of
was used to control the load and speed of the motor. With the fuel.
use of a Crypton 290 EN25 gas analyzer, the exhaust gas was Before the preparation of nanofuel, the characterization of
monitored. The components of the exhaust gas measurement Al2O3 nanoparticles is necessary. The Al2O3 nanoparticles were
value are exhaust gas temperature, CO (ppm), HC (ppm), and tested for their grain size using scanning electron microscopy
NOx (ppm). A Land 4500 Mark III opacity meter (HSU unit) was (SEM) (ZEISS EVO-18-LaB6) and transmission electron micros-
tted to measure the smoke quality. The inlet and outlet copy (TEM) (JEOL-JEM 3010), as shown in Fig. 2. The properties
temperatures were determined by the Omega K type of Al2O3 nanoparticles are given in Table 6.
thermocouple. A crucial stage in the current investigation is the mixing of
2.2.2. Experimental procedure nanoalumina with diesel–bioethanol fuel. It was ensured that the
2.2.2.1. Experiment with diesel. The test engine was started nanoparticles were distributed throughout diesel fuel to lessen the
with diesel fuel (F0) and allowed to run for 5–10 min to achieve clinker issue. The caloric value of the test fuel was increased by
a steady state. Readings were taken aer the system ws stabilized. adding Al2O3 nanoparticles. Using a precision electronic balance,
From a graduated tube connected in the fuel line to the engine, the mass of the Al2O3 nanoparticles was measured in the test fuel
the fuel consumption rates and cylinder pressure concerning to determine their dosage levels. To create the nano fuel for the
crank angle were monitored at various load percentages. During current investigation, 900 mL diesel and 100 mL bioethanol,
the test, neither e-diesel nor nanofuel was used; only diesel was 850 mL diesel and 150 mL bioethanol, and 800 mL diesel and
consumed by the engine with a wide opening of the diesel tank 200 mL bioethanol were combined. Then, 25 mg Al2O3 nano-
fuel valve shown in Fig. 1. The data on NOx, CO, and HC emissions particles were added, resulting in a dosage level of 25 ppm. The
at different load percentages (determined by an eddy current fuel can be prepared by a one-step or two-step method. In this
dynamometer) were recorded using an emission recorder. experimental work, one-step method was employed. An automatic
2.2.2.2. Experiment with e-diesel. The engine was started ultrasonicator (Make: MJL) of capacity 180 watt, set at a frequency
with e-diesel, i.e., diesel and bioethanol blend of 10% (R10),
15% (R15), and 20% (R20), respectively, and allowed to run
without any load for 10 to 12 min to attain steady condition at Table 6 Al2O3 nanoparticles sample properties
1500 rpm. For the experiment with e-diesel or various diesel
bioethanol blends, the diesel tank fuel valve is closed, and the Properties Values
blended tank fuel valve is opened during engine running. A
Make Sigma-Aldrich
graded tube attached to the engine's fuel line was used to Structure Gamma (Y)
measure the fuel consumption rates, and the cylinder pressure Shape Spherical
concerning the crank angle was measured at various load Purity 99%
percentages. The recording of exhaust emission of different Density 3.87 g cm−3
Color White
gases was taken similar to diesel fuel.
Particle size (avg.) 27–40 > 50 nm
Surface area melting point >40 m2 g−1 2043 °C

3346 | Sustainable Energy Fuels, 2023, 7, 3342–3360 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2023
Paper Sustainable Energy & Fuels

Fig. 3 (a) TEM image of the NF20 after 7 days (b) TEM image of the NF20 after 21 days (c) variation of wavelength with respect to absorption.

of 33 kHz, produced a uniform distribution of Al2O3 nanoparticles outcomes of experimental works are generally evaluated from
in the diesel-bioethanol blend at a xed agitation time of 45 min. physical quantities, and they cannot be evaluated directly. The
A biodegradable mixture (0.1% wt Al2O3) of polyoxyethylene sor- outcomes depend on many variables. These variables have
bitan monooleate/sorbitan monooleate surfactants or zeta some uncertainties generally present in the measuring equip-
potential (z) was used to increase the stability of the nanofuel, and ment and calibration devices. Thus, the uncertainties affect the
the stability test was done by sedimentation. The stability of the nal result. Therefore, uncertainty analysis is a necessary step to
mixture was seen in static conditions. To check the stability of the get dependable outcomes. In this research work, the uncer-
test fuel, 80% diesel–20%bioethanol–25Al2O3 nanoparticles blend tainty analysis has been done by the method given by Kline and
(NF20) was taken. The stability of the NF20 fuel was checked using McClintock.32,33
TEM [Fig. 3(a) and (b)] and UV-vis spectroscopy [Fig. 3(c)]. Aer If outcome “R” is a function of an independent variable v1, v2,
undergoing a stability test for a 45 min agitation period, the test v3, . vn and u1, u2, u3, . un are the uncertainties of each
fuels were discovered to be stable for 21 days without any phase independent variable, then the cumulative uncertainty (Cu) is
separation. The UV-vis spectrum was obtained by plotting a graph evaluated by
between absorption and wavelength. From Fig. 4, the maximum " 2  2  2  2 #1=2
value of absorbency was found at a wavelength of 236 nm. Aer vR vR vR vR
Cu ¼ u1 þ u2 þ u3 þ / þ un
reaching the maximum value, the absorption decreased, and later, vv1 vv2 vv3 vvn
the absorption value became stabled with increasing wavelength. (1)

B:P
2.3. Uncertainty analysis BTE ¼  100 (2)
mf  cv
It is always not possible for nding the accurate and corrected
value due to manmade errors and calibration errors. The

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Sustainable Energy & Fuels Paper

Fig. 4 Effect of input parameters on the engine performance.

where BTE is the brake thermal efficiency, mf is the mass of fuel vR vR

Putting the value of, , and u1, u2 in eqn (1), the value of
supplied kg s−1, and cv is the caloric value of testing fuel J vv1 vv2
kg−1. cumulative uncertainty (Cu) for brake power is 0.0159 kW. The
The brake power of the test rig is calculated by power rating of the engine is 3.5 kW at 1500 rpm. Thus, the
dimensionless uncertainty (up) in percentage is
2pNT
B:P ¼ ðkWÞ (3)
1000 0:0159
up ¼  100 ¼ 0:4542% (6)
3:5
The value of BTE primarily depends on the brake power. The
brake power is a function of the torque and speed of the engine. The dimensionless uncertainty for brake power is 0.4542%.
The value of BTE depends on the mass ow rate of fuel and
B.P = f(T, N) (4) caloric value of the fuel. The caloric value of fuel is deter-
mined by the ASTM standard, which is a constant. Considering
where, R = B.P is the required result. Here, the independent this uncertainty, the dimensionless uncertainty of BTE taken as
variables are v1 = T = 12.7 Nm (independent variable measured per eqn (1) is 0.61%.
when the engine runs at 1500 rpm), v2 = N = 1500 rpm, for these The BSFC is determined using the following formula
independent variables, the uncertainties are u1, u2, u1 = 

uncertainty about engine torque = 0.1 Nm, u2 = uncertainty mf

BSFC ¼ (7)
about engine speed = 2 rpm. BP
where, mf is fuel ow rate in kg h−1.

Go for partial derivative concerning T and N as mentioned in
eqn (1). sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi2  2

vBSZFC vmf vBP
vR vðBPÞ pN ¼ þ
¼ ¼ BSFC mf

BP
vv1 vT 30 vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
(5) u " #
vR vðBPÞ pT u 0:0252
¼ ¼ ¼ t 2
ð0:0045Þ ¼ 0:0078 ¼ 0:78% (8)
vv2 vN 30 3:92

3348 | Sustainable Energy Fuels, 2023, 7, 3342–3360 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2023
Paper Sustainable Energy & Fuels

Table 7 Uncertainty in measuring instruments

Instruments Uncertainty

Piezosensor (for measuring combustion pressure in the bar) 0.05

Crank angle sensor (for measuring crank angle in degree) 1
K-type thermocouple 0.25
Exhaust gas analyzer (CO, HC, NOx) 0.15
Opacitymeter 0.2
Fuel burette 0.25
Load indicator 0.15

vBSFC
where, is the dimensionless uncertainty for BSFC and implications of a certain pathway, this study can help to
BSFC
vBP improve the process yield. Exergy efficiency measures
is the dimensionless uncertainty for brake power.
BP a system's effectiveness in terms of its performance under
Considering these dimensionless uncertainty values, the reversible or ideal conditions. For heat engines, it is dened
outcomes are reliable and accurate. The instruments with their as the ratio of an actual system's thermal efficiency to an
uncertainty are given in Table 7. idealized or reversible condition of the system. The greatest
amount of reversible work or availability is a system's utmost
2.4. Data reduction capability for producing work. The work product of the
system under consideration is less than the maximum
2.4.1. Energy efficiency. In the steady state energy equa-
reversible work in real states because of the irreversibility
tion, according to the mass balance equation, mass ow rate at
P  P  contained in the system. The exergy of test fuel (Ef) is derived
the inlet ð min Þ is equal to ð mout Þ. The steady-state energy
as28,36 follows.
equation can be written aer neglecting kinetic energy and
potential energy. The equations are34,35 h o
Ef ¼ 1:0401 þ 0:1728 þ 0:0432
X X  c c
 
 
 
Qi  W s ¼ mout h2  min h1 (9) s h
þ 0:2169 1:216901 LHVf (13)
c c
Q̇ i = heat input rate, Ẇ s = sha work or useful work output where, c, h, o, and s are the mass fraction of carbon, hydrogen,
2pNT oxygen, and sulfur in the test fuel, respectively.
rate = uT ¼ , h1 = specic enthalpy at the input, h2 =
60 The exergy of the test fuel is converted to other forms of
specic enthalpy at the output, u = angular velocity in rad s−1 = exergy or another version of available works or simply avail-
2pN
, N = number of revolutions of the sha in rpm, T = torque ability. They are useful to work availability (AS), available
60 energy transferred to circulating water (Ac), available energy
developed at engine sha in kN m.
dissipated to the atmosphere in terms of exhaust ue gases
The above equation may be written as
(Ag), and unaccounted availability or destructed exergy (Au).
qi − ws = ṁ (h2 − h1) = mċ p (T2 − T1) (10)
Ef = AS + Ac + Ag + Au (14)
By burning fuel, the heat generated inside the cylinder (Qi) 2pNT
X AS ¼ WS ¼ kW ¼ brake power developed at shaft (15)
  60 000
Qi ¼ mf  LHVf (11)
 
Two
where, mf is the mass ow rate of fuel in kg s−1 and LHVf is the

Ac ¼ mw  Cpw  Two  Twi  Ta  ln kW (16)
Twi
lower caloric value of the fuel.
Brake thermal efficiency or energy efficiency,  
    Tg
WX Ag ¼ ma þ mf  Cpg Tg  Ta  Ta  ln
h¼ (12) Ta
Qi  
Pg
þ RTa ln kW (17)
Pa
2.4.2. Exergy efficiency. The calculation for brake thermal where, R is the specic gas constant (0.287 kJ kg−1 K−1) and Pg &
efficiency or energy analysis is quantitative. This concept is Pa are the pressure of exhaust gas and ambient pressure (kPa).
derived from the rst law of thermodynamics. Exergy analysis
is qualitative, derived from the second law of thermody- Au = Ef − (AS + Ac + Ag) (18)
namics. The energy balance does not provide information on
energy degradation or irreversibilities. Exergy analysis is For the test engine, the exergy efficiency (3E) is given as
crucial in this case. Because it determines the lowest energy
performance, irreversibilities, and environmental

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Sustainable Energy & Fuels Paper

Au 2.6. Sustainability analysis

3E ¼ 1  (19)
Ef The efficient use of energy resources is encouraged through
exergy analysis to ensure sustainable development. Utilizing
2.4.3. Heat release rate. At the initial condition, the input air sustainability indicators in the industrial setting makes it
temperature and speed of the engine are taken as constant for simple to offer insightful analysis of potential energy-use
calculating the heat removal rate (HRR) of the cylinder at different scenarios and to advance industrial sustainability. The deple-
fuels. The ambient or intake air temperature and speed of the tion number, which illustrates how well fossil fuels are used, is
engine are taken as 303 K and 1500 rpm, respectively. The average one of the most important factors. The higher value of this
value of cylinder pressure is considered during the calculation for indicator indicates that fossil fuel reserves are being used up to
HRR to minimize the cyclic variation. The formula for HRR is their utmost potential, which has an impact on the environ-
given by.37,38 ment. To ensure sustainability, its reference value must be zero.
  Mathematically, it may be mentioned in the following
dQR 1 dV dP
¼ gP þV (20) equations.
dq g1 dq dq
Au
where, QR = heat removal in J. q = crank angle in degree. P = Nd ¼ (22)
Ef
Cp
cylinder pressure in N m−2. V = cylinder volume in m3. g ¼ where, Nd is the depletion number, Au is unaccounted exergy or
Cv
= the ratio of specic heat. exergy destroyed, and Ef is the energy input to the engine.
Then, sustainability index (Is) is the reciprocal of depletion
number.
1
Is ¼ (23)
Nd

2.5. Economic analysis

Then, the waste energy ratio (RWE) is the ratio between total
An economic analysis has been done in this study to determine outlet waste energy to the energy input.
the cost-effectiveness of the test fuels concerning base fuel, i.e.,
Ac þ Ag þ Au
diesel, and their benets. For the same, the individual price of RWE ¼ (24)
Ef
e-diesel and nanofuel has been calculated and compared with
the price of diesel fuel and presented in terms of % relative cost where, Ac is the available energy transferred to circulating water
variations using the formula presented in eqn (21) and ref. 39 and Ag is the available energy transferred to ue gases.
and 40. The entire calculation has been done based on the In the internal combustion engine, some waste energy can
determined BSFC. In this study, the cost of 1 litre of diesel fuel be reused, which is called reusable energy. The reusable energy
and bioethanol, as well as the cost of 25 ppm Al2O3 nano- ratio (RUE) is the ratio between the reusable energies to the
particles in Indian rupees, are 94.76, 126.50, and 0.05, respec- energy input. It may be written as eqn (25). If the value of
tively. However, the cost associated with the test engine, testing reusable waste energy will increase, it would ensure environ-
equipment, and bioethanol production is neglected in this mental sustainability.
study.
 
DC Ced or Nf  Cd
 100 % ¼  100
Cd Cd
2 3
Ped or Nf  
x
6 d þ x 7
ed or Nf
Pd DBSFC
¼6 4 red or Nf 1 þ BSFC  15
7
xd þ xed or Nf d
rd
 100
(21)
where, DC = Ce-d or Nf − Cd is the difference in specic fuel price
between e-diesel and diesel or diesel and nanofuel. Ce-d or Nf and
Cd are the specic fuel price of e-diesel or nanofuel price and
diesel, respectively, in Indian Rupees per kilo watt-h (Rs per kW h).
xd and xe-d or Nf are the volumetric ratio of diesel and e-diesel or
diesel and nanofuel, respectively. Pe-d or Nf and Pd are the price of e-
diesel or nanofuel and diesel per litre (Rs per litre), respectively. re-
d or Nf and rd are the densities of e-diesel or nanofuel and diesel (kg
m−3), respectively. DBSFC = BSFCe-d or Nf − BSFCd is the difference
in BSFC between e-diesel or nanofuel and diesel fuel. Fig. 5 Effect of input parameters on exergy efficiency.

3350 | Sustainable Energy Fuels, 2023, 7, 3342–3360 This journal is © The Royal Society of Chemistry 2023
Paper Sustainable Energy & Fuels

Fig. 6 Effect of input parameters on BSFC.

Fig. 7 Effect of input parameters on the heat release rate.

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Sustainable Energy & Fuels Paper

Ac þ Ag terms of load, compression ratio, and fuel type. The perfor-

RUE ¼ (25)
Ef mance metrics for this study are energy efficiency, energy effi-
ciency, peak cylinder pressure, heat release rate, and brake-
specic fuel consumption. The emission parameters include
To highlight the detrimental effects of waste energy on
CO, HC, and NOx emissions. The entire study is carried out at
sustainability, it is required to dene the environmental
no load and full load for compression ratios 14 and 18.
destruction coefficient (CED or EDC)-related exergy efficiency.
Following this, an economic analysis was performed to deter-
1 1 mine the economic viability of e-diesels and nanofuels in
CED ¼ ¼ (26)
exergy efficiency 3E comparison to diesel fuel. The entire analysis has been pre-
sented in the following sections.
The environmental destruction index (IED or EDI) measures
the negative impact of unusable energy sources on environ- 3.1. Performance analysis
mental sustainability. It is expressed in eqn (27).41
3.1.1. Energy efficiency. From Fig. 4, it is observed that for
IED = [Nd × RUE × CED] (27) all fueltypes, the energy efficiency increases with increase in
load and compression ratio for all the test conditions. Increased
For knowing the environmental stability, a parameter is load and compression ratio generally improve the cylinder
required, which is a reciprocal of IED, called environmental pressure and temperature inside the combustion chamber,
benign index (IEB or EBI). The higher value of IEB shows that the ensure clean combustion, and enhance the energy efficiency of
fuel is suitable for the environment. the test engine. It is also found that increasing the bioethanol
percentage in e-diesel (R10, R15, and R20) reduces the energy
1
IEB ¼ (28) efficiency compared to diesel (F0) for all load and compression
IED
ratio conditions because bioethanol possesses low cetane
number (7) and low caloric value (27 614 kJ kg−1).37,42 However,
compared to diesel (F0) and e-diesel (R10, R15, and NF20),
3. Results and discussions nanofuels (NF0, NF10, NF15, and NF20) exhibit higher energy
efficiency because the addition of Al2O3 nanoparticles to diesel
This section experimentally investigates and presents the or e-diesel increases microexplosions inside the combustion
performance and emission parameters of a VCR CI engine in chamber43 and releases extremely high energy. Thus, from the

Fig. 8 Effect of the input parameters on the cylinder pressure.

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Paper Sustainable Energy & Fuels

study for energy efficiency, it may be concluded that nanofuels combustion with an increase in cylinder temperature and
may suitably replace diesel and e-diesel fuel in conventional CI pressure in the combustion chamber, thus lowering the BSFC of
engines without any modications. the test engine.47
3.1.2. Exergy efficiency. Exergy efficiency is the general For the same power output, more quantity of e-diesel (R10,
effectiveness with which a system operates. The calculated value R15, and R20) is consumed during testing as the e-diesel (diesel
of exergy efficiency for various fuel types, i.e., F0, R10, R15, R20, and bioethanol blend) has a lower caloric value than diesel
NF0, NF10, NF15, and NF20 are given in Fig. 5. It is revealed that (F0) and results in higher BSFC. The addition of Al2O3 nano-
at full load conditions, the exergy efficiency increases for all test particles results in the reduction of BSFC for NF0, NF10, and
fuels from compression ratio 14 to 18 because a higher NF15 due to better combustion. The trend is reversed in the
compression ratio leads to a decrease in exergy destruction. The case of NF20 because the nanoparticles do not affect power
combustion temperature and pressure increase the useful output and combustion due to an excess of bioethanol. There-
power availability at higher compression ratios.44,45 fore, the BSFC value for the aforementioned blend is slightly
Exergy efficiency for R10 and R15 is reduced by 4.7%, 3.6%, lower than that of the R20 blend.42,47 The relationship between
and 7%, 5% for compression ratios 14 and 18, respectively, by BSFC and combustion efficiency is direct. The high oxygen
adding 10% to 20% bioethanol to diesel (F0). The trend diverges concentration in bioethanol increases the combustion effi-
signicantly for R20 because a higher percentage of bioethanol ciency when it comes into touch with Al2O3 nanoparticles
lowers the blend's heating value, which causes a reduction in because these particles work as an excellent catalyst and give
the energy efficiency of 12.11 and 9.7 percent for compression oxygen to quicken burning. In addition, Al2O3 nanoparticles
ratios 14 and 18, respectively. promote greater fuel atomization and fuller combustion.
The inclusion of Al2O3 nanoparticles in diesel (F0) and e- 3.1.4. Heat release rate. The heat release rate (HRR) is
diesel (R10, R15, and R20) enhances the combustion quality dependent on the volume and quality of the air/fuel mixture, the
with more complete combustion and raises the combustion caloric value of the fuel, and the time-consuming delay in
efficiency, which directly improves the available power and preexisting combustion chamber.46 When bioethanol blends
exergy efficiency.46 This result was conrmed in Fig. 5 for testing with diesel with different percentages, the oxygen content of the
with nanofuels (NF0, NF10, NF15, and NF20). mixture increases because diesel contains zero percent of
3.1.3. Brake-specic fuel consumption. Fig. 6 depicts that oxygen, whereas bioethanol contains more than 30% of oxygen.
BSFC decreases with increasing load and compression ratio. The more percentage of oxygen in the blend may change the
Increased load and compression ratio lead to more complete

Fig. 9 Effect of input parameters on CO emission.

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Sustainable Energy & Fuels Paper

properties of the air-fuel ratio such as lower the viscosity and down on fuel evaporation time. Al2O3 nanoparticles operate as
the ignition delay. an active oxygen buffer, releasing oxygen to encourage full
Due to its higher heat value, diesel will produce a longer combustion.44 Therefore, NF0 exhibits maximum cylinder
ignition delay and an increase in the HRR in the fuel cell when pressure compared to other fuels, as shown in Fig. 8. However,
used in CI engines.42,45 The pace at which fuel transferred heat in the case of NF20, the low caloric value, low viscosity, and
was accelerated by the inclusion of nanoparticles. Fuel can low cetane number of bioethanol prevented the nanoparticles
quickly achieve its autoignition temperature concerning the from having a signicant impact on the cylinder pressure.
higher thermal conductivity of Al2O3 nanoparticles and their
reactive surface. The nanoparticle accelerates early ignition and
3.2. Emission analysis
shortens the ignition delay. As a consequence, a lot of energy
aggregates in the premixed combustion mixture, increasing the 3.2.1. CO emission. From Fig. 9, it is observed that CO
pace at which heat is released.44 Therefore, NF0 exhibits emission increases at a lower compression ratio (14) and
maximum HRR compared to other fuel, as shown in Fig. 7. decreases at a higher compression ratio (18) when the loading
However, in the case of the NF20 fuel, the effect of the nano- intensity changes from no load to full load for more complete
particles on combustion is not as signicant because a higher combustion at a higher compression ratio. In the e-diesel (R10,
percentage of bioethanol with a low caloric value does not R15, and R20) in a single mode of operation, an increase in CO
allow the fuel to burn better and reduces the HRR as much as emission is noticed with the rise in the % of bioethanol46 due to
R20. its low viscosity and low caloric value.48 However, CO emission
3.1.5. Peak cylinder pressure. It is found in Fig. 8 that peak in the e-diesel is lower than in the diesel (F0) as bioethanol
combustion pressure is higher for diesel than that of e-diesel contains more than 30% oxygen by weight, resulting in more
(diesel–bioethanol blends) and is decreased with increasing complete combustion at higher compression ratios. Fig. 9
percentage of bioethanol due to shorter ignition delay and less shows similar results, where the CO emission is decreased by
fuel/air mixture present inside the combustion chamber at the 7.8%, 6%, 1.5% at CR of 14 and 10.23%, 8.6%, 2.57% at CR of 18
time of ignition. The results show that the inclusion of Al2O3 for R10, R15, and R20, respectively, compared to F0.
nanoparticles in e-diesel tends to improve the combustion The ndings also revealed that as the nanoparticle fraction
conditions, which led to an increase in cylinder pressure. This is increased, CO emissions decreased. The catalytic action of
because Al2O3 nanoparticles can speed up combustion and cut nanoparticles and the high surface-to-volume ratio of fuel mixes
improve the combustion efficiency and reduce CO generation.

Fig. 10 Effect of input parameters on HC emission.

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Paper Sustainable Energy & Fuels

Fig. 11 Effect of input parameters on NOx emission.

Furthermore, the inclusion of Al2O3 nanoparticles decreased 3.2.3. NOx emission. NOx emission increases in diesel, e-
the ignition delay time, resulting in inefficient combustion and diesel, and nanofuel as the compression ratio rises. Similarly,
lesser CO output. The presence of enough active oxygen in NOx emissions rise as the load increases.51 With the use of
nanoparticle additions increased combustion and lowered CO a bioethanol blend, the ignition delay and combustion timing
emissions, especially at higher engine loads.45 Fig. 9 also shows are shortened. It is widely assumed that the bioethanol blend
that CO emission is reduced by 13.6%, 15.27%, and 8.4% at CR shorter ignition delay contributes to somewhat higher NOx
14 and 16.4%, 20.88%, and 10.86% at CR 18 for NF10, NF15, emissions.36,52 Fig. 11 shows similar results, where the NOx
and NF20, respectively, when compared to F0. emission is increased by 3.8%, 2.37%, and 1.44% at CR of 14
3.2.2. HC emission. Diesel fuel emits more hydrocarbons and 6.51%, 5.12%, and 2.93% at CR of 18 for R10, R15, and R20
than diesel–bioethanol blends and diesel–bioethanol- fuels, respectively, when compared to F0.
nanoparticle blends. The lower HC concentration is because When nanometal oxide particles are added, the Al2O3
rice straw bioethanol oil contains more than 33% oxygen by nanoparticles act as an oxygen-donating catalyst, causing full
weight, resulting in more complete combustion and fewer combustion. For an Al2O3 nanoparticle blend, combustion's
incomplete combustion particles. Diesel fuel HC emissions highest heat release rate and highest peak pressure resulted in
grow as the load increases, just like other forms of blended test higher NOx emissions. Fig. 11 also shows similar results, where
fuels.42 Fig. 10 shows similar results, where the HC emission the NOx emission is increased by 4.74%, 5.79%, 4.65%, and
decreased by 11.71%, 12.74%, and 8.6% at CR of 14 and 0.9% at CR of 14 and 7.08%, 8.62%, 6.42%, and 2.36% at CR of
14.63%,15.18%, and 9.97% at CR of 18 for R10, R15, and R20 18 for NF0, NF10, NF15, and NF20 fuel, respectively, when
fuel, respectively, when compared to F0. compared to F0.
Because Al2O3 supplies oxygen for the oxidation of hydro- 3.2.4. Nanoparticle emission. The rising usage of nano-
carbons and CO during combustion, the addition of Al2O3 particles in several contemporary scientic and technology
nanoparticles reduces hydrocarbon emissions.49,50 Fig. 10 also disciplines has led to an increase in their demand. As a result,
shows similar results, where the HC emission decreased by humans would be exposed to nanoparticles more oen, and the
17.67%, 18.57%, 10.84%, and 13.17% at CR of 14 and 19.15%, environment would become more polluted. In this experi-
21.46%, 24.96%, and 13.17% at CR of 18 for NF0, NF10, NF15, mental work, 25 ppm Al2O3 was taken and mixed with e-diesel.
and NF20 fuel, respectively, when compared to F0. There is a very small amount, and aer combustion, there are
also extremely few unburned Al2O3 particles that exit the

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Sustainable Energy & Fuels Paper

Fig. 12 Effect of input parameters on economic analysis.

combustion chamber through the output manifold. The 3.4. Sustainability analysis
majority of Al2O3 nanoparticles adhere to the surface of the
A sustainability analysis is conducted in this study for VCR
exhaust pipe, and few are released into the atmosphere, making
diesel engine with respect to different fuel types at maximum
them less dangerous for both human health and the environ-
load and compression ratio conditions and is presented as
ment. On human health and environment, the impact of adding
Depletion Number, Sustainability Index, Waste Energy Ratio,
additional Al2O3 nanoparticles to diesel or e-diesel may be Environmental Destruction Coefficient (EDC), Environmental
studied in the future.
Destruction Index (EDI), and Environmentally Benign Index
(EBI) in Fig. 13.
3.3. Economic analysis It is observed from Fig. 13 that nearly 53.6%, 54.8% 56.6%,
In this study, the economic analysis for e-diesel and nanofuel in 59%, 51.4%, 53.2%, 55.8%, and 58.1% of input energy are
comparison to diesel fuel was performed and is presented in depleted from the test engine when operated with F0, R10, R15,
Fig. 11 as a percentage variation in relative cost concerning R20, NF0, NF10, NF15, and NF20, respectively. Compared to F0,
variation in load and compression ratio. From Fig. 12, it is a lower depletion rate is observed in NF0 and NF10 by 4.1% and
found that the % relative cost surges with the increase in load 0.7% due to the presence of nanoparticles in the test fuel.
and compression ratio for all fuel types as these two parameters Nanoparticles act as oxidizers and behave as a catalyst during
directly affect BSFC and consume more fuel. The % relative cost the combustion process. However, in R10, R15, R20, and NF20,
increases with an increase in % bioethanol in e-diesel as BSFC on adding bioethanol, the depletion rate is higher than that of
decreases compared to diesel fuel. F0 by 2.23%, 5.59%, 10%, and 8.4% due to the irreversibility
Nearly 5.92%, 15.99%, and 29.99% increment in relative cost associated with bioethanol for its lower caloric value and lower
at CR of 14 and 9.16%, 22.18%, and 36.74% increment in cetane number. NF0 attains a higher sustainability index of
relative cost at CR 18 for R10, R15, and R20 fuel, respectively, at 1.817 compared to other fuels due to a lower depletion rate,
full load condition have been observed. A similar outcome is followed by NF10, F0, and NF15 of 1.803, 1.781, and 1.772,
also seen when the percentage of bioethanol in nanofuel is respectively. A higher waste-energy ratio is observed for R20 of
increased. However, NF0 and NF10 have a negative relative cost 0.751, followed by R15, NF20, and NF15 of 0.727, 0.704, and
because their associated BSFC is the lowest. It emphasizes their 0.651, respectively. The environmental destruction coefficient is
ability to replace diesel fuel in conventional CI engines without the reciprocal of exergy efficiency and its lowest value represents
requiring any modications. reduced detrimental effects and enhanced sustainability. The

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Paper Sustainable Energy & Fuels

Fig. 13 Effect of fuel types on sustainability parameters.

environmental destruction coefficient possessed by NF0 of current study yielded the following results, which are presented
1.574 is the lowest one. The lowest value of NF0 is followed by below.
that of NF10 and NF15 of about 1.615 and 1.686, respectively. (i) With an increase in load from zero to full, it is found that
The environmental destruction coefficient of NF20 (1.773) is energy efficiency, exergy efficiency, heat release rate, peak
closer to that of diesel fuel of about 1.734. Thus, the nanofuel cylinder pressure, and emissions of CO, HC, and NOx increase,
can suitably replace diesel fuel due to its lower environmental whereas BSFC decreases. Increased load generally improves
destruction coefficient. Similarly, a lower environmental cylinder pressure and temperature inside the combustion
destruction index represents better sustainability. NF0 chamber, ensures complete combustion, and improves the test
possesses the lowest environmental destruction index of 0.398. engine's abovementioned parameters except for BSFC.
The environmental destruction index of NF10 (0.443) is closer to (ii) With an increase in the compression ratio from 14 to 18,
F0 of 0.421, followed by that of NF15 of about 0.518. It it is found that energy efficiency, exergy efficiency, heat release
concludes that the nanofuel except for NF20 (EDI of 0.622) can rate, peak cylinder pressure, NOx emission, and % relative cost
suitably replace diesel fuel. A higher environmental benign increase, whereas BSFC, CO emission, and HC emission
index of 2.512 for NF0 is obtained compared to 2.375 for F0 decrease. Increased compression ratio generally increases
indicating the suitability of nanofuel toward the replacement of cylinder pressure and temperature inside the combustion
diesel fuel in the near future. chamber, ensure more complete combustion, and improve the
test engine's abovementioned parameters except for BSFC and
emissions of CO and HC.
4. Conclusion (iii) With the change in fuel type from diesel to e-diesel and
The current study was focused on predicting the performance nanofuel, it was found that BSFC, CO emission, HC emission,
and emission characteristics of a VCR CI engine concerning and % relative cost increase, whereas energy efficiency, exergy
load, compression ratio, and fuel type. To reduce GHG emis- efficiency, heat release rate, peak cylinder pressure, and NOx
sions and fossil fuel use, the potential of bioethanol derived emission decrease. This may be due to the low cetane number
from rice straw has been tested with diesel and Al2O3 nano- and low caloric value of bioethanol as well as increment in
particles in this study. For the measurement of engine perfor- microexplosions inside the combustion chamber, which
mance, energy efficiency, exergy efficiency, BSFC, HRR, and releases extremely high energy with the addition of Al2O3
peak cylinder pressure were considered in this study. Similarly, nanoparticles.
for the measurement of engine emissions, CO, HC, and NOx (iv) Under maximum load and compression ratio condition,
emissions were considered in this study. Aerward, an different fuel types NF0 exhibit maximum energy efficiency of
economic analysis was conducted to predict the % relative cost 30.42%, exergy efficiency of 63.5%, a heat release rate of 61 J per
variations of various fuels types concerning diesel fuel. The

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Sustainable Energy & Fuels Paper

crank angles, peak cylinder pressure of 84 bar, a relative cost of Environment, King Mongkut s University of Technology
−10.215%, and minimum BSFC of 0.463 kg kW−1 h−1. Thonburi, Thailand, 2016.
(v) Under maximum load and compression ratio condition, 3 S. K. Bhatia, R. K. Bhatia, J.-M. Jeon, A. Pugazhendhi,
different fuel types NF15 exhibit minimum CO emissions of M. K. Awasthi, D. Kumar, et al., An overview on
0.157% and HC emissions of 43 ppm. advancements in biobased transesterication methods for
(vi) Under maximum load and compression ratio condition, biodiesel production: oil resources, extraction, biocatalysts,
different fuel type diesel exhibit a minimum NOx emission of and process intensication technologies, Fuel, 2021, 285,
422 ppm. 119117.
(vii) Compared to F0 a lower depletion rate is observed in 4 E.-K. Mohammed and M. A. Nemit-Allah, Experimental
NF0, and NF10 by 4.1% and 0.7% due to the presence of investigations of ignition delay period and performance of
nanoparticles in the test fuel. However, in R10, R15, R20, and a diesel engine operated with Jatropha oil biodiesel,
NF20; adding bioethanol, the depletion rate is higher than the Alexandria Eng. J., 2013, 52, 141–149.
F0 by 2.23%, 5.59%, 10%, and 8.4% due to irreversibility asso- 5 S. K. Acharya and S. P. Jena, Performance and Emission
ciated with bioethanol for its lower caloric value and lower Analysis of a CI Engine in Dual Mode with LPG and
cetane number. Karanja Oil Methyl Ester, ISRN Renewable Energy, 2013,
(viii) NF0 attains a higher sustainability index of 1.817 2013, 1–7, DOI: 10.1155/2013/540589.
compared to other fuels due to a lower depletion rate, followed 6 V. S. Yaliwal, N. R. Banapurmath and P. G. Tewari,
by NF10, F0, and NF15 of 1.803, 1.781, and 1.772, respectively. A Performance, combustion and emission characteristics of
higher waste energy ratio is observed for R20 of 0.751, followed a single-cylinder, four-stroke, direct injection diesel engine
by R15, NF20, and NF15 of 0.727, 0.704, and 0.651, respectively. operated on a dual-fuel mode using Honge oil methyl ester
The destruction coefficient possessed by NF0 of 1.574 is the and producer gas derived from biomass feedstock of
lowest one. The lowest value of NF0 is followed by that of NF10 different origin, Int. J. Energy, Sustainability Environ. Eng.,
and NF15 of about 1.615 and 1.686, respectively. The environ- 2014, 7, 253–268, DOI: 10.1080/19397038.2013.834395.
mental destruction coefficient of NF20 (1.773) is closer to that of 7 B. N. Agrawal, S. Sinha, A. V. Kuzmin and V. A. Pinchuk,
diesel fuel of about 1.734. Effect of vegetable oil share on combustion characteristics
(ix) A higher environmental benign index of 2.512 for NF0 and thermal efficiency of diesel engine fueled with
results compared to that of 2.375 for F0, indicating the suit- different blends, Therm. Sci. Eng. Prog., 2019, 14, 100404.
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the near future. The environmental destruction index of NF10 Y. H. Basavarajappa, M. E. M. Soudagar, F. P. G. Márquez,
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review, and editing. Sudhansu Sekhar Mishra: conceptualiza- 10 R. Metwally, M. Awad, G. Kadry, R. M. Mohamed,
tion, methodology, resources, formal analysis, review, editing, H. M. A. Hashish, H. A. Abdel-Samad, et al., High
and investigation. Sudhansu Sekhar Sahoo: formal analysis, Performance Alternative Diesel Engine Fuel Using Modied
writing—original dra preparation, review, editing, investiga- Rice Straw Catalyst High Performance Alternative Diesel
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Conflicts of interest butane-hydrogen and different liquid fuels on the
performance specications of a spark ignition engine,
The authors declare that they have no known competing Energy Sources, Part A, 2021, 1–18.
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