STRESSES IN BEAMS

I. Statically indeterminate beams

Defining Determinate and Indeterminate Beams:

We know how to calculate deflection, reactions, shear

stresses, and bending stresses in beams that have two
reactions (either two reaction forces, or a reaction force and a
reaction moment). These problems have two unknowns and
two equations (sum of the moments, sum of the forces). Since
the number of unknowns equals the number of equations; we
can solve the problems directly with simple algebra, and we
call these problems statically determinate.

From a design perspective, a statically determinate

structure is risky; if one of the supports fails, the entire
structure collapses. If you are building a deck, adding extra
supports will preserve the deck even if one support is
damaged. However, each additional support adds an unknown
without adding an equation, so we cannot solve the problem
directly; it is a statically indeterminate beam.

Method of Superposition

We can split a statically indeterminate problem into two statically determinate problems. Consider a propped
cantilever beam: if we remove the prop, the end of the beam deflects downward by an amount Δ1 . If instead we
remove the applied load and leave the prop in place, reaction force RA causes the end of the beam to deflect upward by
an amount Δ2 . Since the end of the propped cantilever beam is a simple support and does not deflect, Δ1=Δ2 . Use the
Formula Method to find expressions for deflection, set them equal, and solve for reaction force RA.

Procedure

Step 1 Identify the location of the extra support, having a force reaction only (no moment reaction).

Step 2 Remove the extra support from the original load diagram, and find the deflection formula in Appendix F
for the location you selected in Step 1.

Step 3 Remove the applied loads from the original load diagram and find the deflection formula in Appendix F
for the same location used in Step 2.

Step 4 Set the deflection formulas equal to each other, and solve for the unknown reaction force.

Step 5 Use sum of the forces and sum of the moments to find the remaining beam reactions.
II. Buckling of Columns

Types of Columns
Squeeze a short cylindrical block elastically, and the normal stress
is σ=P / A . Squeeze hard enough to exceed the yield strength, and the
block will either fail by distorting (if it is ductile) or by fracturing (if it is
brittle). A ductile short block will yield at the same load, whether it is in
tension or in compression.

Change the dimensions of the cylinder so it is very long and thin,

and push on the ends: it will form a gentle bow at a normal stress less than
the yield strength of the material. We call this a slender column. You can
make a slender column by cutting out the longest straight segment of a
steel wire coat hanger. Put one end on a kitchen scale and press on the
other end; the wire will bow under a force of a couple of pounds. If we
measure a wire diameter of 0.087 in. and assume a yield strength of 30 ksi,
the wire will not yield in tension until the load reaches

In tension, it takes almost 200 lb. to permanently deform the wire,

while in compression it takes about 2 lb. – a difference of two orders of
magnitude. The extreme example of a slender column is a rope or cable: high
tensile strength; no compressive strength.

Euler Critical Load

Leonhard Euler, the Swiss mathematician who gave us the ex button on the calculator, studied
the mathematics of columns. He derived an equation for the critical load that causes buckling in an ideal
slender column that is pinned at both ends. The Euler critical load Pcr = π2 E I / L2 where I is the
smallest moment of inertia for the cross-sectional area of the column. For example, if the
column is a wide-flange beam, I y<I x , so use Iy. Euler's equation tells us the critical load for a
16.5 in. long coat hanger wire is

Euler Stress

Support Conditions
 The end of a column can have one of three support conditions. It can be pinned: free to rotate, but prevented
from sliding sideways. It can be fixed, like the wall-end of a cantilever beam: prevented from rotating or sliding. It can
be free to rotate and slide, like the free end of a cantilever beam.

If both ends are pinned, the column bows in an arc equal to the length of the column. The effective length of the column
is its own length. If both ends are fixed, then the column cannot rotate at its ends. It bows in the center relative to two
inflection points located L/4 from each end, so the effective length of the bow is half the column length, and Leff=0.5 L.
If one end is fixed while the other is pinned, thenthe column can rotate about the pinned connection. The column bows
over an effective length Leff=0.7 L . A fixed & free column looks like a flagpole; a load on the tip will cause the flagpole
to sway. The column bows over an effective length that is twice its actual length: Leff=2 L.Combined Stresses

III. Combined Stresses

Tension + Bending:
Previous chapters discussed how to solve bending, torsion, tension, thermal, and pressure problems
independently. Many real problems combine states of stress: a steam pipe restrained at both ends (pressure + thermal
stress), horizontal beams in a tall building (vertical bending due to gravity + horizontal bending due to wind loads), or a
bolt as it is tightened (torsion +tension). We can use the Method of Superposition to solve these problems. Calculate the
stresses at a given point due to each loading condition, then add the stresses. We use the same method to calculate
deflections.

Eccentric Loading
Consider an axial member loaded in tension or compression. If the load path is not along the neutral axis, then a
bending moment develops in addition to the axial load. The weight of a traffic light hanging from a cantilever arm
creates an axial stress σaxial=−P / A in the vertical support pole (negative because the load is compressive), while the
weight times the moment arm creates a bending moment in the support pole, causing a bending stress.
A C-clamp or an arbor press is an eccentric load problem: the frame
is eccentrically loaded with respect to the Work piece clamped
between the anvils. The cross-section of the body of a cast-iron C-
clamp or arbor press is not a rectangle, because cast iron is weaker
in tension than in compression. The inside surface of the clamp is
loaded in tension; therefore, it needs more material than the outside
surface of the clamp. Calculate the moment of inertia of a
compound shape, find the neutral axis, and determine two different
values of c – one for the inside surface, and the other for the outside
surface. Eccentricity e is the distance from the centerline of the
clamp screw to the neutral axis of the clamp body.

Another type of eccentric load involves a block of stone or

concrete...a so-called short block problem. The block is short in
comparison with a masonry column. Consider a short masonry
block with a vertical point load. If the load is centric, then the
stress at the base of the block is due to the point load and the
weight of the block: σ=−W / A – P / A. Both terms are negative
because they are both compressive loads. If the load is offset from
the center, we have an eccentric load problem. The combined
stress at the base of the block is the axial term plus the bending
moment term. The weight (acentric load) adds to the axial term,
but not to the bending moment term.

We can modify this short block problem by shifting the point load so it is eccentric with respect to both the x-x and y-y
neutral axes. Use the same technique as before, but add another term for the new eccentricity:

Now the short block problem starts to look like an Accounting problem. The
way this block is drawn, eccentricity e1 will create a positive stress as A and C, a
negative stress at B and D. Eccentricity e2 will create a positive stress as C and D, a
negative stress at A and B. The maximum compressive stress occurs at point B
because the bending stresses due to both eccentricities are negative at that corner; the
maximum tensile stress (or smallest compressive stress, if we don't achieve tension) is at
point C, because the bending stresses due to both eccentricities are positive at that
corner.
IV. Mohr's Circle

Principal strain- Mohr’s strain circle

Since the equations for stress and strain on oblique planes are identical in form, as noted above, it is evident that
Mohr’s stress circle construction can be used equally well to represent strain conditions using the horizontal axis for
linear strains and the vertical axis for half the shear strain. It should be noted, however, that angles given by Mohr’s
stress circle refer to the directions of the planes on which the stresses act and not to the direction of the stresses
themselves. The directions of the stresses and hence the associated strains are therefore normal (i.e. at 90”) to the
directions of the planes. Since angles are doubled in Mohr’s circle construction it follows therefore that for true
similarity of working a relative rotation of the axes of 2 x 90 = 180” must be introduced. This is achieved by plotting
positive shear strains vertically downwards on the strain circle construction as shown in Fig. 14.10.

Shear strains:

The convention for shear strains is a little more difficult. The first subscript in the symbol γ xy usually denotes
the shear strain associated with that direction, i.e. with Ox. Similarly, γ xy is the shear strain associated with
Oy. If, under strain, the line associated with the first subscript moves counterclockwise with respect to the
other line, the shearing strain is said to be positive, and if it moves clockwise it is said to be negative. It will
then be seen that positive shear strains are associated with planes carrying positive shear stresses and negative
shear strains with planes carrying negative shear stresses.
 SAMPLE PROBLEMS
PROBLEM NO1

PROBLEM NO 2
PROBLEM NO 3

PROBLEM NO 4

PROBLEM NO 5