JAVA

WHAT IS JAVA?
Developed by Sun Microsystems in 1995, Java is a highly popular, object-oriented programming language. This
platform independent programming language is utilized for Android development, web development, artificial
intelligence, cloud applications, and much more. It is owned by Oracle, and more than 3 billion devices run Java.
It is used for:
• Mobile applications (specially Android apps)
• Desktop applications
• Web applications
• Web servers and application servers
• Games
• Database connection
• And much, much more!
Why Use Java?

• Java works on different platforms (Windows, Mac, Linux, Raspberry Pi, etc.)
• It is one of the most popular programming languages in the world
• It has a large demand in the current job market
• It is easy to learn and simple to use
• It is open-source and free
• It is secure, fast and powerful
• It has huge community support (tens of millions of developers)
• Java is an object oriented language which gives a clear structure to programs and allows code to be reused,
lowering development costs
• As Java is close to C++ and C#, it makes it easy for programmers to switch to Java or vice versa
JAVA INSTALLATION ON WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM

Some PCs might have Java already installed.
To check if you have Java installed on a Windows PC, search in the start bar for Java or type the following in Command
Prompt (cmd.exe):
C:\Users\Your Name>java -version
If Java is installed, you will see something like this (depending on version):
java version "11.0.1" 2018-10-16 LTS

Java(TM) SE Runtime Environment 18.9 (build 11.0.1+13-LTS)
Java HotSpot(TM) 64-Bit Server VM 18.9 (build 11.0.1+13-LTS, mixed mode)
If you do not have Java installed on your computer, you can download it for free at oracle.com.
It is possible to write Java in a text editor of your choice and also in an Integrated Development Environment, such as
IntelliJ IDEA, Netbeans or Eclipse, which are particularly useful when managing larger collections of Java files.
TO INSTALL JAVA ON WINDOWS:

1. Go to "System Properties" (Can be found on Control Panel > System and Security > System > Advanced System
Settings)
2. Click on the "Environment variables" button under the "Advanced" tab
3. Then, select the "Path" variable in System variables and click on the "Edit" button
4. Click on the "New" button and add the path where Java is installed, followed by \bin. By default, Java is installed
in C:\Program Files\Java\jdk-11.0.1 (If nothing else was specified when you installed it). In that case, you will
have to add a new path with: C:\Program Files\Java\jdk-11.0.1\bin
5. Then, click "OK", and save the settings
6. At last, open Command Prompt (cmd.exe) and type java -version to see if Java is running on your machine
ADEGBOLA TAOFIQ (JAVA)
1
2
3
Step 5
Write the following in the command line (cmd.exe):
C:\Users\Your Name>java -version
If Java was successfully installed, you will see something like this (depending on version):
java version "11.0.1" 2018-10-16 LTS

Java(TM) SE Runtime Environment 18.9 (build 11.0.1+13-LTS)
Java HotSpot(TM) 64-Bit Server VM 18.9 (build 11.0.1+13-LTS, mixed mode)
Java Quickstart
In Java, every application begins with a class name, and that class must match the filename. Let's create our first Java
file, called Main.java, which can be done in any text editor (like Notepad). The file should contain a "Hello World"
message, which is written with the following code:
Main.java
public class Main {

public static void main(String[] args) {
System.out.println("Hello World");
}
}
Save the code in Notepad as "Main.java". Open Command Prompt (cmd.exe), navigate to the directory where you
saved your file, and type "javac Main.java":
C:\Users\Your Name>javac Main.java
This will compile your code. If there are no errors in the code, the command prompt will take you to the next line.
Now, type "java Main" to run the file:
C:\Users\Your Name>java Main
The output should read:
Hello World
The main Method
The main() method is required and you will see it in every Java program:
public static void main(String[] args)
Any code inside the main() method will be executed. Don't worry about the keywords before and after main. You
will get to know them bit by bit while reading this tutorial.
For now, just remember that every Java program has a class name which must match the filename, and that every
program must contain the main() method.
4
System.out.println()
Inside the main() method, we can use the println() method to print a line of text to the screen:

}
You can add as many println() methods as you want. Note that it will add a new line for each method:
Example
System.out.println("Hello World!");
System.out.println("I am learning Java.");
System.out.println("It is awesome!");
The Print() Method

There is also a print() method, which is similar to println().
The only difference is that it does not insert a new line at the end of the output:
Print Numbers
You can also use the println() method to print numbers.
However, unlike text, we don't put numbers inside double quotes:
Example
System.out.println(3);
You can also perform mathematical calculations inside the println() method:
Example
System.out.println(3 + 3);
Example
System.out.println(2 * 5);
Java Comments
Comments can be used to explain Java code, and to make it more readable. It can also be used to prevent execution
when testing alternative code.
Single-line Comments
Single-line comments start with two forward slashes (//).
Any text between // and the end of the line is ignored by Java (will not be executed).
This example uses a single-line comment before a line of code:
Example
// This is a comment
5
This example uses a single-line comment at the end of a line of code:
Example
System.out.println("Hello World"); // This is a comment
Java Multi-line Comments
Multi-line comments start with /* and ends with */.
Any text between /* and */ will be ignored by Java.
This example uses a multi-line comment (a comment block) to explain the code:
Example
/* The code below will print the words Hello World
to the screen, and it is amazing */
Java Variables
Variables are containers for storing data values.
In Java, there are different types of variables, for example:
• String - stores text, such as "Hello". String values are surrounded by double quotes
• int - stores integers (whole numbers), without decimals, such as 123 or -123
• float - stores floating point numbers, with decimals, such as 19.99 or -19.99
• char - stores single characters, such as 'a' or 'B'. Char values are surrounded by single quotes
• boolean - stores values with two states: true or false
Declaring (Creating) Variables
To create a variable, you must specify the type and assign it a value:
Syntax
type variableName = value;
Where type is one of Java's types (such as int or String), and variableName is the name of the variable (such as x
or name). The equal sign is used to assign values to the variable.
To create a variable that should store text, look at the following example:
Example
Create a variable called name of type String and assign it the value "John":
String name = "John";

System.out.println(name);
To create a variable that should store a number, look at the following example:
Example
Create a variable called myNum of type int and assign it the value 15:
6
int myNum = 15;
System.out.println(myNum);
You can also declare a variable without assigning the value, and assign the value later:
Example
int myNum;
myNum = 15;
Note that if you assign a new value to an existing variable, it will overwrite the previous value:
Example
Change the value of myNum from 15 to 20:
int myNum = 15;

myNum = 20; // myNum is now 20
Final Variables
If you don't want others (or yourself) to overwrite existing values, use the final keyword (this will declare the
variable as "final" or "constant", which means unchangeable and read-only):
Example
final int myNum = 15;
myNum = 20; // will generate an error: cannot assign a value to a final
variable
Other Types
A demonstration of how to declare variables of other types:
Example
int myNum = 5;
float myFloatNum = 5.99f;
char myLetter = 'D';
boolean myBool = true;
String myText = "Hello";
Display Variables
The println() method is often used to display variables.
To combine both text and a variable, use the + character:
Example
String name = "John";
System.out.println("Hello " + name);
You can also use the + character to add a variable to another variable:
7
Example
String firstName = "John ";
String lastName = "Doe";
String fullName = firstName + lastName;
System.out.println(fullName);
For numeric values, the + character works as a mathematical operator (notice that we use int (integer) variables
here):
Example
int x = 5;
int y = 6;
System.out.println(x + y); // Print the value of x + y
From the example above, you can expect:
• x stores the value 5

• y stores the value 6
• Then we use the println() method to display the value of x + y, which is 11
Declare Many Variables
To declare more than one variable of the same type, you can use a comma-separated list:
Example
Instead of writing:
int x = 5;
int y = 6;
int z = 50;
System.out.println(x + y + z);
You can simply write:
int x = 5, y = 6, z = 50;
One Value to Multiple Variables
You can also assign the same value to multiple variables in one line:
Example
int x, y, z;
x = y = z = 50;
Identifiers
All Java variables must be identified with unique names.
These unique names are called identifiers.
Identifiers can be short names (like x and y) or more descriptive names (age, sum, totalVolume).
Note: It is recommended to use descriptive names in order to create understandable and maintainable code:
8
Example
// Good
int minutesPerHour = 60;
// OK, but not so easy to understand what m actually is

int m = 60;
The general rules for naming variables are:
• Names can contain letters, digits, underscores, and dollar signs

• Names must begin with a letter
• Names should start with a lowercase letter, and cannot contain whitespace
• Names can also begin with $ and _ (but we will not use it in this tutorial)
• Names are case-sensitive ("myVar" and "myvar" are different variables)
• Reserved words (like Java keywords, such as int or boolean) cannot be used as names
Java Data Types
As explained in the previous chapter, a variable in Java must be a specified data type:
Example
int myNum = 5; // Integer (whole number)
float myFloatNum = 5.99f; // Floating point number
char myLetter = 'D'; // Character
boolean myBool = true; // Boolean
String myText = "Hello"; // String
Data types are divided into two groups:
• Primitive data types - includes byte, short, int, long, float, double, boolean and char
• Non-primitive data types - such as String, Arrays and Classes (you will learn more about these in a later
chapter)
Primitive Data Types
A primitive data type specifies the size and type of variable values, and it has no additional methods.
There are eight primitive data types in Java:
Data Type Size Description

byte 1 byte Stores whole numbers from -128 to 127
short 2 bytes Stores whole numbers from -32,768 to 32,767
int 4 bytes Stores whole numbers from -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647
long 8 bytes Stores whole numbers from -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to
9,223,372,036,854,775,807
float 4 bytes Stores fractional numbers. Sufficient for storing 6 to 7 decimal digits
double 8 bytes Stores fractional numbers. Sufficient for storing 15 decimal digits
boolean 1 bit Stores true or false values
char 2 bytes Stores a single character/letter or ASCII values
Java Operators
9
Operators are used to perform operations on variables and values.
In the example below, we use the + operator to add together two values:
Example
int x = 100 + 50;
Although the + operator is often used to add together two values, like in the example above, it can also be used to add
together a variable and a value, or a variable and another variable:
Example
int sum1 = 100 + 50; // 150 (100 + 50)
int sum2 = sum1 + 250; // 400 (150 + 250)
int sum3 = sum2 + sum2; // 800 (400 + 400)
Java divides the operators into the following groups:
• Arithmetic operators
• Assignment operators
• Comparison operators
• Logical operators
• Bitwise operators
Arithmetic Operators
Arithmetic operators are used to perform common mathematical operations.
Operator Name Description Example

+ Addition Adds together two values x+y
- Subtraction Subtracts one value from another x-y
* Multiplication Multiplies two values x*y
/ Division Divides one value by another x/y
% Modulus Returns the division remainder x%y
++ Increment Increases the value of a variable by 1 ++x
-- Decrement Decreases the value of a variable by 1 --x
Java Assignment Operators
Assignment operators are used to assign values to variables.
In the example below, we use the assignment operator (=) to assign the value 10 to a variable called x:
Example
int x = 10;
The addition assignment operator (+=) adds a value to a variable:
Example
int x = 10;
x += 5;
10
A list of all assignment operators:
Operator Example Same As

= x=5 x=5
+= x += 3 x=x+3
-= x -= 3 x=x-3
*= x *= 3 x=x*3
/= x /= 3 x=x/3
%= x %= 3 x=x%3
&= x &= 3 x=x&3
|= x |= 3 x=x|3
^= x ^= 3 x=x^3
>>= x >>= 3 x = x >> 3
<<= x <<= 3 x = x << 3
Java Comparison Operators
Comparison operators are used to compare two values (or variables). This is important in programming, because it
helps us to find answers and make decisions.
The return value of a comparison is either true or false. These values are known as Boolean values, and you will
learn more about them in the Booleans and If..Else chapter.
In the following example, we use the greater than operator (>) to find out if 5 is greater than 3:
Example
int x = 5;
int y = 3;
System.out.println(x > y); // returns true, because 5 is higher than 3
Operator Name Example

== Equal to x == y
!= Not equal x != y
> Greater than x>y
< Less than x<y
>= Greater than or equal to x >= y
<= Less than or equal to x <= y
Java Logical Operators
You can also test for true or false values with logical operators.
Logical operators are used to determine the logic between variables or values:
Operator Name Description Example

&& Logical and Returns true if both statements are true x < 5 && x < 10
|| Logical or Returns true if one of the statements is true x < 5 || x < 4
! Logical not Reverse the result, returns false if the result is true !(x < 5 && x < 10)
11
Java Strings
Strings are used for storing text.
A String variable contains a collection of characters surrounded by double quotes:
Example
Create a variable of type String and assign it a value:
String greeting = "Hello";
String Length
A String in Java is actually an object, which contain methods that can perform certain operations on strings. For
example, the length of a string can be found with the length() method:
Example
String txt = "ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOPQRSTUVWXYZ";
System.out.println("The length of the txt string is: " + txt.length());
More String Methods
There are many string methods available, for example toUpperCase() and toLowerCase():
Example
String txt = "Hello World";
System.out.println(txt.toUpperCase()); // Outputs "HELLO WORLD"
System.out.println(txt.toLowerCase()); // Outputs "hello world"
Finding a Character in a String
The indexOf() method returns the index (the position) of the first occurrence of a specified text in a string
(including whitespace):
Example
String txt = "Please locate where 'locate' occurs!";
System.out.println(txt.indexOf("locate")); // Outputs 7
String Concatenation
The + operator can be used between strings to combine them. This is called concatenation:
Example
String firstName = "John";
System.out.println(firstName + " " + lastName);
Note that we have added an empty text (" ") to create a space between firstName and lastName on print.
12
You can also use the concat() method to concatenate two strings:
Example
String firstName = "John ";
System.out.println(firstName.concat(lastName));
Adding Numbers and Strings
WARNING!
Java uses the + operator for both addition and concatenation.
Numbers are added. Strings are concatenated.
If you add two numbers, the result will be a number:
Example
int x = 10;
int y = 20;
int z = x + y; // z will be 30 (an integer/number)
If you add two strings, the result will be a string concatenation:
Example
String x = "10";
String y = "20";
String z = x + y; // z will be 1020 (a String)
If you add a number and a string, the result will be a string concatenation:
Example
String x = "10";
int y = 20;
String z = x + y; // z will be 1020 (a String)
Strings - Special Characters
Because strings must be written within quotes, Java will misunderstand this string, and generate an error:
String txt = "We are the so-called "Vikings" from the north.";
The solution to avoid this problem, is to use the backslash escape character.
The backslash (\) escape character turns special characters into string characters:
Escape character Result Description

\' ' Single quote
\" " Double quote
\\ \ Backslash
The sequence \" inserts a double quote in a string:
ExampleGet your own Java Server

String txt = "We are the so-called \"Vikings\" from the north.";
13
The sequence \' inserts a single quote in a string:
Example
String txt = "It\'s alright.";
The sequence \\ inserts a single backslash in a string:
Example
String txt = "The character \\ is called backslash.";
Other common escape sequences that are valid in Java are:
Code Result
\n New Line
\r Carriage Return
\t Tab
\b Backspace
\f Form Feed
Java Math
The Java Math class has many methods that allows you to perform mathematical tasks on numbers.
Math.max(x,y)
The Math.max(x,y) method can be used to find the highest value of x and y:
Example
Math.max(5, 10);
Math.min(x,y)
The Math.min(x,y) method can be used to find the lowest value of x and y:
Example
Math.min(5, 10);
Math.sqrt(x)
The Math.sqrt(x) method returns the square root of x:
Example
Math.sqrt(64);
Math.abs(x)
The Math.abs(x) method returns the absolute (positive) value of x:
Example
Math.abs(-4.7);
Random Numbers
Math.random() returns a random number between 0.0 (inclusive), and 1.0 (exclusive):
14
Example
Math.random();
To get more control over the random number, for example, if you only want a random number between 0 and 100, you
can use the following formula:
Example
int randomNum = (int)(Math.random() * 101); // 0 to 100
Java Booleans
Very often, in programming, you will need a data type that can only have one of two values, like:
• YES / NO
• ON / OFF
• TRUE / FALSE
For this, Java has a boolean data type, which can store true or false values.
Boolean Values
A boolean type is declared with the boolean keyword and can only take the values true or false:
Example
boolean isJavaFun = true;
boolean isFishTasty = false;
System.out.println(isJavaFun); // Outputs true
System.out.println(isFishTasty); // Outputs false
However, it is more common to return boolean values from boolean expressions, for conditional testing (see below).
Boolean Expression
A Boolean expression returns a boolean value: true or false.
This is useful to build logic, and find answers.
For example, you can use a comparison operator, such as the greater than (>) operator, to find out if an expression
(or a variable) is true or false:
Example
int x = 10;
int y = 9;
System.out.println(x > y); // returns true, because 10 is higher than 9
Or even easier:
Example
System.out.println(10 > 9); // returns true, because 10 is higher than 9
In the examples below, we use the equal to (==) operator to evaluate an expression:
Example
int x = 10;
System.out.println(x == 10); // returns true, because the value of x is equal
to 10
15
Example
System.out.println(10 == 15); // returns false, because 10 is not equal to 15
Real Life Example
Let's think of a "real life example" where we need to find out if a person is old enough to vote.
In the example below, we use the >= comparison operator to find out if the age (25) is greater than OR equal to the
voting age limit, which is set to 18:
Example
int myAge = 25;
int votingAge = 18;
System.out.println(myAge >= votingAge);
Cool, right? An even better approach (since we are on a roll now), would be to wrap the code above in an
if...else statement, so we can perform different actions depending on the result:
Example
Output "Old enough to vote!" if myAge is greater than or equal to 18. Otherwise output "Not old enough to vote.":
int myAge = 25;

int votingAge = 18;
if (myAge >= votingAge) {

System.out.println("Old enough to vote!");
} else {
System.out.println("Not old enough to vote.");
}
Java If ... Else
Java Conditions and If Statements
You already know that Java supports the usual logical conditions from mathematics:
• Less than: a < b

• Less than or equal to: a <= b
• Greater than: a > b
• Greater than or equal to: a >= b
• Equal to a == b
• Not Equal to: a != b
You can use these conditions to perform different actions for different decisions.
Java has the following conditional statements:
• Use if to specify a block of code to be executed, if a specified condition is true

• Use else to specify a block of code to be executed, if the same condition is false
• Use else if to specify a new condition to test, if the first condition is false
• Use switch to specify many alternative blocks of code to be executed
16
The if Statement
Use the if statement to specify a block of Java code to be executed if a condition is true.
Syntax
if (condition) {
// block of code to be executed if the condition is true
}
Note that if is in lowercase letters. Uppercase letters (If or IF) will generate an error.
In the example below, we test two values to find out if 20 is greater than 18. If the condition is true, print some text:
Example
if (20 > 18) {
System.out.println("20 is greater than 18");
}
We can also test variables:
Example
int x = 20;
int y = 18;
if (x > y) {
System.out.println("x is greater than y");
}
Example explained
In the example above we use two variables, x and y, to test whether x is greater than y (using the > operator). As x is
20, and y is 18, and we know that 20 is greater than 18, we print to the screen that "x is greater than y".
The else Statement
Use the else statement to specify a block of code to be executed if the condition is false.
Syntax
if (condition) {
// block of code to be executed if the condition is true
} else {
// block of code to be executed if the condition is false
}
Example
int time = 20;
if (time < 18) {
System.out.println("Good day.");
} else {
System.out.println("Good evening.");
}
// Outputs "Good evening."
Example explained
In the example above, time (20) is greater than 18, so the condition is false. Because of this, we move on to the
else condition and print to the screen "Good evening". If the time was less than 18, the program would print "Good
day".
17
The else if Statement
Use the else if statement to specify a new condition if the first condition is false.
Syntax
if (condition1) {
// block of code to be executed if condition1 is true
} else if (condition2) {
// block of code to be executed if the condition1 is false and condition2 is
true
} else {
// block of code to be executed if the condition1 is false and condition2 is
false
}
Example
int time = 22;
if (time < 10) {
System.out.println("Good morning.");
} else if (time < 18) {
} else {
}
// Outputs "Good evening."
Example explained
In the example above, time (22) is greater than 10, so the first condition is false. The next condition, in the else
if statement, is also false, so we move on to the else condition since condition1 and condition2 is both false -
and print to the screen "Good evening".
However, if the time was 14, our program would print "Good day."
Short Hand If...Else
There is also a short-hand if else, which is known as the ternary operator because it consists of three operands.
It can be used to replace multiple lines of code with a single line, and is most often used to replace simple if else
statements:
Syntax
variable = (condition) ? expressionTrue : expressionFalse;
Instead of writing:
Example
int time = 20;
if (time < 18) {
} else {
}
You can simply write:
Example
int time = 20;
String result = (time < 18) ? "Good day." : "Good evening.";
18
System.out.println(result);
Java Switch Statements
Instead of writing many if..else statements, you can use the switch statement.
The switch statement selects one of many code blocks to be executed:
Syntax
switch(expression) {
case x:
// code block
break;
case y:
// code block
break;
default:
// code block
}
This is how it works:
• The switch expression is evaluated once.

• The value of the expression is compared with the values of each case.
• If there is a match, the associated block of code is executed.
• The break and default keywords are optional, and will be described later in this chapter
The example below uses the weekday number to calculate the weekday name:
Example
int day = 4;
switch (day) {
case 1:
System.out.println("Monday");
break;
case 2:
System.out.println("Tuesday");
break;
case 3:
System.out.println("Wednesday");
break;
case 4:
System.out.println("Thursday");
break;
case 5:
System.out.println("Friday");
break;
case 6:
System.out.println("Saturday");
break;
case 7:
System.out.println("Sunday");
break;
}
// Outputs "Thursday" (day 4)
19
The break Keyword
When Java reaches a break keyword, it breaks out of the switch block.
This will stop the execution of more code and case testing inside the block.
When a match is found, and the job is done, it's time for a break. There is no need for more testing.
A break can save a lot of execution time because it "ignores" the execution of all the rest of the code in the switch
block.
The default Keyword
The default keyword specifies some code to run if there is no case match:
Example
int day = 4;
switch (day) {
case 6:
System.out.println("Today is Saturday");
break;
case 7:
System.out.println("Today is Sunday");
break;
default:
System.out.println("Looking forward to the Weekend");
}
// Outputs "Looking forward to the Weekend"
Loops
Loops can execute a block of code as long as a specified condition is reached.
Loops are handy because they save time, reduce errors, and they make code more readable.
Java While Loop
The while loop loops through a block of code as long as a specified condition is true:
Syntax
while (condition) {
// code block to be executed
}
In the example below, the code in the loop will run, over and over again, as long as a variable (i) is less than 5:
Example
int i = 0;
while (i < 5) {
System.out.println(i);
i++;
}
Note: Do not forget to increase the variable used in the condition, otherwise the loop will never end!
20
The Do/While Loop
The do/while loop is a variant of the while loop. This loop will execute the code block once, before checking if
the condition is true, then it will repeat the loop as long as the condition is true.
Syntax
do {
}
while (condition);
The example below uses a do/while loop. The loop will always be executed at least once, even if the condition is
false, because the code block is executed before the condition is tested:
Example
int i = 0;
do {
i++;
}
while (i < 5);
Java For Loop
When you know exactly how many times you want to loop through a block of code, use the for loop instead of a
while loop:
Syntax
for (statement 1; statement 2; statement 3) {
}
Statement 1 is executed (one time) before the execution of the code block.
Statement 2 defines the condition for executing the code block.
Statement 3 is executed (every time) after the code block has been executed.
The example below will print the numbers 0 to 4:
Example
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++) {
}
Example explained
Statement 1 sets a variable before the loop starts (int i = 0).
Statement 2 defines the condition for the loop to run (i must be less than 5). If the condition is true, the loop will start
over again, if it is false, the loop will end.
Statement 3 increases a value (i++) each time the code block in the loop has been executed.
Another Example
21
This example will only print even values between 0 and 10:
Example
for (int i = 0; i <= 10; i = i + 2) {
}
Nested Loops
It is also possible to place a loop inside another loop. This is called a nested loop.
The "inner loop" will be executed one time for each iteration of the "outer loop":
Example
// Outer loop
for (int i = 1; i <= 2; i++) {
System.out.println("Outer: " + i); // Executes 2 times
// Inner loop
for (int j = 1; j <= 3; j++) {
System.out.println(" Inner: " + j); // Executes 6 times (2 * 3)
}
}
For-Each Loop
There is also a "for-each" loop, which is used exclusively to loop through elements in an array:
Syntax
for (type variableName : arrayName) {
}
The following example outputs all elements in the cars array, using a "for-each" loop:
Example
String[] cars = {"Volvo", "BMW", "Ford", "Mazda"};
for (String i : cars) {
}
Java Break and Continue
Java Break
You have already seen the break statement used in an earlier chapter of this tutorial. It was used to "jump out" of a
switch statement.
The break statement can also be used to jump out of a loop.
This example stops the loop when i is equal to 4:
22
Example
for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
if (i == 4) {
break;
}
}
Java Continue
The continue statement breaks one iteration (in the loop), if a specified condition occurs, and continues with the
next iteration in the loop.
This example skips the value of 4:
Example
for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++) {
if (i == 4) {
continue;
}
}
Break and Continue in While Loop
You can also use break and continue in while loops:
Break Example
int i = 0;
while (i < 10) {
i++;
if (i == 4) {
break;
}
}
Continue Example
int i = 0;
while (i < 10) {
if (i == 4) {
i++;
continue;
}
i++;
}
Java Arrays
Arrays are used to store multiple values in a single variable, instead of declaring separate variables for each value.
To declare an array, define the variable type with square brackets:

23
String[] cars;
We have now declared a variable that holds an array of strings. To insert values to it, you can place the values in a
comma-separated list, inside curly braces:
To create an array of integers, you could write:
int[] myNum = {10, 20, 30, 40};
Access the Elements of an Array
You can access an array element by referring to the index number.
This statement accesses the value of the first element in cars:
Example
System.out.println(cars[0]);
// Outputs Volvo
Note: Array indexes start with 0: [0] is the first element. [1] is the second element, etc.
Change an Array Element
To change the value of a specific element, refer to the index number:
Example
cars[0] = "Opel";
Example
cars[0] = "Opel";
System.out.println(cars[0]);
// Now outputs Opel instead of Volvo
Array Length
To find out how many elements an array has, use the length property:
Example
System.out.println(cars.length);
// Outputs 4
Loop Through an Array
You can loop through the array elements with the for loop, and use the length property to specify how many times
the loop should run.
The following example outputs all elements in the cars array:
Example
24
for (int i = 0; i < cars.length; i++) {
System.out.println(cars[i]);
}
Loop Through an Array with For-Each
There is also a "for-each" loop, which is used exclusively to loop through elements in arrays:
Syntax
for (type variable : arrayname) {
...
}
The following example outputs all elements in the cars array, using a "for-each" loop:
Example
}
The example above can be read like this: for each String element (called i - as in index) in cars, print out the value
of i.
If you compare the for loop and for-each loop, you will see that the for-each method is easier to write, it does not
require a counter (using the length property), and it is more readable.
Multidimensional Arrays
A multidimensional array is an array of arrays.
Multidimensional arrays are useful when you want to store data as a tabular form, like a table with rows and columns.
To create a two-dimensional array, add each array within its own set of curly braces:
Example
int[][] myNumbers = { {1, 2, 3, 4}, {5, 6, 7} };
myNumbers is now an array with two arrays as its elements.
Access Elements
To access the elements of the myNumbers array, specify two indexes: one for the array, and one for the element
inside that array. This example accesses the third element (2) in the second array (1) of myNumbers:
Example
int[][] myNumbers = { {1, 2, 3, 4}, {5, 6, 7} };
System.out.println(myNumbers[1][2]); // Outputs 7
Remember that: Array indexes start with 0: [0] is the first element. [1] is the second element, etc.
Change Element Values
You can also change the value of an element:
Example
int[][] myNumbers = { {1, 2, 3, 4}, {5, 6, 7} };
25
myNumbers[1][2] = 9;
System.out.println(myNumbers[1][2]); // Outputs 9 instead of 7
Loop Through a Multi-Dimensional Array
We can also use a for loop inside another for loop to get the elements of a two-dimensional array (we still
have to point to the two indexes):
Example
public class Main {
int[][] myNumbers = { {1, 2, 3, 4}, {5, 6, 7} };
for (int i = 0; i < myNumbers.length; ++i) {
for(int j = 0; j < myNumbers[i].length; ++j) {
System.out.println(myNumbers[i][j]);
}
}
}
}
Java Methods
A method is a block of code which only runs when it is called.
You can pass data, known as parameters, into a method.
Methods are used to perform certain actions, and they are also known as functions.
Why use methods? To reuse code: define the code once, and use it many times.
Create a Method
A method must be declared within a class. It is defined with the name of the method, followed by parentheses (). Java
provides some pre-defined methods, such as System.out.println(), but you can also create your own methods
to perform certain actions:
Example
Create a method inside Main:
public class Main {

static void myMethod() {
// code to be executed
}
}
Example Explained
• myMethod() is the name of the method

• static means that the method belongs to the Main class and not an object of the Main class. You will learn
more about objects and how to access methods through objects later in this tutorial.
• void means that this method does not have a return value. You will learn more about return values later in
this chapter
26
Call a Method
To call a method in Java, write the method's name followed by two parentheses () and a semicolon;
In the following example, myMethod() is used to print a text (the action), when it is called:
Example
Inside main, call the myMethod() method:
public class Main {

System.out.println("I just got executed!");
}

myMethod();
}
}
// Outputs "I just got executed!"
A method can also be called multiple times:
Example
public class Main {
System.out.println("I just got executed!");
}

myMethod();
myMethod();
myMethod();
}
}
// I just got executed!

Java Method Parameters
Parameters and Arguments
Information can be passed to methods as parameter. Parameters act as variables inside the method.
Parameters are specified after the method name, inside the parentheses. You can add as many parameters as you want,
just separate them with a comma.
The following example has a method that takes a String called fname as parameter. When the method is called, we
pass along a first name, which is used inside the method to print the full name:
Example
public class Main {
static void myMethod(String fname) {
System.out.println(fname + " Refsnes");
27
}

myMethod("Liam");
myMethod("Jenny");
myMethod("Anja");
}
}
// Liam Refsnes
// Jenny Refsnes
// Anja Refsnes
When a parameter is passed to the method, it is called an argument. So, from the example above: fname is a
parameter, while Liam, Jenny and Anja are arguments.
Multiple Parameters
You can have as many parameters as you like:
Example
public class Main {
static void myMethod(String fname, int age) {
System.out.println(fname + " is " + age);
}

myMethod("Liam", 5);
myMethod("Jenny", 8);
myMethod("Anja", 31);
}
}
// Liam is 5
// Jenny is 8
// Anja is 31
Note that when you are working with multiple parameters, the method call must have the same number of arguments
as there are parameters, and the arguments must be passed in the same order.
Return Values
The void keyword, used in the examples above, indicates that the method should not return a value. If you want the
method to return a value, you can use a primitive data type (such as int, char, etc.) instead of void, and use the
return keyword inside the method:
Example
public class Main {
static int myMethod(int x) {
return 5 + x;
}

System.out.println(myMethod(3));
}
}
// Outputs 8 (5 + 3)
28
This example returns the sum of a method's two parameters:
Example
public class Main {
static int myMethod(int x, int y) {
return x + y;
}

System.out.println(myMethod(5, 3));
}
}
// Outputs 8 (5 + 3)
You can also store the result in a variable (recommended, as it is easier to read and maintain):
Example
public class Main {
static int myMethod(int x, int y) {
return x + y;
}

int z = myMethod(5, 3);
System.out.println(z);
}
}
// Outputs 8 (5 + 3)
A Method with If...Else
It is common to use if...else statements inside methods:
Example
public class Main {
// Create a checkAge() method with an integer variable called age

static void checkAge(int age) {
// If age is less than 18, print "access denied"

if (age < 18) {
System.out.println("Access denied - You are not old enough!");
// If age is greater than, or equal to, 18, print "access granted"

} else {
System.out.println("Access granted - You are old enough!");
}

checkAge(20); // Call the checkAge method and pass along an age of 20
}
}
// Outputs "Access granted - You are old enough!"
29
Method Overloading
With method overloading, multiple methods can have the same name with different parameters:
Example
int myMethod(int x)
float myMethod(float x)
double myMethod(double x, double y)
Consider the following example, which has two methods that add numbers of different type:
Example
static int plusMethodInt(int x, int y) {
return x + y;
}
static double plusMethodDouble(double x, double y) {

return x + y;
}

int myNum1 = plusMethodInt(8, 5);
double myNum2 = plusMethodDouble(4.3, 6.26);
System.out.println("int: " + myNum1);
System.out.println("double: " + myNum2);
}
Instead of defining two methods that should do the same thing, it is better to overload one.
In the example below, we overload the plusMethod method to work for both int and double:
Example
static int plusMethod(int x, int y) {
return x + y;
}
static double plusMethod(double x, double y) {

return x + y;
}

int myNum1 = plusMethod(8, 5);
double myNum2 = plusMethod(4.3, 6.26);
System.out.println("int: " + myNum1);
System.out.println("double: " + myNum2);
}
Java Scope
In Java, variables are only accessible inside the region they are created. This is called scope.
Method Scope
Variables declared directly inside a method are available anywhere in the method following the line of code in which
they were declared:
Example
public class Main {
30
// Code here CANNOT use x
int x = 100;
// Code here can use x

System.out.println(x);
}
}
Block Scope
A block of code refers to all of the code between curly braces {}.
Variables declared inside blocks of code are only accessible by the code between the curly braces, which follows the
line in which the variable was declared:
Example
public class Main {
{ // This is a block
int x = 100;
// Code here CAN use x

System.out.println(x);
} // The block ends here
}
}
Java Recursion
Recursion is the technique of making a function call itself. This technique provides a way to break complicated
problems down into simple problems which are easier to solve.
Recursion may be a bit difficult to understand. The best way to figure out how it works is to experiment with it.
Recursion Example
Adding two numbers together is easy to do, but adding a range of numbers is more complicated. In the following
example, recursion is used to add a range of numbers together by breaking it down into the simple task of adding two
numbers:
Example
Use recursion to add all of the numbers up to 10.
public class Main {

31
int result = sum(10);
}
public static int sum(int k) {
if (k > 0) {
return k + sum(k - 1);
} else {
return 0;
}
}
}
Example Explained
When the sum() function is called, it adds parameter k to the sum of all numbers smaller than k and returns the
result. When k becomes 0, the function just returns 0. When running, the program follows these steps10 + 9 + 8 + 7 6
Since the function does not call itself when k is 0, the program stops there and returns the result.
Halting Condition
Just as loops can run into the problem of infinite looping, recursive functions can run into the problem of infinite
recursion. Infinite recursion is when the function never stops calling itself. Every recursive function should have a
halting condition, which is the condition where the function stops calling itself. In the previous example, the halting
condition is when the parameter k becomes 0.
It is helpful to see a variety of different examples to better understand the concept. In this example, the function adds a
range of numbers between a start and an end. The halting condition for this recursive function is when end is not
greater than start:
Example
Use recursion to add all of the numbers between 5 to 10.
public class Main {

int result = sum(5, 10);
}
public static int sum(int start, int end) {
if (end > start) {
return end + sum(start, end - 1);
} else {
return end;
}
}
}
The developer should be very careful with recursion as it can be quite easy to slip into writing a function which never
terminates, or one that uses excess amounts of memory or processor power. However, when written correctly
recursion can be a very efficient and mathematically-elegant approach to programming.
Java - What is OOP?
OOP stands for Object-Oriented Programming.
Procedural programming is about writing procedures or methods that perform operations on the data, while object-
oriented programming is about creating objects that contain both data and methods.
Object-oriented programming has several advantages over procedural programming:
32
• OOP is faster and easier to execute
• OOP provides a clear structure for the programs
• OOP helps to keep the Java code DRY "Don't Repeat Yourself", and makes the code easier to maintain,
modify and debug
• OOP makes it possible to create full reusable applications with less code and shorter development time
Tip: The "Don't Repeat Yourself" (DRY) principle is about reducing the repetition of code. You should extract out the
codes that are common for the application, and place them at a single place and reuse them instead of repeating it.
Java - What are Classes and Objects?
Classes and objects are the two main aspects of object-oriented programming.
Look at the following illustration to see the difference between class and objects:
So, a class is a template for objects, and an object is an instance of a class. When the individual objects are created,
they inherit all the variables and methods from the class.
You will learn much more about classes and objects in the next chapter.
Java Classes/Objects
Java is an object-oriented programming language.
Everything in Java is associated with classes and objects, along with its attributes and methods. For example: in real
life, a car is an object. The car has attributes, such as weight and color, and methods, such as drive and brake.
A Class is like an object constructor, or a "blueprint" for creating objects.
Create a Class
To create a class, use the keyword class:
33
Main.java
Create a class named "Main" with a variable x:
public class Main {

int x = 5;
}
Remember from the Java Syntax chapter that a class should always start with an uppercase first letter, and that the
name of the java file should match the class name.
Create an Object
In Java, an object is created from a class. We have already created the class named Main, so now we can use this to
create objects.
To create an object of Main, specify the class name, followed by the object name, and use the keyword new:
Example
Create an object called "myObj" and print the value of x:
public class Main {

int x = 5;

Main myObj = new Main();
System.out.println(myObj.x);
}
}
Multiple Objects
You can create multiple objects of one class:
Example
Create two objects of Main:
public class Main {

int x = 5;

Main myObj1 = new Main(); // Object 1
System.out.println(myObj1.x);
System.out.println(myObj2.x);
}
}
Using Multiple Classes
You can also create an object of a class and access it in another class. This is often used for better organization of
classes (one class has all the attributes and methods, while the other class holds the main() method (code to be
executed)).
34
Remember that the name of the java file should match the class name. In this example, we have created two files in
the same directory/folder:
• Main.java
• Second.java
Main.java
public class Main {
int x = 5;
}
Second.java
class Second {
}
}
When both files have been compiled:

C:\Users\Your Name>javac Second.java
Run the Second.java file:
C:\Users\Your Name>java Second
And the output will be:
Java Class Attributes
In the previous chapter, we used the term "variable" for x in the example (as shown below). It is actually an attribute
of the class. Or you could say that class attributes are variables within a class:
Example
Create a class called "Main" with two attributes: x and y:
public class Main {

int x = 5;
int y = 3;
}
Another term for class attributes is fields.
Accessing Attributes
You can access attributes by creating an object of the class, and by using the dot syntax (.):
The following example will create an object of the Main class, with the name myObj. We use the x attribute on the
object to print its value:
35
Example
Create an object called "myObj" and print the value of x:
public class Main {

int x = 5;

}
}
Modify Attributes
You can also modify attribute values:
Example
Set the value of x to 40:
public class Main {

int x;

myObj.x = 40;
}
}
Or override existing values:
Example
Change the value of x to 25:
public class Main {

int x = 10;

myObj.x = 25; // x is now 25
}
}
If you don't want the ability to override existing values, declare the attribute as final:
Example
public class Main {
final int x = 10;

36
myObj.x = 25; // will generate an error: cannot assign a value to a final
variable
}
}
The final keyword is useful when you want a variable to always store the same value, like PI (3.14159...).
The final keyword is called a "modifier". You will learn more about these in the Java Modifiers Chapter.
Multiple Objects
If you create multiple objects of one class, you can change the attribute values in one object, without affecting the
attribute values in the other:
Example
Change the value of x to 25 in myObj2, and leave x in myObj1 unchanged:
public class Main {

int x = 5;

myObj2.x = 25;
System.out.println(myObj1.x); // Outputs 5
System.out.println(myObj2.x); // Outputs 25
}
}
Multiple Attributes
You can specify as many attributes as you want:
Example
public class Main {
String fname = "John";
String lname = "Doe";
int age = 24;

System.out.println("Name: " + myObj.fname + " " + myObj.lname);
System.out.println("Age: " + myObj.age);
}
}
The next chapter will teach you how to create class methods and how to access them with objects.
Java Class Methods
You learned from the Java Methods chapter that methods are declared within a class, and that they are used to perform
certain actions:
37
Example
Create a method named myMethod() in Main:
public class Main {

}
}
myMethod() prints a text (the action), when it is called. To call a method, write the method's name followed by two
parentheses () and a semicolon;
Example
Inside main, call myMethod():
public class Main {

}

myMethod();
}
}
// Outputs "Hello World!"
Static vs. Public
You will often see Java programs that have either static or public attributes and methods.
In the example above, we created a static method, which means that it can be accessed without creating an object
of the class, unlike public, which can only be accessed by objects:
Example
An example to demonstrate the differences between static and public methods:
public class Main {

// Static method
static void myStaticMethod() {
System.out.println("Static methods can be called without creating
objects");
}
// Public method
public void myPublicMethod() {
System.out.println("Public methods must be called by creating objects");
}
// Main method
myStaticMethod(); // Call the static method
// myPublicMethod(); This would compile an error
38
Main myObj = new Main(); // Create an object of Main
myObj.myPublicMethod(); // Call the public method on the object
}
}
Note: You will learn more about these keywords (called modifiers) in the Java Modifiers chapter.
Access Methods With an Object
Example
Create a Car object named myCar. Call the fullThrottle() and speed() methods on the myCar object, and
run the program:
// Create a Main class

public class Main {
// Create a fullThrottle() method

public void fullThrottle() {
System.out.println("The car is going as fast as it can!");
}
// Create a speed() method and add a parameter

public void speed(int maxSpeed) {
System.out.println("Max speed is: " + maxSpeed);
}
// Inside main, call the methods on the myCar object

Main myCar = new Main(); // Create a myCar object
myCar.fullThrottle(); // Call the fullThrottle() method
myCar.speed(200); // Call the speed() method
}
}
// The car is going as fast as it can!

// Max speed is: 200
Example explained
1) We created a custom Main class with the class keyword.
2) We created the fullThrottle() and speed() methods in the Main class.
3) The fullThrottle() method and the speed() method will print out some text, when they are called.
4) The speed() method accepts an int parameter called maxSpeed - we will use this in 8).
5) In order to use the Main class and its methods, we need to create an object of the Main Class.
6) Then, go to the main() method, which you know by now is a built-in Java method that runs your program (any
code inside main is executed).
7) By using the new keyword we created an object with the name myCar.
8) Then, we call the fullThrottle() and speed() methods on the myCar object, and run the program using
the name of the object (myCar), followed by a dot (.), followed by the name of the method (fullThrottle();
and speed(200);). Notice that we add an int parameter of 200 inside the speed() method.
39
Remember that..
The dot (.) is used to access the object's attributes and methods.
To call a method in Java, write the method name followed by a set of parentheses (), followed by a semicolon (;).
A class must have a matching filename (Main and Main.java).
Using Multiple Classes
Like we specified in the Classes chapter, it is a good practice to create an object of a class and access it in another
class.
Remember that the name of the java file should match the class name. In this example, we have created two files in
the same directory:
• Main.java
• Second.java
Main.java
public class Main {
public void fullThrottle() {
System.out.println("The car is going as fast as it can!");
}
public void speed(int maxSpeed) {

System.out.println("Max speed is: " + maxSpeed);
}
}
Second.java
class Second {
Main myCar = new Main(); // Create a myCar object
myCar.fullThrottle(); // Call the fullThrottle() method
myCar.speed(200); // Call the speed() method
}
}
When both files have been compiled:

C:\Users\Your Name>javac Second.java
Run the Second.java file:
C:\Users\Your Name>java Second
And the output will be:
The car is going as fast as it can!

Max speed is: 200
Java Constructors
40
A constructor in Java is a special method that is used to initialize objects. The constructor is called when an object of
a class is created. It can be used to set initial values for object attributes:
Example
Create a constructor:
// Create a Main class

public class Main {
int x; // Create a class attribute
// Create a class constructor for the Main class

public Main() {
x = 5; // Set the initial value for the class attribute x
}

Main myObj = new Main(); // Create an object of class Main (This will call
the constructor)
System.out.println(myObj.x); // Print the value of x
}
}
// Outputs 5
Note that the constructor name must match the class name, and it cannot have a return type (like void).
Also note that the constructor is called when the object is created.
All classes have constructors by default: if you do not create a class constructor yourself, Java creates one for you.
However, then you are not able to set initial values for object attributes.
Constructor Parameters
Constructors can also take parameters, which is used to initialize attributes.
The following example adds an int y parameter to the constructor. Inside the constructor we set x to y (x=y). When
we call the constructor, we pass a parameter to the constructor (5), which will set the value of x to 5:
Example
public class Main {
int x;
public Main(int y) {
x = y;
}

Main myObj = new Main(5);
}
}
// Outputs 5
41
You can have as many parameters as you want:
Example
public class Main {
int modelYear;
String modelName;
public Main(int year, String name) {

modelYear = year;
modelName = name;
}

Main myCar = new Main(1969, "Mustang");
System.out.println(myCar.modelYear + " " + myCar.modelName);
}
}
// Outputs 1969 Mustang
JAVA Modifiers
By now, you are quite familiar with the public keyword that appears in almost all of our examples:
public class Main
The public keyword is an access modifier, meaning that it is used to set the access level for classes, attributes,
methods and constructors.
We divide modifiers into two groups:
• Access Modifiers - controls the access level

• Non-Access Modifiers - do not control access level, but provides other functionality
Access Modifiers
For classes, you can use either public or default:
Modifier Description
public The class is accessible by any other class
default The class is only accessible by classes in the same package. This is used when you don't
specify a modifier. You will learn more about packages in the Packages chapter
For attributes, methods and constructors, you can use the one of the following:
public The code is accessible for all classes
private The code is only accessible within the declared class
default The code is only accessible in the same package. This is used when you don't specify a
modifier. You will learn more about packages in the Packages chapter
protected The code is accessible in the same package and subclasses. You will learn more about
subclasses and superclasses in the Inheritance chapter
42
Non-Access Modifiers
For classes, you can use either final or abstract:
final The class cannot be inherited by other classes (You will learn more about inheritance in
the Inheritance chapter)
abstract The class cannot be used to create objects (To access an abstract class, it must be
inherited from another class. You will learn more about inheritance and abstraction in the
Inheritance and Abstraction chapters)
For attributes and methods, you can use the one of the following:
final Attributes and methods cannot be overridden/modified
static Attributes and methods belongs to the class, rather than an object
abstract Can only be used in an abstract class, and can only be used on methods. The method does
not have a body, for example abstract void run();. The body is provided by the subclass
(inherited from). You will learn more about inheritance and abstraction in the Inheritance
and Abstraction chapters
transient Attributes and methods are skipped when serializing the object containing them
synchronized Methods can only be accessed by one thread at a time
volatile The value of an attribute is not cached thread-locally, and is always read from the "main
memory"
Final
If you don't want the ability to override existing attribute values, declare attributes as final:
Example
public class Main {
final int x = 10;
final double PI = 3.14;

myObj.x = 50; // will generate an error: cannot assign a value to a final
variable
myObj.PI = 25; // will generate an error: cannot assign a value to a final
variable
}
}
Static
A static method means that it can be accessed without creating an object of the class, unlike public:
43
Example
An example to demonstrate the differences between static and public methods:
public class Main {

// Static method
static void myStaticMethod() {
System.out.println("Static methods can be called without creating
objects");
}
// Public method
public void myPublicMethod() {
System.out.println("Public methods must be called by creating objects");
}
// Main method
public static void main(String[ ] args) {
myStaticMethod(); // Call the static method
// myPublicMethod(); This would output an error
Main myObj = new Main(); // Create an object of Main

myObj.myPublicMethod(); // Call the public method
}
}
Abstract
An abstract method belongs to an abstract class, and it does not have a body. The body is provided by the
subclass:
Example
// Code from filename: Main.java
// abstract class
abstract class Main {
public String fname = "John";
public int age = 24;
public abstract void study(); // abstract method
}
// Subclass (inherit from Main)

class Student extends Main {
public int graduationYear = 2018;
public void study() { // the body of the abstract method is provided here
System.out.println("Studying all day long");
}
}
// End code from filename: Main.java
// Code from filename: Second.java

class Second {
// create an object of the Student class (which inherits attributes and
methods from Main)
Student myObj = new Student();
System.out.println("Name: " + myObj.fname);

System.out.println("Age: " + myObj.age);
System.out.println("Graduation Year: " + myObj.graduationYear);
44
myObj.study(); // call abstract method
}
}
JAVA Encapsulation
The meaning of Encapsulation, is to make sure that "sensitive" data is hidden from users. To achieve this, you must:
• declare class variables/attributes as private

• provide public get and set methods to access and update the value of a private variable
Get and Set
You learned from the previous chapter that private variables can only be accessed within the same class (an
outside class has no access to it). However, it is possible to access them if we provide public get and set methods.
The get method returns the variable value, and the set method sets the value.
Syntax for both is that they start with either get or set, followed by the name of the variable, with the first letter in
upper case:
Example
public class Person {
private String name; // private = restricted access
// Getter
public String getName() {
return name;
}
// Setter
public void setName(String newName) {
this.name = newName;
}
}
Example explained
The get method returns the value of the variable name.
The set method takes a parameter (newName) and assigns it to the name variable. The this keyword is used to
refer to the current object.
However, as the name variable is declared as private, we cannot access it from outside this class:
Example
public class Main {
Person myObj = new Person();
myObj.name = "John"; // error
System.out.println(myObj.name); // error
}
}
45
If the variable was declared as public, we would expect the following output:
John
However, as we try to access a private variable, we get an error:
MyClass.java:4: error: name has private access in Person

myObj.name = "John";
^
MyClass.java:5: error: name has private access in Person
System.out.println(myObj.name);
^
2 errors
Instead, we use the getName() and setName() methods to access and update the variable:
Example
public class Main {
Person myObj = new Person();
myObj.setName("John"); // Set the value of the name variable to "John"
System.out.println(myObj.getName());
}
}
// Outputs "John"
Why Encapsulation?
• Better control of class attributes and methods

• Class attributes can be made read-only (if you only use the get method), or write-only (if you only use the
set method)
• Flexible: the programmer can change one part of the code without affecting other parts
• Increased security of data
Java Packages & API
A package in Java is used to group related classes. Think of it as a folder in a file directory. We use packages to
avoid name conflicts, and to write a better maintainable code. Packages are divided into two categories:
• Built-in Packages (packages from the Java API)

• User-defined Packages (create your own packages)
Built-in Packages
The Java API is a library of prewritten classes, that are free to use, included in the Java Development Environment.
The library contains components for managing input, database programming, and much much more. The complete list
can be found at Oracles website: https://docs.oracle.com/javase/8/docs/api/.
The library is divided into packages and classes. Meaning you can either import a single class (along with its methods
and attributes), or a whole package that contain all the classes that belong to the specified package.
To use a class or a package from the library, you need to use the import keyword:
Syntax
import package.name.Class; // Import a single class
import package.name.*; // Import the whole package
46
Import a Class
If you find a class you want to use, for example, the Scanner class, which is used to get user input, write the
following code:
Example
import java.util.Scanner;
In the example above, java.util is a package, while Scanner is a class of the java.util package.
To use the Scanner class, create an object of the class and use any of the available methods found in the Scanner
class documentation. In our example, we will use the nextLine() method, which is used to read a complete line:
Example
Using the Scanner class to get user input:
class MyClass {
Scanner myObj = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println("Enter username");
String userName = myObj.nextLine();

System.out.println("Username is: " + userName);
}
}
Import a Package
There are many packages to choose from. In the previous example, we used the Scanner class from the
java.util package. This package also contains date and time facilities, random-number generator and other utility
classes.
To import a whole package, end the sentence with an asterisk sign (*). The following example will import ALL the
classes in the java.util package:
Example
import java.util.*;
User-defined Packages
To create your own package, you need to understand that Java uses a file system directory to store them. Just like
folders on your computer:
Example
└── root
└── mypack
└── MyPackageClass.java
To create a package, use the package keyword:
MyPackageClass.java
package mypack;
class MyPackageClass {
47
System.out.println("This is my package!");
}
}
Save the file as MyPackageClass.java, and compile it:
C:\Users\Your Name>javac MyPackageClass.java
Then compile the package:
C:\Users\Your Name>javac -d . MyPackageClass.java
This forces the compiler to create the "mypack" package.
The -d keyword specifies the destination for where to save the class file. You can use any directory name, like c:/user
(windows), or, if you want to keep the package within the same directory, you can use the dot sign ".", like in the
example above.
Note: The package name should be written in lower case to avoid conflict with class names.
When we compiled the package in the example above, a new folder was created, called "mypack".
To run the MyPackageClass.java file, write the following:
C:\Users\Your Name>java mypack.MyPackageClass
The output will be:
This is my package!
Java Inheritance (Subclass and Superclass)
In Java, it is possible to inherit attributes and methods from one class to another. We group the "inheritance concept"
into two categories:
• subclass (child) - the class that inherits from another class

• superclass (parent) - the class being inherited from
To inherit from a class, use the extends keyword.
In the example below, the Car class (subclass) inherits the attributes and methods from the Vehicle class
(superclass):
Example
class Vehicle {
protected String brand = "Ford"; // Vehicle attribute
public void honk() { // Vehicle method
System.out.println("Tuut, tuut!");
}
}
class Car extends Vehicle {

private String modelName = "Mustang"; // Car attribute
// Create a myCar object

Car myCar = new Car();
48
// Call the honk() method (from the Vehicle class) on the myCar object
myCar.honk();
// Display the value of the brand attribute (from the Vehicle class) and
the value of the modelName from the Car class
System.out.println(myCar.brand + " " + myCar.modelName);
}
}
Did you notice the protected modifier in Vehicle?
We set the brand attribute in Vehicle to a protected access modifier. If it was set to private, the Car class
would not be able to access it.
Why And When To Use "Inheritance"?
- It is useful for code reusability: reuse attributes and methods of an existing class when you create a new class.
Tip: Also take a look at the next chapter, Polymorphism, which uses inherited methods to perform different tasks.
The final Keyword
If you don't want other classes to inherit from a class, use the final keyword:
If you try to access a final class, Java will generate an error:
final class Vehicle {

...
}
class Car extends Vehicle {

...
}
The output will be something like this:
Main.java:9: error: cannot inherit from final Vehicle

class Main extends Vehicle {
^
1 error)
Java Polymorphism
Polymorphism means "many forms", and it occurs when we have many classes that are related to each other by
inheritance.
Like we specified in the previous chapter; Inheritance lets us inherit attributes and methods from another class.
Polymorphism uses those methods to perform different tasks. This allows us to perform a single action in different
ways.
For example, think of a superclass called Animal that has a method called animalSound(). Subclasses of
Animals could be Pigs, Cats, Dogs, Birds - And they also have their own implementation of an animal sound (the pig
oinks, and the cat meows, etc.):
Example
class Animal {
public void animalSound() {
49
System.out.println("The animal makes a sound");
}
}
class Pig extends Animal {

System.out.println("The pig says: wee wee");
}
}
class Dog extends Animal {

System.out.println("The dog says: bow wow");
}
}
Remember from the Inheritance chapter that we use the extends keyword to inherit from a class.
Now we can create Pig and Dog objects and call the animalSound() method on both of them:
Example
class Animal {
System.out.println("The animal makes a sound");
}
}

}
}
class Dog extends Animal {

System.out.println("The dog says: bow wow");
}
}
class Main {
Animal myAnimal = new Animal(); // Create a Animal object
Animal myPig = new Pig(); // Create a Pig object
Animal myDog = new Dog(); // Create a Dog object
myAnimal.animalSound();
myPig.animalSound();
myDog.animalSound();
}
}
Why And When To Use "Inheritance" and "Polymorphism"?
- It is useful for code reusability: reuse attributes and methods of an existing class when you create a new class.
Java Inner Classes
In Java, it is also possible to nest classes (a class within a class). The purpose of nested classes is to group classes that
belong together, which makes your code more readable and maintainable.
To access the inner class, create an object of the outer class, and then create an object of the inner class:
50
Example
class OuterClass {
int x = 10;
class InnerClass {
int y = 5;
}
}
public class Main {

OuterClass myOuter = new OuterClass();
OuterClass.InnerClass myInner = myOuter.new InnerClass();
System.out.println(myInner.y + myOuter.x);
}
}
// Outputs 15 (5 + 10)
Private Inner Class
Unlike a "regular" class, an inner class can be private or protected. If you don't want outside objects to access
the inner class, declare the class as private:
Example
class OuterClass {
int x = 10;
private class InnerClass {

int y = 5;
}
}
public class Main {

System.out.println(myInner.y + myOuter.x);
}
}
If you try to access a private inner class from an outside class, an error occurs:
Main.java:13: error: OuterClass.InnerClass has private access in OuterClass

Static Inner Class
An inner class can also be static, which means that you can access it without creating an object of the outer class:
Example
class OuterClass {
int x = 10;
static class InnerClass {

int y = 5;
}
51
}
public class Main {

OuterClass.InnerClass myInner = new OuterClass.InnerClass();
System.out.println(myInner.y);
}
}
// Outputs 5
Note: just like static attributes and methods, a static inner class does not have access to members of the outer
class.
Access Outer Class From Inner Class
One advantage of inner classes, is that they can access attributes and methods of the outer class:
Example
class OuterClass {
int x = 10;
class InnerClass {
public int myInnerMethod() {
return x;
}
}
}
public class Main {

System.out.println(myInner.myInnerMethod());
}
}
// Outputs 10
JAVA Abstract Classes and Methods
Data abstraction is the process of hiding certain details and showing only essential information to the user.
Abstraction can be achieved with either abstract classes or interfaces (which you will learn more about in the next
chapter).
The abstract keyword is a non-access modifier, used for classes and methods:
• Abstract class: is a restricted class that cannot be used to create objects (to access it, it must be inherited from
another class).
• Abstract method: can only be used in an abstract class, and it does not have a body. The body is provided by
the subclass (inherited from).
An abstract class can have both abstract and regular methods:
52
abstract class Animal {
public abstract void animalSound();
public void sleep() {
System.out.println("Zzz");
}
}
From the example above, it is not possible to create an object of the Animal class:
Animal myObj = new Animal(); // will generate an error
To access the abstract class, it must be inherited from another class. Let's convert the Animal class we used in the
Polymorphism chapter to an abstract class:
Remember from the Inheritance chapter that we use the extends keyword to inherit from a class.
Example
// Abstract class
abstract class Animal {
// Abstract method (does not have a body)
public abstract void animalSound();
// Regular method
}
}
// Subclass (inherit from Animal)

// The body of animalSound() is provided here
}
}
class Main {
Pig myPig = new Pig(); // Create a Pig object
myPig.sleep();
}
}
Why And When To Use Abstract Classes and Methods?
To achieve security - hide certain details and only show the important details of an object.
Note: Abstraction can also be achieved with Interfaces, which you will learn more about in the next chapter.
JAVA Interfaces
Another way to achieve abstraction in Java, is with interfaces.
An interface is a completely "abstract class" that is used to group related methods with empty bodies:
Example
// interface
interface Animal {
public void animalSound(); // interface method (does not have a body)
53
public void run(); // interface method (does not have a body)
}
To access the interface methods, the interface must be "implemented" (kinda like inherited) by another class with the
implements keyword (instead of extends). The body of the interface method is provided by the "implement"
class:
Example
// Interface
interface Animal {
public void animalSound(); // interface method (does not have a body)
public void sleep(); // interface method (does not have a body)
}
// Pig "implements" the Animal interface

class Pig implements Animal {
// The body of animalSound() is provided here
}
// The body of sleep() is provided here
}
}
class Main {
Pig myPig = new Pig(); // Create a Pig object
myPig.sleep();
}
}
Notes on Interfaces:
• Like abstract classes, interfaces cannot be used to create objects (in the example above, it is not possible to
create an "Animal" object in the MyMainClass)
• Interface methods do not have a body - the body is provided by the "implement" class
• On implementation of an interface, you must override all of its methods
• Interface methods are by default abstract and public
• Interface attributes are by default public, static and final
• An interface cannot contain a constructor (as it cannot be used to create objects)
Why And When To Use Interfaces?
1) To achieve security - hide certain details and only show the important details of an object (interface).
2) Java does not support "multiple inheritance" (a class can only inherit from one superclass). However, it can be
achieved with interfaces, because the class can implement multiple interfaces. Note: To implement multiple
interfaces, separate them with a comma (see example below).
Multiple Interfaces
To implement multiple interfaces, separate them with a comma:

54
Example
interface FirstInterface {
public void myMethod(); // interface method
}
interface SecondInterface {
public void myOtherMethod(); // interface method
}
class DemoClass implements FirstInterface, SecondInterface {

public void myMethod() {
System.out.println("Some text..");
}
public void myOtherMethod() {
System.out.println("Some other text...");
}
}
class Main {
DemoClass myObj = new DemoClass();
myObj.myMethod();
myObj.myOtherMethod();
}
}
Java User Input (Scanner)
The Scanner class is used to get user input, and it is found in the java.util package.
To use the Scanner class, create an object of the class and use any of the available methods found in the Scanner
class documentation. In our example, we will use the nextLine() method, which is used to read Strings:
Example
import java.util.Scanner; // Import the Scanner class
class Main {
Scanner myObj = new Scanner(System.in); // Create a Scanner object
System.out.println("Enter username");
String userName = myObj.nextLine(); // Read user input

System.out.println("Username is: " + userName); // Output user input
}
}
Input Types
In the example above, we used the nextLine() method, which is used to read Strings. To read other types, look at
the table below:
Method Description
nextBoolean() Reads a boolean value from the user
nextByte() Reads a byte value from the user
nextDouble() Reads a double value from the user
nextFloat() Reads a float value from the user
55
nextInt() Reads a int value from the user
nextLine() Reads a String value from the user
nextLong() Reads a long value from the user
nextShort() Reads a short value from the user
In the example below, we use different methods to read data of various types:
Example
class Main {
Scanner myObj = new Scanner(System.in);
System.out.println("Enter name, age and salary:");
// String input
String name = myObj.nextLine();
// Numerical input
int age = myObj.nextInt();
double salary = myObj.nextDouble();
// Output input by user

System.out.println("Name: " + name);
System.out.println("Age: " + age);
System.out.println("Salary: " + salary);
}
}
Note: If you enter wrong input (e.g. text in a numerical input), you will get an exception/error message (like
"InputMismatchException").
Java Dates & Time
Java does not have a built-in Date class, but we can import the java.time package to work with the date and time
API. The package includes many date and time classes. For example:
Class Description
LocalDate Represents a date (year, month, day (yyyy-MM-dd))
LocalTime Represents a time (hour, minute, second and nanoseconds (HH-mm-ss-ns))
LocalDateTime Represents both a date and a time (yyyy-MM-dd-HH-mm-ss-ns)
DateTimeFormatter Formatter for displaying and parsing date-time objects
Display Current Date
To display the current date, import the java.time.LocalDate class, and use its now() method:
Example
import java.time.LocalDate; // import the LocalDate class
public class Main {

56
LocalDate myObj = LocalDate.now(); // Create a date object
System.out.println(myObj); // Display the current date
}
}
The output will be:
2024-04-01
Display Current Time
To display the current time (hour, minute, second, and nanoseconds), import the java.time.LocalTime class,
and use its now() method:
Example
import java.time.LocalTime; // import the LocalTime class
public class Main {

LocalTime myObj = LocalTime.now();
System.out.println(myObj);
}
}
The output will be:
12:03:43.243303
Display Current Date and Time
To display the current date and time, import the java.time.LocalDateTime class, and use its now() method:
Example
import java.time.LocalDateTime; // import the LocalDateTime class
public class Main {

LocalDateTime myObj = LocalDateTime.now();
System.out.println(myObj);
}
}
The output will be:
2024-04-01T12:03:43.243667
Formatting Date and Time
The "T" in the example above is used to separate the date from the time. You can use the DateTimeFormatter
class with the ofPattern() method in the same package to format or parse date-time objects. The following
example will remove both the "T" and nanoseconds from the date-time:
Example
import java.time.LocalDateTime; // Import the LocalDateTime class
import java.time.format.DateTimeFormatter; // Import the DateTimeFormatter
class
57
public class Main {
LocalDateTime myDateObj = LocalDateTime.now();
System.out.println("Before formatting: " + myDateObj);
DateTimeFormatter myFormatObj = DateTimeFormatter.ofPattern("dd-MM-yyyy
HH:mm:ss");
String formattedDate = myDateObj.format(myFormatObj);

System.out.println("After formatting: " + formattedDate);
}
}
The output will be:
Before Formatting: 2024-04-01T12:03:43.243405

After Formatting: 01-04-2024 12:03:43
The ofPattern() method accepts all sorts of values, if you want to display the date and time in a different format.
For example:
Value Example
yyyy-MM-dd "1988-09-29"
dd/MM/yyyy "29/09/1988"
dd-MMM-yyyy "29-Sep-1988"
E, MMM dd yyyy "Thu, Sep 29 1988"
Java ArrayList
The ArrayList class is a resizable array, which can be found in the java.util package.
The difference between a built-in array and an ArrayList in Java, is that the size of an array cannot be modified (if
you want to add or remove elements to/from an array, you have to create a new one). While elements can be added
and removed from an ArrayList whenever you want. The syntax is also slightly different:
Example
Create an ArrayList object called cars that will store strings:
import java.util.ArrayList; // import the ArrayList class
ArrayList<String> cars = new ArrayList<String>(); // Create an ArrayList object
Add Items
The ArrayList class has many useful methods. For example, to add elements to the ArrayList, use the add()
method:
Example
import java.util.ArrayList;
public class Main {

58
ArrayList<String> cars = new ArrayList<String>();
cars.add("Volvo");
cars.add("BMW");
cars.add("Ford");
cars.add("Mazda");
System.out.println(cars);
}
}
Access an Item
To access an element in the ArrayList, use the get() method and refer to the index number:
Example
cars.get(0);
Remember: Array indexes start with 0: [0] is the first element. [1] is the second element, etc.
Change an Item
To modify an element, use the set() method and refer to the index number:
Example
cars.set(0, "Opel");
Remove an Item
To remove an element, use the remove() method and refer to the index number:
Example
cars.remove(0);
To remove all the elements in the ArrayList, use the clear() method:
Example
cars.clear();
ArrayList Size
To find out how many elements an ArrayList have, use the size method:
Example
cars.size();
Loop Through an ArrayList
Loop through the elements of an ArrayList with a for loop, and use the size() method to specify how many
times the loop should run:
Example
public class Main {
cars.add("Volvo");
cars.add("BMW");
cars.add("Ford");
59
cars.add("Mazda");
for (int i = 0; i < cars.size(); i++) {
System.out.println(cars.get(i));
}
}
}
You can also loop through an ArrayList with the for-each loop:
Example
public class Main {
cars.add("Volvo");
cars.add("BMW");
cars.add("Ford");
cars.add("Mazda");
}
}
}
Other Types
Elements in an ArrayList are actually objects. In the examples above, we created elements (objects) of type "String".
Remember that a String in Java is an object (not a primitive type). To use other types, such as int, you must specify an
equivalent wrapper class: Integer. For other primitive types, use: Boolean for boolean, Character for char,
Double for double, etc:
Example
Create an ArrayList to store numbers (add elements of type Integer):
public class Main {

ArrayList<Integer> myNumbers = new ArrayList<Integer>();
myNumbers.add(10);
myNumbers.add(15);
myNumbers.add(20);
myNumbers.add(25);
for (int i : myNumbers) {
}
}
}
Sort an ArrayList
Another useful class in the java.util package is the Collections class, which include the sort() method for
sorting lists alphabetically or numerically:
Example
Sort an ArrayList of Strings:
60
import java.util.Collections; // Import the Collections class
public class Main {

cars.add("Volvo");
cars.add("BMW");
cars.add("Ford");
cars.add("Mazda");
Collections.sort(cars); // Sort cars
}
}
}
Example
Sort an ArrayList of Integers:
import java.util.Collections; // Import the Collections class
public class Main {

ArrayList<Integer> myNumbers = new ArrayList<Integer>();
myNumbers.add(33);
myNumbers.add(15);
myNumbers.add(20);
myNumbers.add(34);
myNumbers.add(8);
myNumbers.add(12);
Collections.sort(myNumbers); // Sort myNumbers
for (int i : myNumbers) {

}
}
}
Java Iterator
An Iterator is an object that can be used to loop through collections, like ArrayList and HashSet. It is called an
"iterator" because "iterating" is the technical term for looping.
To use an Iterator, you must import it from the java.util package.
Getting an Iterator
The iterator() method can be used to get an Iterator for any collection:
61
Example
// Import the ArrayList class and the Iterator class
import java.util.Iterator;
public class Main {

// Make a collection
cars.add("Volvo");
cars.add("BMW");
cars.add("Ford");
cars.add("Mazda");
// Get the iterator

Iterator<String> it = cars.iterator();
// Print the first item

System.out.println(it.next());
}
}
Looping Through a Collection
To loop through a collection, use the hasNext() and next() methods of the Iterator:
Example
while(it.hasNext()) {
System.out.println(it.next());
}
Removing Items from a Collection
Iterators are designed to easily change the collections that they loop through. The remove() method can remove
items from a collection while looping.
Example
Use an iterator to remove numbers less than 10 from a collection:
import java.util.Iterator;
public class Main {

ArrayList<Integer> numbers = new ArrayList<Integer>();
numbers.add(12);
numbers.add(8);
numbers.add(2);
numbers.add(23);
Iterator<Integer> it = numbers.iterator();
while(it.hasNext()) {
Integer i = it.next();
if(i < 10) {
it.remove();
}
62
}
System.out.println(numbers);
}
}
Note: Trying to remove items using a for loop or a for-each loop would not work correctly because the collection is
changing size at the same time that the code is trying to loop.
Java File
File handling is an important part of any application.
Java has several methods for creating, reading, updating, and deleting files.
Java File Handling
The File class from the java.io package, allows us to work with files.
To use the File class, create an object of the class, and specify the filename or directory name:
Example
import java.io.File; // Import the File class
File myObj = new File("filename.txt"); // Specify the filename
If you don't know what a package is, read our Java Packages Tutorial.
The File class has many useful methods for creating and getting information about files. For example:
Method Type Description

canRead() Boolean Tests whether the file is readable or not
canWrite() Boolean Tests whether the file is writable or not
createNewFile() Boolean Creates an empty file
delete() Boolean Deletes a file
exists() Boolean Tests whether the file exists
getName() String Returns the name of the file
getAbsolutePath() String Returns the absolute pathname of the file
length() Long Returns the size of the file in bytes
list() String[] Returns an array of the files in the directory
mkdir() Boolean Creates a directory
Create a File
To create a file in Java, you can use the createNewFile() method. This method returns a boolean value: true if
the file was successfully created, and false if the file already exists. Note that the method is enclosed in a
try...catch block. This is necessary because it throws an IOException if an error occurs (if the file cannot be
created for some reason):
63
Example
import java.io.IOException; // Import the IOException class to handle errors
public class CreateFile {

try {
File myObj = new File("filename.txt");
if (myObj.createNewFile()) {
System.out.println("File created: " + myObj.getName());
} else {
System.out.println("File already exists.");
}
} catch (IOException e) {
System.out.println("An error occurred.");
e.printStackTrace();
}
}
}
The output will be:
File created: filename.txt
To create a file in a specific directory (requires permission), specify the path of the file and use double backslashes to
escape the "\" character (for Windows). On Mac and Linux you can just write the path, like: /Users/name/filename.txt
Example
File myObj = new File("C:\\Users\\MyName\\filename.txt");
Write To a File
In the following example, we use the FileWriter class together with its write() method to write some text to
the file we created in the example above. Note that when you are done writing to the file, you should close it with the
close() method:
Example
import java.io.FileWriter; // Import the FileWriter class
import java.io.IOException; // Import the IOException class to handle errors
public class WriteToFile {

try {
FileWriter myWriter = new FileWriter("filename.txt");
myWriter.write("Files in Java might be tricky, but it is fun enough!");
myWriter.close();
System.out.println("Successfully wrote to the file.");
} catch (IOException e) {
}
}
}
The output will be:
Successfully wrote to the file.
64
Read a File
In the previous chapter, you learned how to create and write to a file.
In the following example, we use the Scanner class to read the contents of the text file we created in the previous
chapter:
Example
import java.io.FileNotFoundException; // Import this class to handle errors
import java.util.Scanner; // Import the Scanner class to read text files
public class ReadFile {

try {
Scanner myReader = new Scanner(myObj);
while (myReader.hasNextLine()) {
String data = myReader.nextLine();
System.out.println(data);
}
myReader.close();
} catch (FileNotFoundException e) {
}
}
}
The output will be:
Files in Java might be tricky, but it is fun enough!
Get File Information
To get more information about a file, use any of the File methods:
Example
public class GetFileInfo {

if (myObj.exists()) {
System.out.println("File name: " + myObj.getName());
System.out.println("Absolute path: " + myObj.getAbsolutePath());
System.out.println("Writeable: " + myObj.canWrite());
System.out.println("Readable " + myObj.canRead());
System.out.println("File size in bytes " + myObj.length());
} else {
System.out.println("The file does not exist.");
}
}
}
The output will be:
65
File name: filename.txt
Absolute path: C:\Users\MyName\filename.txt
Writeable: true
Readable: true
File size in bytes: 0
Note: There are many available classes in the Java API that can be used to read and write files in Java:
FileReader, BufferedReader, Files, Scanner, FileInputStream, FileWriter,
BufferedWriter, FileOutputStream, etc. Which one to use depends on the Java version you're working
with and whether you need to read bytes or characters, and the size of the file/lines etc.
Delete a File
To delete a file in Java, use the delete() method:
Example
public class DeleteFile {

if (myObj.delete()) {
System.out.println("Deleted the file: " + myObj.getName());
} else {
System.out.println("Failed to delete the file.");
}
}
}
The output will be:
Deleted the file: filename.txt
Delete a Folder
You can also delete a folder. However, it must be empty:
Example
import java.io.File;
public class DeleteFolder {

File myObj = new File("C:\\Users\\MyName\\Test");
if (myObj.delete()) {
System.out.println("Deleted the folder: " + myObj.getName());
} else {
System.out.println("Failed to delete the folder.");
}
}
}
The output will be:
Deleted the folder: Test
JAVA To Add Two Numbers
66
Learn how to add two numbers in Java:
Example
int x = 5;
int y = 6;
int sum = x + y;
System.out.println(sum); // Print the sum of x + y
Add Two Numbers with User Input
Learn how to add two numbers with user input:
Example
import java.util.Scanner; // Import the Scanner class
class MyClass {
int x, y, sum;
Scanner myObj = new Scanner(System.in); // Create a Scanner object
System.out.println("Type a number:");
x = myObj.nextInt(); // Read user input
System.out.println("Type another number:");

y = myObj.nextInt(); // Read user input
sum = x + y; // Calculate the sum of x + y

System.out.println("Sum is: " + sum); // Print the sum
}
}
JAVA To Count Number of Words in a String
You can easily count the number of words in a string with the following example:
Example
String words = "One Two Three Four";
int countWords = words.split("\\s").length;
System.out.println(countWords);
JAVA To Reverse a String
You can easily reverse a string by characters with the following example:
Example
String originalStr = "Hello";
String reversedStr = "";
for (int i = 0; i < originalStr.length(); i++) {

reversedStr = originalStr.charAt(i) + reversedStr;
}
System.out.println("Reversed string: "+ reversedStr);
67
JAVA To Calculate the Sum of an Array
Get the sum of array elements:
Example
int[] myArray = {1, 5, 10, 25};
int sum = 0;
int i;
// Loop through the array elements and store the sum in the sum variable
for (i = 0; i < myArray.length; i++) {
sum += myArray[i];
}
System.out.println("The sum is: " + sum);
Java To Area of Rectangle
The area of a rectangle can be found by multiplying the length of the rectangle by the width:
Example
int length = 5;
int width = 2;
int area = length * width;
System.out.println("Area of rectangle: " + area);
JAVA To Check Whether a Number is Even or Odd
Find out if a number is even or odd:
Example
int number = 5;
// Find out if the number above is even or odd

if (number % 2 == 0) {
System.out.println(number + " is even.");
} else {
System.out.println(number + " is odd.");
}
68

JAVA

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

JAVA

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

JAVA

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

WHAT IS JAVA?

Why Use Java?

JAVA INSTALLATION ON WINDOWS OPERATING SYSTEM

java version "11.0.1" 2018-10-16 LTS

TO INSTALL JAVA ON WINDOWS:

ADEGBOLA TAOFIQ (JAVA)

Write the following in the command line (cmd.exe):

C:\Users\Your Name>java -version

java version "11.0.1" 2018-10-16 LTS

public class Main {

C:\Users\Your Name>javac Main.java

C:\Users\Your Name>java Main

The output should read:

The main Method

public static void main(String[] args)

ADEGBOLA TAOFIQ (JAVA)

public static void main(String[] args) {

The Print() Method

You can also use the println() method to print numbers.

However, unlike text, we don't put numbers inside double quotes:

Single-line comments start with two forward slashes (//).

This example uses a single-line comment before a line of code:

ADEGBOLA TAOFIQ (JAVA)

Java Multi-line Comments

Multi-line comments start with /* and ends with */.

Any text between /* and */ will be ignored by Java.

Variables are containers for storing data values.

In Java, there are different types of variables, for example:

Declaring (Creating) Variables

String name = "John";

ADEGBOLA TAOFIQ (JAVA)

Change the value of myNum from 15 to 20:

int myNum = 15;

A demonstration of how to declare variables of other types:

The println() method is often used to display variables.

To combine both text and a variable, use the + character:

ADEGBOLA TAOFIQ (JAVA)

From the example above, you can expect:

• x stores the value 5

Declare Many Variables

You can simply write:

One Value to Multiple Variables

All Java variables must be identified with unique names.

These unique names are called identifiers.

// OK, but not so easy to understand what m actually is

The general rules for naming variables are:

• Names can contain letters, digits, underscores, and dollar signs

Java Data Types

Data types are divided into two groups:

Primitive Data Types

There are eight primitive data types in Java:

Data Type Size Description

Java divides the operators into the following groups:

Arithmetic operators are used to perform common mathematical operations.

Operator Name Description Example

- Subtraction Subtracts one value from another x-y

* Multiplication Multiplies two values x*y

/ Division Divides one value by another x/y

% Modulus Returns the division remainder x%y

++ Increment Increases the value of a variable by 1 ++x