Unit:2 Optics

Techniques for obtaining Interference:

 The phase relations between the waves emitted by two
independent light sources rapidly changes with time and
therefore, they can never be coherent
 The source must be identical or coherent
 The phase difference between the waves emerging from the
two sources remains constant and the sources are coherent
 The techniques used for creating coherent sources of light
can be divided in to the following two classes:
1. Wavefront splitting
2. Amplitude splitting
1.Wavefront splitting:

 In this methods light wave front emerging from a

narrow slit pass through two closed slits. The two parts
of the same wavefront travel through different paths
and reunite on a screen to produce fringe pattern.
 This is known as interference due to division of
wavefront. This method is useful only with
narrow sources.
 Examples: Young’s double slits, Fresnel’s double
mirror, Fresnel’s biprism, Loyed’ s mirror etc.
2.Amplitude splitting
 The amplitude (intensity) of a light wave is divided into
two parts as reflected and transmitted components, by
partial reflection at a surface.
 The two parts travel through different path and reunite
to produced interference fringes.
 It Is know as a interference due to division of
amplitude.
 Examples:
1. Optical elements such as beam splitters and mirrors
2. Interference in thin film like wedge shape, Newton’s
ring
3. Michelson’s interferometer
Fresnel Biprism:

Fresnel used a biprism to show interference phenomenon.

The biprism consists of two prisms of very small refracting angles
joined base to base.
A thin glass plate is taken and one of its faces is ground and
polished till a prism is formed with an angle of about 179 0 and two
side angles of the order of 300.
When a light ray is incident on an ordinary prism, the
ray is bent through an angle called the angle of
deviation.
As a result, the ray emerging out of the prism appears
to have emanated from a source S’ located at a small
distance above the real source, as shown in figure 1b.
 The prism produced a virtual image of the source.
A biprism creates two virtual sources S1 and S2 as
shown in figure 1C. These two virtual sources are
images of the same source S produced by refraction
and are hence coherent.
Experimental Arrangement:

The biprism is mounted suitably on an optical bench

A single cylindrical wavefront incident on both prisms.
The top portion of wavefront is refracted downward and appear
to have emanated from the virtual image S1
The lower segment, falling on the lower part of the biprism, is
refracted upward and appears to have emanated from the
virtual source S2
The virtual sources S1 and S2 are coherent
Experimental Fringes

Theory:
The width of the dark or bright fringe is given by

Where D = (a+b) is the distance of the source from the

eyepiece
Determination of Wavelength of Light:
Adjustments:
Determination of fringe width β :

Determination of ‘d’:
The magnification is

 where, u is the distance of the slit and v is the

distance from the lens
The lens is then moved to a position nearer to the
eyepiece, where again a pair of images of the slit is
seen
The distance between the two sharp images is again
measured. Let it be . Again magnification is given by
The value of d can be determined as follows. The
deviation  produced in the path of a ray by a thin
prism is given by

Where is the refracting angle of the prism. From

fig.2(a) it is seen that  Since d is very small, we can
write
Interference Fringes with White Light:

In the biprism experiment if the slit is illuminated by

white light, the interference pattern consists of a
central white fringe flanked on its both the sides by a
few coloured fringes and generate illumination beyond
the fringes. The central white fringe is the zero-order
fringe. With monochromatic light all the bright
fringes are of the same colour and it is not possible to
locate the zero order fringe. Therefore, in order to
locate the zero order fringe the biprism is to be
illuminated by white light.
Lateral Displacement of Fringes:

The biprism experiment can be used to determine the

thickness of a given thin sheet of transparent material
such as glass or mica
The optical path
The optical path
The optical path difference at P is ,
since in the presence of the thin sheet the optical path
lengths and are equal and central zero fringe is
obtained at P.
Therefore,
 But the path difference
where is the lateral shift of the central fringe due
to the introduction of the thin sheet

Thus the thickness of the sheet is given as

Lloyd’s Single Mirror:
In 1834, Lloyd devised an interesting method of
producing interference, using a single mirror and
using almost grazing incidence. The Lloyd’s mirror
consists of a plane mirror about 30cm in length and 6
to 8 cm in breadth as shown in fig.5
It is polished on the front surface and blacked at the
back to avoid multiple reflections
Determination of Wavelength:
The fringe width is given by
Measuring β, D and d the wavelength  can be
determined.
Comparison between the fringes produced by biprism and Lloyd’s mirror:

Sr No Fresnel Biprism Lloyd’s mirror

1 The complete set of fringes is A few fringes on one side of the
obtained central fringe are observed and
the central fringe being itself
invisible
2 The central fringe is bright The central fringe is dark
3 The central fringe is less sharp The central fringe is sharp
Newton’s Ring:

The experimental arrangement:

Division of amplitude taka place
Circular Fringes:
Newton originally observed these concentric circular
fringes and hence they are called Newton’s rings
Conditions for Bright and Dark Rings:

The optical path difference between the rays is given

by
But, for air and for normal incident
Therefore,
For maxima ,the optical path difference
It is equal to an integral number of full waves, then
the rays meet each other in phase. The crests of one
wave falls on the crests of the other and the waves
interference constructively.
Therefore, or
 This is the condition for obtaining bright fringe
The minima occur when the optical path difference is

The optical path between the two rays is equal to an

odd integral number of half-waves, then the rays
meet each other in opposite phase . The crest of one
wave fall on the troughs of the other and the waves
interfere destructively
Thus, or

This is the condition for producing dark fringe

Determination of wavelength of Light:
Determination of wavelength of Light:
 we have,

The slope of the straight line gives the value of 4R .

The radius of curvature R of the lens may be determined
using a sphectrometer and is computed with the help of the
above equation.
Multiple Reflections from a Plane
Parallel Film:
The high order reflection occurring at interfaces of
thin film are negligible.
But, if for any reason the reflection of the interface is
not negligible, then the higher order reflections are to
be taken into account.
When the reflected or transmitted beams meet,
multiple beam interference takes place. We are
especially interested in the fringes associated with the
air space between two reflecting surfaces.
The amplitude coefficient of reflection is

If the film does not absorb light, the amplitudes of the
reflected and transmitted waves are and
respectively.
INTENSITY DISTRIBUTION:
Let a be the amplitude of the light incident on the first
surface.
A certain fraction of this light a, is refracted and another
fraction, a is transmitted
 is the amplitude reflection coefficient
 is the amplitude transmission coefficient
 Again at the second surface, part of the light is refracted
with amplitude a2 and part is transmitted with amplitude
a2 . The next ray is transmitted with an amplitude a22 ,
the next one with after that with a42 and so on.
If T and R be the fractions of the incident light
intensity which are respectively transmitted and
refracted at each silvered surface
Then 2 = T and 2 = R .
The amplitude of the successive rays transmitted
through the pair of plates will be
 aT, aTR, aTR2 , ……..
In complex notation , the incident amplitude is given
by E  aeit
Then the waves reaching a point on the screen will be
it
 E1  aTe
E2  aTRei (t  )
E3  aTR 2 ei (t  2 ) , and so on
EN  aR ( N 1)Te j [t  ( N 1) ]
By the principle of superposition, the resultant
amplitude is given by

A  aT  aTRei  aTR 2e 2i  aTR 3e 3i  ......

A  aT [1  Re  i  R 2 e2i  R 3e3i  ......]
Using this expression for sum of the terms of a
geometrical progression, we get

1  R N e iN 
A= aT
1  Re  i
When the number of terms in the above expression
approaches infinity, the term RN e iN tends to zero,
and the transmitted amplitude reduces to
1
A  aT [  i
]
1  Re
The complex conjugate of A is given by

* 1
A  aT [  i
]
1  Re
The transmitted energy IT = AA*
 
a 2T 2  1 
IT  (1  R) 2  
1  4 R Sin 2  
 (1  R ) 2 2 
The intensity will be maximum when sin2  =0 ,
2
 i.e. = 2mπ, where m= 0,1,2,3,4,5,.
Thus,
a 2T 2
I max [ ]
(1  R ) 2

The intensity will be a minimum, when sin2 2 =1
 i.e. =(2m+1)π, where m= 0,1,2,3,4,5,
 Thus,
2 2 2 2
a T 1 a T
 I min  [   ]
(1  R) 1  4 R
2
(1  R ) 2

(1  R ) 2
Transmitted energy I max
IT 
4R 2 
1 Sin
(1  R ) 2 2

The interference intensity from the reflected light is


4 RSin 2 ( ) I max
IR  2

(1  R) 2  4 RSin 2 ( )
2
SHARPNESS OF THE FRINGES:
Fabry- Perot Interferometer and Etalon
The Fabry- Perot Interferometer is a high resolving
power instrument, which makes use of the fringes of
equal inclination, produced by transmitted light
after multiple reflections in an air film between the
two parallel highly reflecting glass plates.
Theory:
The interferometer consists of two optically plane
glass plates A and B with their inner surfaces silvered
Placed accurately parallel to each other.
Screws are provided to secure parallelism if disturbed
 This system is difficult to manufacture and is no more
in use.
Instead of it an etalon which is more easily
manufactured is used.
The etalon consists of two semi-silvered plates rigidly held
parallel at a fixed distance apart
The reflectance of the two surfaces can be as high as 90 to
99%.
The reflected and transmitted beams interfere with each
other
The Fabry-Perot interferometer is usually used in the
transmissive mode
S is a broad source of monochromatic light and L1 convex
lens, which is not shown in the figure, but which makes the
rays parallel.
An incident ray suffers a large number of internal
reflections successively at the two silvered surfaces
 At each reflection a small fraction of light is
transmitted
Thus each incident ray produces a group of coherent
and parallel transmitted rays with a constant path
difference between any two successive rays.
A second convex lens L brings these rays together to a
point in its focal plane where they interfere.
Hence the rays from all points of the source produce an
interference pattern on a screen placed in the focal
plane of the lens.
Formation of Fringes:
Let d be the separation between the two silvered
surfaces
θ the inclination of particular ray with the normal to
the plates.
The path difference between any two successive
transmitted rays is 2dcosθ
The condition for maximum intensity is given by
2dcosθ = m

Here m is an integer.
Determination of Wavelength:
When the reflecting surface A and B of the interferometer
are adjusted exactly parallel, circular fringes are obtained.
Let m be the order of the bright fringe at the centre of the
fringe system. As at the centre θ=0, we have 2t = m
If the movable plate is moved a distance / 2, 2t changes
by  and hence a bright fringe of the next order appears at
the centre. If the movable plate is moved from the
position x1 to x2 and the number of fringes appearing at
the centre during this movement is N then
 2( x2  x1 )
N  x2  x1 or  
2 N
Measuring x1 , x2 and N one can determine the value of 
Measurement of Difference in Wavelength:
The light emitted by a source may consist of two or more
wavelengths, D1 and D2 lines in case of sodium.
Separate fringe patterns corresponding to the two
wavelengths are not produced in Michelson
interferometer.
Hence, Michelson interferometer is not suitable to
study the fine structure of spectral lines.
In Fabry- Perot interferometer, each wavelength produces
its own ring pattern and the patterns are separated from
each other.
Therefore, Fabry-Perot interferometer is suitable to
study the fine structure of spectral lines.
Let 1 and 2 be two very close wavelengths in the
incident light.
Let us assume that
Initially, the two plates of the interferometer are brought
into contact.
Then the rings due to 1 and 2 coincide partially.
Then the movable plate is slowly moved away such that
the ring systems separate and maximum discordance
occurs.
Then the rings due to 2 are half way between those due
to 1 .
Let t1 be the separation between the plates when
maximum discordance occurs.
At the centre 2t = m  = ( m + 1 ) 
1 1 1 1 2
2
2
or m1 (1  2 ) 
2

2
m1 
2(1  2 )
Using this value of m1 in equation (21), we get
2
2t1  1
2(1  2 )
 12  2 mean
1  2  
4t1 4t1

but , 12   2
mean and 1  2isvery small
When the separation between the plates is further
increased, the ring systems coincide again and the
separate out and maximum discordance occurs once
again.
If t2 is the thickness now, 2t2  m2 1  (m2  3 2 )
2
2(t2  t1 )  (m2  m1 )1  (m2  m1 )2  2
2
or (m2  m1 ) 
(1  2 )
12
2(t2  t1 ) 
(1  2 )

12  2 mean
 (1  2 )  
2(t2  t1 ) 2(t2  t1 )