Unit 1- Interference

1. Account for the brilliant colours seen when light is reflected by a thin film of oil on a wet tarred road.
[2 marks] OR
Explain why different colours are exhibited by a thin film viewed in white light. [2 marks]

Ans:
Colours of thin films is due to the phenomenon of interference of light. Light rays reflected from the lower
and upper surfaces of the film super impose and interference pattern is formed.

The condition for brightness of a colour at a particular point in the film is, 2nt cos r = (2n + 1)λ/2, where
t is the thickness of the film and r is the angle of reflection.

Different colours seen because the thickness (t) of the film and the angle of reflection (r) vary.
2. Why is the Centre of Newton's ring system formed by reflected light dark? [2 marks]

Ans: The thickness of the air film at the centre of the film (formed between the glass plate and the plano-
convex lens) is zero. So, the geometrical path difference at the centre is zero. But due to reflection of light a
phase change of 180 degree and corresponding path difference of λ/2 is produced. This causes destructive
interference and is the reason for dark spot at the centre.

3. What is meant by constructive interference? [2 marks]

Ans:
When crests of two waves or two troughs meet together the amplitude of the resultant wave
becomes maximum. This is called constructive interference, Imax α (a + a)2. For constructive interference to
occur between two coherent waves, the path difference between them has to be an integral multiple of the
wavelength of light.
4. Explain why a very thin film appears black in reflected light? [2 marks]

Ans: For very thin films the path difference between the rays reflected from the lower and upper surfaces is
negligible. So, it is similar to that a wave is reflected at a surface. Due to reflection of light a phase change of
180 degree and corresponding path difference of λ/2 is produced. This is the reason why very thin film appears
black.

5. What is a coherent source of light? Give example. [2 marks]

Ans: They are the sources of light which emit light of same frequency, same amplitude and same phase or
constant phase difference. Young’s double slit arrangement and Fresnel’s biprism set up are two methods to
produce coherent sources.
6. Explain constructive and destructive interference using Young's experiment. [2 mark]
Ans:
When crests of two waves or two troughs meet together the amplitude of the resultant wave becomes
maximum. This is called constructive interference. Imax α (a + a)2. In Young’s double slit experiment, for
constructive interference to occur between two coherent waves, the path difference between them has to be an
integral multiple of the wavelength of light.

Path difference, = n,

where n is an integer

When crest of one wave meet with trough of the other the amplitude of the resultant wave becomes
minimum. This is called destructive interference. Imax α (a - a)2 . In Young’s double slit experiment, for
destructive interference to occur between two coherent waves, the path difference between them has to be an
odd multiple of the half-wavelength (λ/2) of light.

Path difference,  = (2n + 1) ,
2
where n is an int eger
7. What are the conditions to produce sustained interference? [2 marks]

Ans: (i) The two sources must be coherent

(ii) The coherent sources must be narrow and very close to each other.

(iii) The screen must be at suitable distance from the sources.

(iv) The interfering beams must propagate in the same direction.

8. Explain why two independent sources can never be coherent? [2 marks]

Ans: Even though two independent sources emit light of same frequency and same amplitude they cannot
produce light of same phase.
9. Two coherent sources are placed 0.18 mm apart and the fringes are observed on a screen 80 cm away. It is
found that, with a certain monochromatic source of light, the fourth bright fringe is situated at a distance
of 10.8 mm from the central fringe. Find the wavelength of light. [5 marks]
10. In newton's ring arrangement, the radius of curvature of the curved side of the plano-convex lens is 100 cm.
For λ =6 x 10-5 cm. What will be the radius of 9th and 10th bright fringes? [5 marks]

Unit 3- Polarization
11. Explain what is meant by "double refraction". [2 marks]

Ans:
When a beam of unpolarized light passes through certain crystals like calcite or quartz, it is split into two
linearly polarized beams. This phenomenon is known as double refraction. One of the polarized beams obeys
the laws of refraction is called ordinary ray (o-ray) and the other beam which does not obey the laws of
refraction is called the extra ordinary ray (e-ray).
 12. State and explain Brewster's law. [2 marks]

Ans:
Brewster’s law state that “the tangent of the polarizing angle is equal to the refractive index of the
material of the reflector.” Refractive index, n21 = tan ip
13. Write different methods to produce polarized light. [2 marks]

Ans: Polarization by reflection, polarization by refraction, polarization by scattering, polarization selective

absorption (dichroism) are different methods to produce polarized light.

14. What do you mean by plane polarized light? When a plane polarized light is passed through a polarizer,
how many times will it be extinguished in one full rotation of the polarizer? [2 marks]
Ans:
Plane polarized light contains the vibrations of electric
field vector restricted to a single plane.
When plane polarized light is passed through a polarizer, two
times the light will be extinguished in one full rotation of the
polarizer. That is at 90 degrees and 270 degrees.

15. State and explain Malus’ law. [2 marks]

Ans: Malus’s law states that when a beam of plane polarised light of intensity I0 is incident on the analyser,
then the intensity I of the emergent light is directly proportional to square of the cosine of the angle (θ) b/n the
(polarising directions of ) polariser and analyser.

Intensity of light coming out of the analyser, I = I0cos2θ

16. Distinguish between positive and negative crystals. [5 marks]

Ans:

Positive crystal Negative Crystal

1. Refractive index for e-ray is greater than Refractive index for o-ray is greater than that for
that for o-ray. µe > µo o-ray. µe > µo

2. Velocity of o-ray is greater. vo > ve Velocity of e-ray is greater. ve > vo

3. Ellipsoidal wavefront of e-ray is within Spherical wavefront of e-ray is within the

the spherical wavefront of ellipsoidal wavefront of e-ray.
e-ray.

4. Birefringence is positive. Birefringence is negative.

5. Examples are: Quartz, ice etc. Examples are: Iceland spar, tourmaline, calcite
etc.
17. Calculate the minimum thickness of a calcite plate which would convert a plane polarized light to circularly
polarized. Given, the wavelength of light 5890, refractive index of ordinary ray=1.658 and refractive index
of extra ordinary ray=1.486. [5 marks]
18. The refractive index of flint glass is 1.65. Find the angle of incidence of light for which the reflected light
is completely polarized. [5 marks]
19. What will be the Brewster angle for a glass slab (n=1.5) immersed in water (n=4/3). [5 marks]

Unit 4- Electronics
20. Define the ripple factor and calculate it in the case of a half-wave rectifier. [2 marks]

Ans: The output of a rectifier contains ac and dc components. The ratio of rms value of ac component to the
dc component in the rectified output is called the ripple factor.

Calculation of ripple factor of a Half Wave Rectifier

21. What is the difference between a half wave rectifier and a full wave rectifier? [2 marks]

Ans: (i) In a half wave rectifier, the output is present only for the positive half cycles of input ac but full
wave rectifier gives output for both positive and negative half cycles of input ac.

(ii) The efficiency of a half wave rectifier is 40.6 % but that of a full wave rectifier is 81.2 %. That is, a
FWR has efficiency double that of a HWR.
 (iii) Ripple factor of a half wave rectifier is 1.21 but that of a full wave rectifier is 0.48. This means that a
FWR more effectively filters ac.

22. Explain how a capacitor filter works. [2 marks]

Ans: The capacitor input filter consists of two capacitors (C1 and C2) and one inductor L. The output of a
rectifier consists of both ac and dc. The capacitor C1
blocks dc and bypasses the ac component through it
while the inductor (L) passes the dc component
through it. The second capacitor C2 bypasses the rest
of ac component through it. So, only the dc
component appears across the load resistor RL.

23. What is a Zener diode? Explain its characteristics. [2 marks]

Ans: Zener diode is used in the reverse bias, in the breakdown

region. Zener diode has a sharp break down voltage. In the break
down region, the voltage across the diode remains constant for a
wide range of current.

Zener breakdown Zener diode is heavily doped. So, the depletion layer is very thin (d < 10-6m). So, the
electric field at the junction becomes very large even for a small reverse voltage about 5V.

V 5
E= = -6 = 5  106 V/m
d 10
This electric field is enough to carry out internal field emission. At a particular voltage called the Zener voltage,
the valence electrons from the host atoms on the p-side are pulled out and these electrons are accelerated to the
n-side. Thus, the current increases to a large value but can be controlled by using some external resistances.

24. Define rectifier efficiency. Write down the expression for the efficiency of a half wave rectifier. [2 marks]

Ans: The ratio of the dc power in the output of a rectifier to the ac power given at its input is known as
efficiency of a rectifier.
25. Write a note of different kinds of filter circuits with examples. [5 Marks]

Ans: The filter circuits are used to reduce the ac component in the output of a rectifier. There are mainly three
types of filter circuits:

(i) Capacitor filter, (ii) Inductor filter and (iii) Capacitor input filter or 𝛑 filter.

(i) Capacitor Filter

This is a simplest type of filter circuit in which a

capacitor is connected across the load resistance
RL. When the output voltage of the rectifier
increases from zero to Vm (point A in the diagram),
the capacitor is charged to Vm. When the rectifier
voltage decreases, the capacitor decreases along
AB in the diagram. The voltage across the load will
decreases only slightly because immediately the
next voltage peak recharges the capacitor.
Capacitor filter is suitable for small load currents.

(ii) Inductor Filter

Inductor filter consists of an inductor connected in series with the load. Inductor offers large resistance for the
flow of ac component in the rectifier output and offer negligible resistance to the flow of dc. The inductor
filter is suitable for large load currents.
(ii) Capacitor Input Filter or 𝛑 filter.

The capacitor input filter consists of two capacitors

(C1 and C2) and one inductor L. The output of a
rectifier consists of both ac and dc. The capacitor C1
blocks dc and bypasses the ac component through it
while the inductor (L) passes the dc component
through it. The second capacitor C2 bypasses the rest
of ac component through it. So, only the dc
component appears across the load resistor RL.

26. Calculate the current in the Zener diode in the following diagram Vz=5.1 V. [5 marks]

27. The applied input a.c. power to half wave rectifier is 100 watts. The D. C. output power obtained is 40 W.
(a) What is the rectifier efficiency?
(b) What happens to the remaining 60 watts? [5 marks]
28. A 50 V Zener diode is used to obtain a regulated output voltage across a load 10 kilo ohm. The series
resistor is 5 kΩ. If the input changes from 80 to 120 V, find the maximum Zener current. [5 marks]
29. With a neat circuit diagram explain the working of a full wave bridge rectifier. Obtain its efficiency and
ripple factor. [10 Marks]

Ans: A full wave bridge rectifier consists of four identical diodes connected in the form of a bridge.
 During the positive half cycle of the input ac, the end P becomes positive and end Q becomes negative.
Hence, the diodes D1 and D3 are forward biased and D2 and D4 are reverse biased. So, D1 and D3 conduct and
we get an output across RL.

During the negative half cycle of the input ac, the end P becomes negative and end Q becomes positive.
Hence, the diodes D2 and D4 are forward biased and D1 and D3 are reverse biased. So, D2 and D4 conduct and
we get an output across RL. Thus, the circuit gives output for both the positive and negative half cycles of the
input ac.
 Unit 5- Lasers
30. Two level lasers are not possible. Why? [2 marks]

Ans: At thermal equilibrium, the population at the energy levels is given by Boltzmann’s formula,

𝑁2 −(𝐸2 −𝐸1 )
= 𝑒 𝑘𝑇
𝑁1
𝑁
Here, E2-E1 is always positive and T is the absolute temperature, which is always positive. So, 𝑁2 is always
1
less than 1. Or N2 is always less than N1. In other words, population inversion is not possible in two level
lasers.

31. Explain the terms (i) population inversion (ii) induced absorption and (iii) Stimulated emission [5 marks]

Ans: (i) population inversion: Normally in a material, the number of atoms in the ground state will be greater than
the number of atoms in an excited state. If through some mechanism, we can invert the population such that the
number of atoms in the excited state is greater than the number of atoms in the ground state, then such a condition
is called population inversion.

(ii) induced absorption: Consider an atom in the lower energy level E1. If a photon of energy hν=E2-E1 is incident
on the atom, the photon is absorbed by the atom and the atom jumps to the excited state E2. This process is called
induced absorption.

(iii) Stimulated emission: If a photon of energy hν=E2-E1 interacts with an atom in the excited state E2 before its
spontaneous emission takes place, then the atom makes a transition to the lower energy level E1 by the emission
of two photons of energy hν. This process forced photon emission is called stimulated emission.
 32. Explain the theory of population inversion. What is the significance of metastable state in lasing action?
[5 marks]

Ans: Normally in a material, the number of atoms in the ground state will be greater than the number of atoms in
an excited state. If through some mechanism, we can invert the population such that the number of atoms in the
excited state is greater than the number of atoms in the ground state, then such a condition is called population
inversion.

The life time of atoms in the excited states is of the order of 10-8 seconds. So, atoms cannot remain in the excited
states for a longer time to achieve population inversion through pumping. The atoms spontaneously come to the
ground state. To achieve population inversion by pumping, the excited states must have longer life time. Such
energy states, which have longer life time are called metastable states. The metastable states have life time of the
order of 10-6s to 10-3s.

33. Explain the construction and working of a Ruby laser [10 marks]

Ans: Ruby laser is the first successful laser developed by Maiman in 1960. It is a three-level solid-state laser and
uses ruby crystal as the laser medium. It produces red light of wavelength 694.3 nm.
Construction
A ruby laser consists of three important elements: laser medium, the pump source, and the optical resonator.

(i) Laser Medium or Active medium.

In a ruby laser, a single crystal of ruby (Al2O3 : Cr3+) in the form of cylindrical rod acts as the laser
medium or active medium.
(ii) Pump source or energy source in ruby laser

In a ruby laser, we use Xenon flashtube as the energy source or pump source. The flashtube supplies
energy to the laser medium (ruby). When electrons in lower energy state of the laser medium gain
sufficient energy from the flashtube, they jump into the higher energy state or excited state.
 (iii) Optical resonator

The ends of the cylindrical ruby rod are flat and parallel. The cylindrical ruby rod is placed between
two mirrors. At one end of the rod, the mirror is fully silvered whereas, at another end, the mirror is
partially silvered. The fully silvered mirror will completely reflect the light whereas the partially
silvered mirror will reflect most part of the light but allows a small portion of light through it to produce
output laser light.

Working

In ruby laser the lasing action takes place between the energy levels of Cr3+ ions. When the xenon flash
lamp is switched on, the Cr3+ ions are excited to the E1 and E2 energy bands by absorbing blue and
green components of the white light. Since the life time of these states are small, these Cr3+ ions
undergo no-radiative transition to the metastable state M. Since the life time of metastable state is much
higher the Cr3+ ions accumulate there causing population inversion. At this state a photon
spontaneously emitted by a Cr3+ ion causes stimulated emission by the Cr3+ ions at the metastable state.
Red photons of wavelength 6943 Å are emitted by these stimulated emissions from metastable state to
ground state. These red photons multiple reflection at the resonators and are amplified.