V.

HEATER DESIGN

A feedwater heater is a power plant component used to pre-heat water

delivered to a steam generating boiler. Preheating the feedwater reduces the
irreversibility involved in steam generation and therefore improves
the thermodynamic efficiency of the system. This reduces plant operating costs
and also helps to avoid thermal shock to the boiler metal when the feedwater is
introduced back into the steam cycle.

In a steam power plant (usually modeled as a modified Rankine cycle),

feedwater heaters allow the feedwater to be brought up to the saturation
temperature very gradually. This minimizes the inevitable irreversibility
associated with heat transfer to the working fluid (water).

The energy used to heat the feedwater is usually derived from steam
extracted between the stages of the steam turbine. Therefore, the steam
that would be used to perform expansion work in the turbine (and therefore
generate power) is not utilized for that purpose. The percentage of the total cycle
steam mass flow used for the feedwater heater is termed the extraction
fraction and must be carefully optimized for maximum power plant thermal
efficiency since increasing this fraction causes a decrease in turbine power
output.

Feedwater heaters can also be "open" or "closed" heat exchangers. An

open heat exchanger is one in which extracted steam is allowed to mix with the
feedwater. This kind of heater will normally require a feed pump at both the feed
inlet and outlet since the pressure in the heater is between the boiler pressure
and the condenser pressure. A deaerator is a special case of the open feedwater
heater which is specifically designed to remove non-condensable gases from the
feedwater.

Closed feedwater heaters are typically shell and tube heat

exchangers where the feedwater passes throughout the tubes and is heated by
turbine extraction steam. These do not require separate pumps before and after
the heater to boost the feedwater to the pressure of the extracted steam as with
an open heater. However, the extracted steam (which is most likely almost fully
condensed after heating the feedwater) must then be throttled to the condenser
Heaters | 193
pressure, an isenthalpic process that results in some entropy gain with a slight
penalty on overall cycle efficiency:

HEATER NO. 1
Inlet Feed Water Temperature: t 18=38.64 ℃
Outlet Feed Water Temperature:t 19=58.71℃
Temperature of steam entering:t 2=68.71 ℃
Temperature of condensate leaving:t 3=68.71 ℃
Mass of steam entering: m2=3.3485 kg /s
Mass of condensate leaving:m3=3.3485 kg /s

Energy Balance:
m2 ℎ 2+ m21 ℎ21=m3 ℎ 3+ m22 ℎ22

Q R=m2 ℎ2 − m3 ℎ3 =m22 ℎ22 − m21 ℎ21

Where,
ℎ2=2425.0584 kJ /kg

ℎ3 =287.578 kJ /kg

Q R=3.3485 kg /s ( 2425.0584 −287.578 ) kJ /kg

Q R1=7,157.3531 kW

A. Length of tube
Q R= AUθ

Where:
t max −t min
θ=
t max
ln ln
t min

t max=68.71− 58.71=10 ℃

t min =68.71− 38.64=30.07 ℃

10 −30.07
θ= ℃
10
ln
30.07

Heaters | 194
 θ=18.223℃

From Power Plant Theory and Design by Potter (Figure 8-23) Page 373 with the
velocity of 2.25 m/s(7.38ft/s); with an average film temperature = t 2 – 0.8 LMTD.

Tℎerefore ,t ave film=68.71 −0.8 ( 18.223 ℃ )=5 4.1356 ℃=129.44408 ℉

Film temperature, ℉ Heat transfer rate, U

Heaters | 195
 100 650

125 700

1 29.44408 U

2
708.88816 BTU 1.055 kJ (3.28 ft) ℎr kW 1000W 1.8 ℉ ℃
U= × × × × × × ×
2
ℎr − ft − ℉ BTU m
2
3600 s kJ /s kW ℃ K

W
U =4 ,02 2.98 2
−K
m

From page 9-74, Fig. 9.4.24 (b), Mark’s Standard handbook for Mechanical
Engineers, 11th Edition with an average water temperature twa= tave film - LMTD.
t wa=5 4.1356 −18.223 ℃=3 5.9126℃=96.6427 ℉

0 0.96
96.6427 Correction Factor
200 1.02

Correction factor 0.9 89

W 1 kW
U =4 ,02 2.98 − K ( 0.9 89 ) ×
m
2
1000 W

kW
U =3. 979 2
−K
m

The required Surface Area:

Q R= AUθ

Heaters | 196
 (
7,157.3531 kW =A 3. 979
kW
m
2 )
− K ( 18.223 ℃ )

2
A=98.7094 m

Use No. 18 BWG Admiralty Metal; Do =2.22 cm, L=1.8 m

A=πDL=π (0.0222m)(1.8 m)
2
A=0.1255 m
2
98.7094 m
No . of tubes= 2
=786.5291
0.1255 m

For two passes,

786.5291
No . of tubes= =393.265 ≈ 394 tubes / pass
2

B. Diameter of the Shell

From Kent’s MECHANICAL ENGINEER’S HANDBOOK, Power Volume p. 9-10

Most condenser manufacturers have adopted combinations of linear

and triangular tube spacing to get the desired steam distribution. Thus, there
is no direct method of calculating the required tube sheet area, but for
preliminary studies it may be assumed that the tubes will occupy between 20
and 25% of the cross-sectional area of the condenser.

Using mean 22.5% = 0.225

0.225 A s= A NT

Where:
π 2
A s= D
4 s

OD = 2.22 cm
ID = 1.97 cm
π 2 π 2
A NT = d n= ( 0.0222 m ) ( 787 tubes )=0.3046
4 4

Then,

Heaters | 197
 0.225 ( π4 D )=0.3046 m
s
2 2

Ds =1.3129 m=131.29 cm

C. Velocity per Tube

Q= AV

Where:
3
m
Q=ms v f 3 =3.3485 ( 1.022 ×10 )=0.00 3422
−3
s
2
π Ds
A=
4
Thus,
2
3 π ( 0.0197 m ) V
0.00 3422 m /s=
4

m
V =11.2268
s

HEATER NO. 2
Inlet Feed Water Temperature: t 19=58.71℃
Outlet Feed Water Temperature:t 20=78.78 ℃
Temperature of condensate entering:t 4=68.84 ℃
Temperature of steam entering:t 5=88.78 ℃
Temperature of condensate leaving:t 6=88.78 ℃
Mass of condensate entering:m4 =3.3485 kg /s
Mass of steam entering: m5=2. 221 kg /s
Mass of condensate leaving:m6=5.5695 kg /s

Energy Balance:
m4 ℎ 4+ m5 ℎ5 + m19 ℎ19=m6 ℎ6 +m20 ℎ20

Q R=m4 ℎ 4 +m5 ℎ 5 − m6 ℎ6

Where,
ℎ 4=288.2087 kJ /kg

Heaters | 198
 ℎ5 =2658.148 kJ /kg

ℎ6 =371.7407 kJ /kg

Q R=3.3485 ( 288.2087 )+2. 221 ( 2658.148 ) −5.5695 ( 371.7407 ) [ kJ /s ]

Q R2=4,798.4037 kW

A. Length of tube
Q R= AUθ

Where:
θ max −θmin
θ=
θ
ln max
θ min

By temp balance:
m4 t 4 +m5 t 5=m6 t wo
3.3485 ( 68.84 )+ 2.221 ( 88.78 ) =5.5695t wo
t wo =76.7917 ℃
θmax =88.78 −76.7917=11.9883℃

θmin =88.78 − 58.71=3 0.07 ℃

11.9883− 3 0.07
θ= ℃
11.9883
ln
3 0.07

θ=19.6626 ℃

From Power Plant Theory and Design by Potter (Figure 8-23) Page 373 with the
velocity of 2.25 m/s(7.38ft/s); with an average film temperature = t 5 – 0.8 LMTD.
Tℎerefore ,t ave film=88.78 − 0.8 (19.6626 ℃ )=73.0499 ℃=163.4898 ℉

Film temperature, ℉ Heat transfer rate, U

150 750

175 850

1 63.4898 U
2
803.9592 BTU 1.055 kJ (3.28 ft) ℎr kW 1000 W 1.8 ℉ ℃
U= × × × × × × ×
2
ℎr − ft − ℉ BTU m 2
3600 s kJ / s kW ℃ K

W
U =4,562.5135 2
−K
m
Heaters | 199
From page 9-74, Fig. 9.4.24 (b), Mark’s Standard handbook for Mechanical
Engineers, 11th Edition with an average water temperature twa= tave film - LMTD.
t wa=73.0499− 19.6626 ℃=5 3.3873 ℃=128.0971 ℉

100 1
1 28.0971 Correction Factor
200 1.02
Correction factor=1.00 56

W 1 kW
U =4,562.5135 − K ( 1.0056 ) ×
m
2
1000 W

kW
U =4.5881 2
−K
m

The required Surface Area:

Q R= AUθ

(
4,562.5135 kW = A 4.5881
kW
m
2 )
− K ( 19.6626 ℃ )

2
A=50.5744 m

Use No. 18 BWG Admiralty Metal; Do =2.22 cm, L=1.8 m

A=πDL=π (0.0222m)(1.8 m)
2
A=0.1255 m
2
50.5744 m
No . of tubes= 2
=402.9833
0.1255 m

For two passes,

402.9833
No . of tubes= =201.4916 ≈ 202 tubes/ pass
2

B. Diameter of the Shell

From Kent’s MECHANICAL ENGINEER’S HANDBOOK, Power Volume p. 9-10
Using mean 22.5% = 0.225
0.225 A s= A NT

Heaters | 200
Where:
π 2
A s= D
4 s

OD = 2.22 cm
ID = 1.97 cm
π 2 π 2 2
A NT = d n= ( 0.0222 m ) ( 40 3 tubes ) =0.15599 m
4 4

Then,

0.225 ( π4 D )=0.15599 m
s
2 2

Ds =0. 9395 m=93.95 cm

C. Velocity per Tube

Q= AV

Where:
3
m
Q=ms v f 6 =2.221 ( 1.0 351 ×10 )=0.0023
−3
s
2
π Ds
A=
4

Thus,
2
3 π ( 0.0197 m ) V
0.0023 m /s=
4

m
V =7. 5458
s

DEAERATOR
Boiler Operating Pressure, P8 = 97.2924 kPa
Mass of condensate entering:m7=5.5695 kg /s
Mass of steam entering: m8=1.1674 kg /s
Mass of feedwater entering:m20=56.9478 kg /s

Heaters | 201
Deaerator Operating Pressure, PC = 0.972924 g

A. Steam Control Valve

Since PC is less than 58% of P8 the steam flow is subjected to critical pressure
drop, so Kv can be calculated from the simpler equation used for critical flow
conditions.
m8=12 K v P8

Where:
m8 = Steam mass flowrate (kg/hr)
Kv = Valve coefficient required
P8 = Pressure upstream of the control valve (bar a)
PC = Pressure downstream of the control valve (bar a)
So,
kg 3600 s kg
m8=1.1674 × =4,202.64
s 1 ℎr ℎr

¯¿
P8= ( 97.2924 kPa+101.325 kPa ) ×1 =1.9862 ā ¿
100 kPa

Thus,
kg
4,202.64 =12 K v (1.9862 ā)
ℎr

K v =170.3267

Tℎerefore ,Use DN 80 valve witℎ a standard K vs of 100.

B. Steam Control Equipment Selection

This control will need to respond quickly to changes in pressure in the deaerator,
and to accurately maintain pressure; a valve with a pneumatic actuator would
operate in the required manner. The pressure sensing and control functions may
be provided either by pneumatic or electronic equipment and the control signal
output (0.2 to 1 bar or 4 – 20 mA) should go to an appropriate positioner.

Equipment Required

● A DN80 two port valve with standard equal percentage trim (Kvs = 100)

Heaters | 202
 ● A pneumatic actuator able to close a DN80 valve against a pressure of

1.28719 bar.

● A pneumatic-pneumatic positioner with mounting kit (alternatively an

electropneumatic positioner with mounting kit)

● A pneumatic controller with a range of 0 – 7 bar (alternatively an

electronic controller and sensor with an appropriate range)

C. Water System Control (Level Control)

Water Supply:
Transfer pump discharge pressure = 2 bar g
Feedtank temperature = 87.5 ℃
kg kg kg
Maximum water flowrate = m7 + m20 = 5.5695 +56.9478 =62.5173
s s s

The pump discharge pressure onto the control valve is 2 bar g. From
steam tables, the specific volume of water at 2 bar g and 87.5 ℃ is 1.0344 x 10-3
m3/kg.
It is important to determine the pressure required behind the water
distribution nozzle to give proper distribution; the control valve selection must
take this into consideration. It is assumed that a pressure of 1.8 bar is required at
the inlet to the distributor nozzle.
The sizing parameters for the water control valve are:
3
kg 3600 s −3 m
V =62.5173 × ×1.0344 ×10
s 1 ℎr kg
3
m
V =232.8044
ℎr

P = 2 bar g
Po = 1.8 bar g
Calculating Kv to determine the size of the control valve for liquid service:

V =K v
√ ∆P
G

Where: V = Volumetric flowrate (m3/hr)

Heaters | 203
 Kv = Valve coefficient required
∆ P = Pressure drop across the valve (bar)
G = Relative density of fluid (water = 1)
So,
m3
232.8044 =K v
ℎr 1 √
2 −1.8

K v =520.5665

Tℎerefore ,Use two DN 150 valve witℎ a standard K vs of 320.

D. Water Control Equipment Selection

Because of the relatively large mass of water held in the deaerator, the
speed of control signal response is not normally an issue, and an electrically
actuated control may provide an adequate solution. However, a pneumatically
actuated control will provide equally as good a solution.
Equipment required:

● Two DN150 two port valve with standard trim (Kvs = 320)

● An electric actuator that will close a DN150 valve against the maximum

transfer pump pressure

● A feedback potentiometer will be needed with the actuator

● A capacitance level probe of appropriate length with a preamplifier

● A level controller to accept the signal from the capacitance probe, and

then pass a modulating signal to the valve actuator.

HEATER NO. 3
Inlet Feed Water Temperature: t 22=98.94 ℃

Heaters | 204
Outlet Feed Water Temperature:t 23=127.96 ℃
Temperature of condensate entering:t 10=98.87 ℃
Temperature of steam entering:t 11=132.96 ℃
Temperature of condensate leaving:t 12=128.68℃
Mass of condensate entering:m10=6. 7369 kg/ s
Mass of steam entering: m11=3.6504 kg /s
Mass of condensate leaving:m12=10.3873 kg /s

Energy Balance:
m10 ℎ 10+ m11 ℎ11 + m22 ℎ22=m12 ℎ12 +m23 ℎ 23

Q R=m10 ℎ 10+ m11 ℎ 11 − m12 ℎ12

Where,
ℎ10=414.3989 kJ /kg

ℎ11 =2727.8714 kJ /kg

ℎ12=540.6827 kJ /kg

Q R=6. 7369 ( 414.3989 ) +3.6504 ( 2727.8714 ) −10.3873 ( 540.6827 ) [ kJ /s ]

Q R4=7,133.3523 kW

A. Length of tube
Q R= AUθ

Where:
θ max −θmin
θ=
θ max
ln
θ min

By temp balance:
m10 t 10+ m11 t 11 =m12 t wo

6. 7369 ( 98.87 ) +3.6504 ( 132.96 )=10.3873 t wo

t wo =110.8502 ℃

θmax =132.96 −1 10.8502=22.1098 ℃

θmin =132.96 − 98.87=34.09℃

Heaters | 205
 22.1098 − 34.09
θ= ℃
22.1098
ln
34.09

θ=27.669 ℃

From Power Plant Theory and Design by Potter (Figure 8-23) Page 373 with the
velocity of 2.25 m/s(7.38ft/s); with an average film temperature = t 11 – 0.8 LMTD.
Tℎerefore ,t ave film=132.96 − 0.8 ( 27.669℃ )=1 10.8248℃=2 31.4846 ℉

Film temperature, ℉ Heat transfer rate, U

225 900

250 1000

2 31.4846 U

2
925.9384 BTU 1.055 kJ (3.28 ft ) ℎr kW 1000 W 1.8 ℉ ℃
U= × × × × × × ×
2
ℎr − ft −℉ BTU m 2
3600 s kJ /s kW ℃ K

W
U =5,254.7523 2
−K
m

From page 9-74, Fig. 9.4.24 (b), Mark’s Standard handbook for Mechanical
Engineers, 11th Edition with an average water temperature twa= tave film - LMTD.
t wa=110.8248 −27.669 ℃=83.1558 ℃=181.6804 ℉

100 1
181.6804 Correction Factor
200 1.02
Correction factor=1.01 63
W 1 kW
U =5,254.7523 − K ( 1.01 63 ) ×
m
2
1000W

kW
U =5.3404 2
−K
m

The required Surface Area:

Q R= AUθ

(
7,133.3523 kW = A 5.3404
kW
m
2 )
− K ( 27.669 ℃ )

Heaters | 206
 2
A=48.2755 m

Use No. 18 BWG Admiralty Metal; Do =2.22 cm, L=1.8 m

A=πDL=π (0.0222m)(1.8 m)
2
A=0.1255 m
2
48.2755 m
No . of tubes= 2
=384.6653
0.1255 m

For two passes,

384.6653
No . of tubes= =192.3327 ≈ 193tubes / pass
2

B. Diameter of the Shell

From Kent’s MECHANICAL ENGINEER’S HANDBOOK, Power Volume p. 9-10
Using mean 22.5% = 0.225
0.225 A s= A NT

Where:
π 2
A s= D
4 s

OD = 2.22 cm
π 2 π 2 2
A NT = d n= ( 0.0222 m ) ( 385 tubes )=0. 149 m
4 4

Then,

0.225 ( π4 D )=0.149 m
s
2 2

Ds =0.9182 m=91.82 cm

C. Velocity per Tube

Q= AV

Where:
3
m
Q=ms v f 12=3.6504 ( 1.0684 ×10 )=0.00 39
−3
s

Heaters | 207
 2
π Ds
A=
4
Thus,
2
3 (V ) π ( 0.0197 m )
0.00 39 m /s=
4

m
V =12.795
s

HEATER NO. 4
Inlet Feed Water Temperature: t 23=127.96 ℃
Outlet Feed Water Temperature:t 24=156.97 ℃
Temperature of condensate entering:t 13=128.79℃
Temperature of steam entering:t 14=161.98 ℃
Temperature of condensate leaving:t 15=140.51℃
Mass of condensate entering:m13=10.3873 kg /s
Mass of steam entering: m14=3.4169 kg /s
Mass of condensate leaving:m15=1 3.8041 kg/s

Energy Balance:
m13 ℎ 13+m14 ℎ14 +m23 ℎ 23=m15 ℎ15 +m24 ℎ 24

Q R=m13 ℎ 13+ m14 ℎ14 −m15 ℎ 15

Where,
ℎ13=541.3236 kJ /kg

ℎ14 =2781.6727 kJ /kg

ℎ15=591.3188 kJ /kg

Q R=10.3873 ( 541.3236 ) +3.4169 ( 2781.6727 ) −1 3.8041 ( 591.3188 ) [ kJ / s ]

Q R5=6,964.9642 kW

A. Length of tube
Q R= AUθ

Heaters | 208
Where:
θ max −θmin
θ=
θ max
ln
θ min

By temp balance:
m13 t 13+ m14 t 14=m15 t wo
10.3873 ( 128.79 ) +3.4169 ( 161.98 )=1 3.8041 t wo
t wo =137.0064 ℃
θmax =161.98 −1 37.0064=24.9736 ℃

θmin =161.98 −127.96=34.02 ℃

24.9736 − 34.02
θ= ℃
24.9736
ln
34.02

θ=29.2641℃

From Power Plant Theory and Design by Potter (Figure 8-23) Page 373 with the
velocity of 2.25 m/s(7.38ft/s); with an average film temperature = t 14 – 0.8 LMTD.
∴ t ave film =161.98− 0.8 ( 29.2641℃ )=1 38.5687 ℃=281.4237 ℉

Film temperature, ℉ Heat transfer rate, U

225 850
250 885

281.4237 U

2
928.9932 BTU 1.055 kJ (3.28 ft) ℎr kW 1000W 1.8 ℉ ℃
U= × × × × × × ×
2
ℎr − ft − ℉ BTU m 2
3600 s kJ /s kW ℃ K

W
U =5 ,272.0884 2
−K
m

From page 9-74, Fig. 9.4.24 (b), Mark’s Standard handbook for Mechanical
Engineers, 11th Edition with an average water temperature twa= tave film - LMTD.
t wa=138.5687 − 29.2641℃=109.3046 ℃=228.7482℉

100 1
200 1.02

Heaters | 209
 228.7482 Correction Factor
Correction factor=1.0 257

W 1 kW
U =5 ,272.0884 − K ( 1.0 257 ) ×
m
2
1000 W

kW
U =5.4076 2
−K
m

The required Surface Area:

Q R= AUθ

(
6,964.9642 kW =A 5 .4076
kW
m
2 )
− K (29.2641 ℃ )

2
A=44.0128 m

Use No. 18 BWG Copper Tube; Do =2.22 cm, L=1.8 m

A=πDL=π (0.0222m)(1.8 m)
2
A=0.1255 m
2
44.0128 m
No . of tubes= 2
=350.6996
0.1255 m

For two passes,

350.6996
No . of tubes= =175.3498 ≈ 17 6 tubes / pass
2

B. Diameter of the Shell

From Kent’s MECHANICAL ENGINEER’S HANDBOOK, Power Volume p. 9-10
Using mean 22.5% = 0.225
0.225 A s= A NT

Where:
π 2
A s= D
4 s

OD = 2.22 cm
π 2 π 2 2
A NT = d n= ( 0.0222 m ) ( 351 tubes )=0. 1357 m
4 4

Then,

Heaters | 210
 0.225 ( π4 D )=0.1357 m
s
2 2

Ds =0 .8763 m=87.63 cm

C. Velocity per Tube

Q= AV

Where:
3
m
Q=ms v f 15=3.4169 ( 1.0 803 ×10 )=0.00 369
−3
s
2
π Ds
A=
4
Thus,
(V )π ( 0.0197 m )2
0.00 369 m3 /s=
4

m
V =1 2.1061
s

Heaters | 211