Sabs 0306

WC/WDM Implementation Guidelines for WSIs DRAFT
March 2002
CHAPTER 3 : DISTRIBUTION MANAGEMENT
3.1 Water Audit
Related Strategy Objective: Objective 3 – Ensure adequate information to support decision
making.
Scope
The planning framework guidelines provide guidance on the water audit necessary to derive the
several components of demand and assumption (section 4.2.2 and Table 4.3). In sections 4.3.3 to
4.3.8, methodologies for quantifying the losses in each component of a water supply and
distribution network are given.
This section provides further pertinent information that will assist in undertaking water audits
with the aid of the Water Audit Report (WAR) provided with SABS 0306:1999.
Definitions, Terminology, Abbreviations
A water audit is a comprehensive method to determine water “loss”. It is a management tool used
to:
⇒ reduce water and revenue losses
⇒ reduce inefficiencies
⇒ plan renovations
⇒ evaluate operations
⇒ evaluate water rates.
Principles
A water audit computer program is provided with the South African Standard Code of Practice
SABS 0306: 1999 and described in Chapter 8 and Annexure M of the Code. The water audit
computer program facilitates the conducting of a water audit in a standardised manner and
includes the following:
• an inventory of water related infrastructure
• demographics of consumers
• composition of the water services authority’s organisation
• measurements of water volumes and flows
• statistics derived from the data
• performance evaluation and water balance for the whole water services authority
• detailed sensitivity analysis that facilitates the conducting of a detailed water audit over the
cycle.
Compiling a water audit requires completion of a step-by-step process. Each step of this process
in turn involves various administrative, institutional, organisational and communication processes
that must be managed.
General Approach and Methodology
Box 3.1 SABS 0306 Water Audit Report (WAR)
1 IDENTIFICATION
Water Supply Authority Name: Enter the authority name in full, e.g. Cape Town Metro.
Completed by, telephone no, Postal address: The name, telephone number and postal address of the
person responsible.
Report period: Give the start and end dates of the previous financial year or any other period if data is
not available for a full year.
Guideline Manual for WSIs 3.1

EJ/dg Chapter 3 Distribution Management
March 2002
2 POPULATION
If the population at the previous census information is unknown, an estimate is entered as well as an
explanation why census information was not available, and how the population was estimated.
Population: Give the total number of residents.
Change since previous census: The difference (number) between the above population and the
population as at the previous census is given.
3 PIPE LENGTH
Total length of Mains (km) - The lengths of all mains owned by the authority.
Total length of Connections (km): Refer to Code of Practice Clause 6.1.2.2.
4 PROPERTY INFORMATION
Property information: A breakdown of the number of even/stands/plots, and the total area in hectares,
for domestic, commercial, industrial, recreational, institutional and other use is given. This data is used
for establishing unit leakage rates for comparative purposes.
Quantities for agricultural use are included. If other usage is substantial, explanation of what it is also
provided.
Number of domestic properties: Total of all domestic properties in town is required.
5 METERS
Metered connections (No.): This is established from billing record. This also includes all small and
large meters.
Unmetered connections (No.): An indication of the extent of one component of unaccounted for water.
Stand pipes (No.): An indication of the level and type of service provided.
Stopped meters removed (No.): An indication of the level of service provided together with the data above.
Inaccurate meters removed (No.): An indication of the extent of meter problems and/or level of
productivity of Water Division.
Average No. meters read per month: An indication of the level of productivity in conjunction with other
data.
6 STAFF DETAIL
Number of employees in Water Division: The total employees on the Water Division's payroll is
required. (Including admin) This includes leak detection staff, if any, but excludes support staff, e.g.
Town Engineer, and admin. Staff in Treasury.
Number of employees in dedicated leak detection teams: Indication of the level of dedicated leak
detection.
7 WATER VOLUME
Total annual water supplied (m³): This is the volume of water purchased / raw water brought in by the
authority, before purification or distributed by the authority.
Total annual metered water delivered (m³): As measured at metered connections & metered
standpipes.
Total annual metered domestic consumption (m³): Describe how this was determined (See 3.1
Definitions in the Code of Practice).
Total annual industrial & commercial usage (m³):
Average Daily Demand (ADD) (m³):

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8 FINANCIAL INFORMATION
Total annual amount spent by Water Division (R): Includes all operating and maintenance costs as well
as cost of water and cost of leak detection and control.
Total annual amount spent on Leak Detection & Control (R): Including cost of labour, travelling,
materials etc. (i.e. included in total amount spent by Water Division above)
Cost of water purchased (R): As a component of total amount spent by Water Division above.
Billed: Metered Consumers: Value of consumer meters billed.
Billed: Other: (e.g. flat rate) Value of other consumers billed.
Revenue Received: Total value of money collected.
Total volume water billed (m³)
Water tariff (R/m³): A breakdown of consumption ranges and the tariff for each range is required.
9 RESERVOIRS
Reservoir Name: The name of the Reservoir is required.
Capacity (Ml): The total capacity of the Reservoir measured in Ml.
Spill: Water spill measured in masl - Mean Average Supply Level (or m³).
Date Tested: Date on which the Reservoir was tested.
Leakage Rate (m³/day)
Previous Date Tested: The Date on which the Reservoir was last tested. (I.e. drop test etc.)
Previous Leakage Rate (m³/day)
10 MANAGEMENT INFORMATION
How are stopped & inaccurate meters detected?
What has been done to reduce the UAW in the last financial year?
What is planned to reduce the UAW since the last financial year? Refer to Code of Practice Clause 4.
What has been done to reduce the number of unmetered connections in the last financial year?
What is planned to reduce the number of unmetered connections since the last financial year?
What has been done to detect & reduce water pressure in high-pressure areas in the last financial
year?
What is planned to detect & reduce water pressure in high-pressure areas since the last financial
year?
How was the minimum night flow determined? Refer to Code of Practice Clause 5.1, Figure 6.2,
Annexure C.
Explain assumptions & calculations of how high pressure areas were determined.
DETAIL PER AREA
Detail should be supplied for each district, sub-district and zone. Refer to Code of Practice Clause 4.3.
See Figure 4, for a typical structure for a water distribution system.
Where areas are not subdivided in smaller areas, data must be provided up to the smallest area
available, e.g. if there are no zones defined for a sub-district, data must be provided up to sub-district
level. If no districts are defined, at least one district record should be created and data must be entered
for the whole authority.
Each district, sub-district and zone is to have a unique number or code of up to eight characters to
identify it. These values must be entered when adding a record, and cannot be changed afterwards.

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11 DISTRICT, SUB-DISTRICT & ZONE INVENTORY

The Area names are allocated according to the Code of Practice.
The form will reflect the data related to that specific District, Sub-District or Zone.
District No: A unique number or code of up to eight characters is used to identify the district.
Sub-district No: A unique number or code of up to eight characters is used to identify the district.
Zone No: A unique number or code of up to eight characters is used to identify the zone.
District Name: A name for the district is required.
Main consumer type: The main consumer type for this district is selected from the list.
Area (ha):
Population (No):
Total No of Properties: Refer to 4.3.
Total pipe length (km): Refer to 6.1.2.2.
Predominant pipe material:
Mains
Connections
Estimated pipe age (year)
No of metered connections:
No of unmetered connections:
No of stand pipes:
No of management meters:
In
Out
Known regular night flow consumers: List of all the known night flow consumers. (i.e. factories or
hospitals)
Minimum Night Flow measurements: (as measured at the meter)
Minimum night flow readings (m³/hr) for each of the last 12 months, for each of the last four quarters,
or whatever other periods they are available are entered. For each reading, the reading date, and the
time of the MNF are given.
12 DISTRICT, SUB-DISTRICT & ZONE MEASUREMENTS
The Area names are to be allocated according to the Code of Practice.
The form reflects the data related to that specific District, Sub-District or Zone.
Net Minimum Night Flow at xxx kPa (m³/hr):
Average Daily Demand (m³/day)
Annual volume water supplied (m³)
Annual volume delivered to metered connections (m³)
High pressure area (above xxx kPa) (ha)
Minimum Night Flow measurements: (as measured at the meter)
Enter minimum night flow readings (m³/hr) for each of the last 12 months, for each of the last four
quarters, or whatever other periods they are available are entered. For each reading, the reading
date, and the time of the MNF are given.

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13 STATISTICS
All information shown has already been entered in other sections. The District, Sub-district or Zone
buttons to display the statistics for all Districts, Sub districts or Zones.
The comparative ratios available are:
ADD: NMNF Ratio = ADD / 24 / NMNF
Specific loss (Ls) = NMNF / Total pipe length (m³/hr/km)
ADD: Metered volume = ADD / Total volume measured at metered connections
NMNF: Metered volume = NMNF / Total volume measured at metered connections
Leakage = NMNF / No of Properties * 1000 (l/prop/hr)
14 PERFORMANCE EVALUATION
All the values on this screen are calculated from values entered on previous screens.
15 WATER BALANCE
All the values on this screen are calculated from values entered on previous screens.
CONCEPTS AND THEORY

Detailed Water Audit
A detailed water audit can be conducted utilising the internal sensitivity analysis provided in the
WAR program in SABS 0306. Conducting this detailed audit facilities of those functions within
the water services authority that require addressing.

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1. Measure of supply
1.1 Uncorrected total volume supplied (m³)
Total water supplied from all sources for the audit period.
1.2 Adjustments: The sum of the following three items:
• Meter Error (+/-). Errors that were detected during calibration exercises of the
measuring devices are used to establish adjustment factors for the historic data.
• Change in storage (+\-). If the measuring device is situated upstream of a storage dam or
service reservoir, then an increase in storage requires a negative adjustment and vice
versa.
• Other contributions/losses. Such as non-metered sources and losses prior to reaching the
distribution system.
1.3 Adjusted total water supply
Calculated by the WAR program as Uncorrected total volume supplied + Adjustments.
2. Measure of metered use
2.1 Uncorrected total metered water use
From billing records for the period.
2.2 Adjustments due to meter reading lag (+/-)
Correction required because meter readings do not coincide with the period under consideration.
This is undertaken by establishing the prorate water use from measured consumptions that
coincide with the start and end of the period.
2.3 Metered water delivered
Calculated by WAR program as (2.1) + (2.2)
2.4 Meter and system error
• Domestic meter error
Error adjustments for the various flow usage ranges. Adjustment values can be established
from routine maintenance and testing records or the results from sample surveys.
• Bulk (management) consumer meter error
Error adjustment as per in-situ calibration results. (See Suggested Further Reading).
2.5 Corrected total use
Calculated by WAR program as (2.3) + (2.4)
2.6 Total unmetered water
Calculated by WAR program as (2.5) - (1.3)
2.7 Authorised unmetered use
• Fire fighting & training. Obtained from estimates or measurements routinely provided by
the fire department.
• Mains flushing/testing. Obtained from maintenance records.
• Sewer cleaning. The use of portable metered hydrant standpipes can facilitate measurement
of these water volumes.
• Public parks. If unmetered estimates should be provided on a regular basis by the
respective department.
Other e.g. street cleaning fountains public swimming pools, etc.

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In order to reduce the uncertainty of estimating water use, portable metered standpipes could be
issued to various departments and contractors, on receipt of a deposit. Monthly meter readings
should be submitted by long-term users such as other municipal departments while the volume of
water used for short-term users can be established on return of the metered standpipe to the
Depot/Maintenance Section.
Where tankers are used, an administration process should be implemented to record and report on
the volumes delivered for the particular reporting period.
2.8 Total water losses (i.e. unauthorised)

Calculated by the WAR program as (2.6) - (2.7)
2.9 Identified water losses
• Accounting procedure errors
Misread meters, incorrect calculations and overlapping periods (meter lag adjustments).
Organisational procedures required to determine these errors must be carefully and
consistently co-ordinated and managed.
• Unauthorised connections
Established from surveys that are guided by a process that involves a detailed examination of
billing and other municipal records.
• Malfunctioning automatic valves
Maintenance records of control and pressure reducing valves.
• Reservoir leakage
Determine from regular water level drop tests measured with micrometer hook gauges when
the supply to and from the reservoir is shut.
• Reservoir overflows
Records from telemetry system and/or weir overflow instrumentation.

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• Distribution leakage
Established from leak detection programmes and maintenance systems.
• Theft
As identified from vandalised fire hydrants.
2.10 Potential water system leakage (2.8 - 2.9)
Generally, more water is lost than can be accounted for. This missing water is potential
leakage.
3. Costs (R/m³)
3.1 Purchase cost of most expensive supply
Recovering leakage reduces the amount of water purchased from this supply.
3.2 Operating & maintenance cost
3.3 Total cost per unit (3.1 + 3.2)
4. Unaccounted for water (UFW)
4.1 UFW – Uncorrected (1.1 – 2.1)
4.2 UFW – Corrected (1.3 – 2.5)
4.3 Unit cost of UFW (based on billings)
Calculated by WAR and based on an apportioning process and average tariff determined
from volume and amount billed.
4.4 Unit cost of UFW (based on cost recovery)

from the volume of billed water and revenue received.
5. Cost of leakage (based on billings)
5.1 Unit cost of leakage
from the volume and amount billed.
5.2 Total cost of leakage
Calculated by WAR for the reporting period.
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Performance Evaluation (2)
Values calculated by WAR and used to determine the unit costs of UFW and leakage based on an
apportioning process (see Suggested Further Reading).
Cost Framework
Initial cost Ongoing cost Relative cost Risk/Confidence
R250 (WAR in SABS 0306) Dependant on effort for each Dependent on effort for
step of audit each step of audit
Reference:
SABS South African Standard Code of Practice. The management of potable water in distribution
systems. SABS 0306:1999.
Suggested Further Reading
American Water Works Association (1990). Water Audits and Leak Detection. AWWA Manual
M36.
Johnson EH (1995). Field evaluation of large in-line flow meters. Water SA Vol. 21 No. 2, pp
131-138.
Johnson EH (1999). In-situ calibration of large water meters. Water SA Vol. 25 No. 2, pp 123-
135.
Johnson EH (2000). A methodology for prioritising and financial evaluation of physical and non-
physical water losses. WISA Biennial Conference, Sun City.
Wallace LP (1987). Water and Revenue Losses: Unaccounted-for Water. AWWA Research
Foundation.
3.2 Flow Measurement
Related Strategy Objective: Objective 1: Implement efficient distribution management measures
(Meter Management).
3.2.1 General Requirements
Scope
The purpose of this section is to set out the basic principles of flow metering for WC&WDM
purposes, within the context of the metering required for general operation and management
purposes and the procedure for making necessary improvements where required.
The terminology used in this section follows SABS 0306 (section 4.3.1) in relation to meter
function within a network, in order of decreasing size:
Bulk supply
District
Sub-district (typically 2,000 – 10,000 connections)
Zone (not more than 2,000 connections)
Consumer
In small systems the bulk supply, district and even sub-district may be a single supply area.
It may be noted when referring to literature from other countries, that the term "district meter
area" may be equivalent to sub-districts or zones in SABS 0306.

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Principles
Complete and competent flow measurement from "source to tap" is a pre-requisite of effective
water supply and distribution management as well as of WC/WDM.
Whilst this manual is primarily focused on the requirements of WC/WDM, the importance of
metering in relation to the all of the functions of a WSI cannot be over-emphasised and it is
appropriate therefore to consider these factors when considering the provision of new meters.
The process of planning, design and installation of a complete metering system in the context of a
comprehensive system, operational and management review is illustrated in Fig 3.1.
The concept of sub-dividing the supply and distribution system into districts and zones is well
established operational management practice. As far as WC/WDM is concerned, a complete
hierarchy of bulk, district, zone and consumer metering provides the necessary degree of
redundancy that enables a check to be made on water losses - both physical and non-physical,
revenue and non-revenue.
The metering itself must be sufficiently competent to be relied upon in undertaking loss
assessments and in developing water loss control programmes.
The objective is to establish a substantially complete and competent metering hierarchy which
would have meters at/on:
• all raw water abstraction points
• water production from treatment plants
• bulk imports and exports
• feeds into different supply areas, such as outlets from service reservoirs
• within the distribution system into districts or zones
• on all consumer connections including public standpipes, municipal take-offs such as
parks
New meters need to be designed and installed in accordance with sound principles with regard to
size and type. Refer section 3.2.3.
Existing meters need to be checked against the same guidelines and, if there is any doubt as to
their accuracy, a calibration check should be undertaken.
Typical faults that can be found in meter installations include:
• meters which under-record at all flow rates (generally due to age and wear)
• meters which are oversized and therefore under-record low flows, being outside the
manufacturers declared range of accuracy
• meters which fail to record low flows altogether
• old meters recording gallons, but being read in litres
• ultrasonic or magnetic meters which have been incorrectly installed, particularly wiring
faults
• pump running hours used to measure flow
• no meter on fire main by-pass
• theft of water by meter disablement or use of by-pass
Information to be held on all meters, in addition to the flow information, must include:
• manufacturer and model type
• manufacturer's serial number

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• size
• date of installation
Water meters do not retain their accuracies nor remain at one location during their useful lives.
Monitoring any deterioration in accuracies, planned removal and testing as well as recording,
processing and reporting of any movements, refurbishments and repairs must be provided for
(also refer to the section on Asset Management).
Theory
Not applicable
Procedure for Implementation - System Meters
Step 1 Examine system schematic and determine omissions from full hierarchy of system
metering
Step 2 Check information held on meters and identify omissions
Step 3 Survey existing meters, rectify data omissions and undertake calibration checks
Step 4 Design, procure and install additional / replacement / refurbished meters
Step 5 Allocate reference numbers to meters as SABS 0306, create new or update existing
meter database
Calibration checks may require the installation of temporary meters such as insertion or clamp-on
types. If it is planned to undertake hydraulic modelling then this check may be done in
conjunction with the field testing for model calibration. Otherwise calibration can take the form
of drop tests on reservoirs or pump sumps.
Procedure for Implementation - Consumer Meters
Step 1. Examine existing meter database for data completeness*
Step 2. Establish age profile of meter stock
Step 3. Establish size profile of meter stock
Step 4. Check sizes against recorded use
Step 5. From (2), (3) and (4) make best estimate of meter accuracy
Step 6. Depending on competence of existing meter database devise and implement meter
survey
Step 7. Devise and implement meter replacement programme, to include new meters on
connections not presently metered
Step 8. Devise and implement meter management programme (refer section 3.3.2)
Step 9. Create new or update existing meter database
* If meter installation dates are not known, a guide can be the meter manufacturer's serial
number, which can give the date of manufacture, to which should be added an appropriate
allowance for the time in store.
Procedure for Maintenance and Sustainability
1. Carry out physical check on bulk system meters annually
2. Calibrate bulk system meters every 5 years
3. Renew consumer meters periodically according to meter management programme (refer
section 3.3.2)
4. Establish and implement procedures for updating meter databases
References and Further Reading
SABS 0306 (1999) The Management of potable water in distribution systems
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Figure 3.1: Flow chart for water management district programme
1. INVESTIGATION
OF NEEDS
DESIGN OF WATER DESIGN OF OPERATIONS SIZE & LINKING WATER OPTIMISATION

RETICULATION SUPPLY & POSITION OF USAGE TO TYPES OF ZONE TYPE
SYSTEMS MAINS MAINTENANCE RESERVOIRS OF CONSUMPTION & POSITION
2.INVESTIGATION OF EXISTING ZONES

REQUIREMENTS TO
SATISFY THE NEEDS
3.EXAMINATION OF
EXISTING SYSTEM
PROPOSED ZONES
CHECK EXTENT OF SATISFY IDEAL ADJUST TO SUIT WATER METHODICAL DESIGN

METER POSITION METER TYPE CHECK METER REGULARITY POPULATION TOWN PLANNING
PRESENT ZONES REQUIREMENTS REQUIREMENTS USAGE CHECKING OF METERS
SYSTEM OF READINGS INFORMATION
CHARACTERISTICS
5.DESIGN OF UTILIZE EXISTING

SYSTEM TO DATA DATA
MEET NEEDS FILTERING
DEFINITION OF DETAILED METHOD FOR 4.MAINTENANCE OF

ZONE BOUNDARIES ANALYTICAL PROCESS EXISTING SYSTEM
NETWORK DEFINE SERIES &

ANALYSIS FINANCE FOR
FUNCTIONS
MAINTENANCE PROGRAMME
CALIBRATION POPULATION AND LAND

OF NETWORK USAGE PER ZONE APPLICATION OF EXISTING REPLACEMENT OF OLD
MAINTENANCE PROGRAMME OR REMOVED METERS
SELECTION OF DETERMINE
METER & SYSTEMS RELATIONSHIPS
ROUTINE MAINTENANCE
OF METERS
POSITION OF METER APPLY COMPUTER
PROGRAMS & ANALYSE
ADMINISTRATIVE PROCESS
AND FEEDBACK
OBTAIN FINANCE COMPILE REPORTS
TENDERS-PURCHASE
OF METERS
8.RUNNING OF
6. INSTALLATION SYSTEM
OF NEW SYSTEM
INSTALLATION PHYSICAL DEFINITION ADMINISTRATIVE

RECORDING CHECKING DATA INTERGRATING ANALYSIS OF
OF METERS OF ZONES PROCESS FOR UPDATING
OF DATA DATA FEEDBACK
COLLECTION OF DATA
BUILDING OUTPUT
CONSULTANT CONTRACTOR CLIENT
TO SATISFY NEED
OPERATIONS & VERIFICATION

7.MAINTENANCE OF DESIGN PLANNING
MAINTENANCE OF RESULTS
NEW SYSTEM
1.INVESTIGATION OF
NEEDS
DETAILED MAINTENANCE & TRAINING PROGRAMME

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3.2.2 District and Zone Metering

Scope
This section describes how a district metering scheme is devised and implemented. It also covers
the acquisition and collation of data. The use of the data in water loss control is described in
section 3.2.
Refer 3.2 for definition of districts and zones.
Principles
An accurate meter on any feed into supply, regardless of the size of the supply area or district,
can be used to estimate the amount of water loss, both by mass balance and night flow methods.
It will also monitor the effectiveness of a water loss control programme. But if the area of supply
and of search is large, then the effectiveness will be limited and efficiency will be relatively low.
The benefit of metered sub-districts and zones is well established.
Table 3A shows the advantages and disadvantages of “open” and zoned system management.
Table 3A: System management alternatives
System Advantages Disadvantages
Open Maximises use of network Different water sources and quality mixing.
hydraulically
Problems of pressure balancing and
fluctuations.
Poor system information for operation and
management purposes.
Poor system control.
Zoned Water source and quality mixing Fire flow restriction (need for emergency
controlled, less consumer complaints. procedure).
Facilitates pressure management. Makes less effective use of overall
hydraulic capacity.
Facilitates leakage and water loss
management.
Good system control and ability to
localise operating interventions.
Good system information usable in
general management, rehabilitation
planning, etc.
Apart from narrowing the area of search for individual sources of water loss, a flow meter on a
zone which has less than 2,000 connections maximum, preferably less than 1,000, can enable the
occurrence of a new leak to be identified, which if prompt repair is activated will lead to a lower
level of leakage.
Sub-division of an existing open network involves the creation of discrete districts and zones by
closing key valves to isolate the district / zone from adjacent areas and to provide meters that
enable the flow in and out of district / zone to be measured. This should be done on the basis of:
• ease of isolation by closing a small number of valves
• minimum number of meters required – ideally one flow inlet only, but if necessary more than
one inflow and export meters
• maintaining satisfactory supply to consumers.
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A number of DMA’s/zones will be identifiable by examining record plans of the network. These
will generally be in rural or outer suburban areas. In urban centres and inner suburbs, however,
there will be insufficient understanding of the hydraulic spectrum of the system to be able to
determine zone boundaries without disruption to the pressure regime.
In such cases “temporary zoning” may be adopted and by a process of trial and error it may be
possible to convert some of those to permanent zones.
To be able to design robust zones in areas of complex connectivity requires the use of hydraulic
models, effectively conducting the trial and error process by mathematical simulation.
Potential problem areas to be aware of include:
(i) areas of low pressure,
(ii) where essential supplies must be maintained, both of which may be adversely affected by
installing flow meters, or by closing valves and diverting supply, and
(iii) maintenance of fire flows.
Boundary valves
Unless there is a maintenance regime for regular checking the operability of valves, it is likely a
number of boundary valves will not be drop tight and will need to be replaced.
The boundary valves provide the integrity of the zone and should not be opened except in
emergency, e.g. large fire demand, or if development requires the reconfiguration of the zone.
Unfortunately, not withstanding instructions given in this regard, valves may be tampered with or
opened in unauthorised action by operations personnel, despite the use of red paint markings or
polyurethane foam fill. If this is likely to be or found to be a problem, one solution is to create an
above ground inter-zone correction as shown in Figure 3.2.
Figure 3.2: Separation point between management districts
FIRE HYDRANTS
SEPARATION POINT BETWEEN

MANAGEMENT DISTRICTS

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District Boundaries
A boundary should be designed not only to encompass the recommended number of properties,
but also to cross as few mains as possible. The boundary should follow the “line of least
resistance” by using natural geographic and hydraulic boundaries. The aim here is clearly to
minimise the cost of installation, operation and maintenance.
Small mains should be crossed in preference to large ones; later reference to the network model
will define those mains where a closed valve may replace a meter.
Where possible, trunk mains and large distribution mains (greater than 300 mm) should be
excluded from districts to avoid costly meter installations, and more importantly, to improve the
accuracy of flow information. Where a large proportion of the flow entering a district passes out
again to other parts of the system, the accuracy of the estimate of demand in that district is
relatively poor. This is because changes in inflow and outflow could imply large changes in
district demand but in fact be solely due to compounded errors in metering.
Trunk mains and other large mains can be avoided by drawing adjacent district boundaries
parallel to the main and metering the smaller distribution mains where they join the trunk main.
This exercise is made easier if all mains larger than 300 mm are highlighted on the map. There
will clearly be cases where this is uneconomic due to large numbers of smaller mains leaving the
trunk main. The decision must then be made to:
a) meter the trunk main, or
b) if only small distribution areas are being served by the trunk main, exclude them from the
district metering system, and use mobile water loss metering or non-metering methods of
leakage control.
Some distribution systems include small supply systems closed by district valves, or pressure
zones created by pressure reducing valves or natural hydraulic conditions. In these cases district
boundaries already exist and demand can be monitored by installing a meter at the input to the
zone or by using the source meter, if this will provide the necessary discrimination.
Where such self-contained supply systems contain service reservoirs or water towers,
measurement of district demand will have to take account of the change in level in the reservoir.
It will generally be found that the existing level measuring equipment is unsatisfactory for
determining demand as it is designed to measure the quantity of water in the reservoir rather than
the rate of change of level.
It is possible to uprate the level measuring equipment but it is likely that only in the smallest of
service reservoirs and in water towers will there be sufficient discrimination to detect small
changes in leakage. It will therefore usually be necessary to meter the inlet and outlet of such
reservoirs.
Data capture
Routine monitoring of a district meter falls into three categories:
i) reading the meter (manually or electronically);
ii) using a data logger;
iii) linking the meter to a telemetry system.
• Meter reading: This method, in its simplest form, provides cumulative demand figures only
if read manually. Cumulative readings from those meters with a mechanical register are
recorded weekly. One or two personnel (depending on safety conditions, and whether or not
heavy covers have to be lifted) can read typically 40 meters per day. As a first stage, meter
readings are recorded in a notebook, or by means of a portable data capture device (electronic
notebook). Later these readings may be transferred to a simple graph or wall chart, or to a
data file stored on a computer.

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Sometimes it is worthwhile to read cumulative meter readings at night, as one of the duties of
the night survey team, and in small networks with one meter per district, it is possible to
extend this practice so that night demand is recorded for half an hour or more during the
period of minimum night flow especially when no data loggers are available. This
necessitates taking demand readings twice, and simultaneously reading large metered
consumers to obtain the net night flow.
The addition of a simple encoder counter or outreader to the meter greatly enhances meter
reading. The outreader can be installed in a small chamber remote from the meter and
connected by ducting to an inductive interface fitted to the meter. Meter reading becomes a
one-person operation. Safety is improved by eliminating the need to lift heavy meter chamber
covers, and, in some dangerous locations, limiting the time in the area.
Other instruments have hybrid registers that combine the proven mechanical register with the
latest electronic meter data capture technology. Because the mechanical register works totally
independently of the electronics, the meter reading is guaranteed, even if the electronics
should fail.
The extremely high integrity of the remote reading is guaranteed using an inductive shaft
encoder. Compatibility with existing data transmission systems is ensured by retaining the
standard optical pulser interface.
The electronic data interface provides additional useful information for management purposes
including the following:
⇒ Actual meter reading
⇒ Momentary flow rate at the time of interrogation
⇒ Maximum flow rate (programmable)
⇒ Minimum flow rate (programmable)
⇒ Volume in reverse flow (independent of reading)
⇒ Meter serial number
⇒ Annual key data value (to synchronise several meter readings at different locations)
⇒ Statistical values (last 12 months).
This register is battery operated but has a long battery life of over 8 years. The collection and
manipulation of data from these registers is assisted by hand-held electronic devices (e.g.
“Husky” or “Radex”) and readily available software.
This option is favoured by most water authorities for the ongoing monitoring of management
meters.
• Data loggers: There are several ways in which data loggers can be used to enhance still
further the quality and quantity of flow data. The methods employ either ad hoc or
continuous data logging.
The use of a data logger on an ad hoc basis allows extra demand information, particularly
night demand, to be gained, so that leakage can be distinguished from a temporary increase
in demand. Logging requirements are influenced by district demand characteristics.
Continuous data logging can be implemented in conjunction with modems and transmission
facilities such as land lines or cellular phones as a cost effective telemetry (remote
monitoring) system. The greatest advantage of adopting this approach is that the logger
retains the data when the transmission system fails. Various data logger hardware and
software systems are readily available. When selecting a particular make of data logger
system, emphasis must be placed on the compatibility of the various components of the
system. The meters, pick-ups, data loggers, registers and software should be well tried and
tested as a complete system as well as include the latest innovative technology.
March 2002
For ad hoc use, the following factors influence the number of loggers needed:
i) The maximum number of meter sites per district. This includes not only source meters
and district boundary meters, but also all the large metered consumers identified as
being significant during the initial work.
ii) The number of districts which are monitored simultaneously.
iii) Anticipated or planned frequency of night flow measurement.
iv) The numbers of staff for monitoring and the size of the area covered.
In continuous mode, one logger per meter site is necessary if on-site interrogation is
practised, twice this number if loggers are removed from site for interrogation.
Methodology for Implementation
Step 1 Identify possible districts and zones using maps, mains records and site inspection.
Undertake preliminary demand analysis.
Step 2 Note low pressure areas, critical consumers, high fire risk premises.
Step 3 Check operability of proposed zone valves, replace if necessary. Alternatively, install
above ground inter-zone connection.
Step 4 Isolate zone and monitor pressures, both within zone and beyond as appropriate.
Step 5 Review and repeat as necessary.
Step 6 Analyse demands, size, specify, procure, design and install meter installation.
Step 7 Commission meter and check that zone is tight (zero pressure test).
Step 8 Identify conventional boundary valves with permanent marker system, e.g. red paint,
polyurethane foam chamber filling.
Step 9 Mark up record drawings with boundary valves (special symbol) and meter(s).
Methodology for Maintenance and Sustainability
There are two distinct components of system maintenance:
i) ensuring that original design criteria of the districts are met and any changes recorded; and
ii) maintenance of plant and equipment.
District maintenance: This is a response to changes in supply and distribution within the system
which may influence the operation of a district, particularly data interpretation. There may be a
consequential need to amend the district metering scheme if changes are significant.
Potential changes to the system are:
i) changes in zone boundaries;
ii) new supply connections; and
iii) changes in operation.
• Changes in zone boundaries: These occur mainly as a result of the reallocation of pressure
zone boundaries resulting from a pressure reduction exercise or an extension of the supply
area.
It will be necessary to re-route the boundaries of affected districts, following the design
criteria previously discussed. Other components of the system operation, such as record
keeping and data interpretation, will also be affected, and appropriate actions are listed
below:
i) Update mains maps to show new district boundary and boundary crossings.

March 2002
ii) Record new closed district valves, or district valves which have changed status and are now
open.
iii) Record new meter positions – update meter records for meter type, and number, calibration
factor, main diameters, etc.
iv) Check whether existing meters are affected by new design criteria (e.g. changes in flow
range, flow direction). If necessary install a new meter or closed valve.
v) Update property counts.
vi) Update records of industrial and commercial users. Review numbers of large users who
should be data logged. Review significance of other metered users and non-metered
commercial users on district demand.
vii) Revise district gross and net flow data in the calculations. Add or remove meters and note
effect of change of direction of flow in or out of a district.
viii) Reappraise district cost data and demand levels.
• New supply connections: There are two implications of new supplies within a district:
i) an increase in the number of properties; and
ii) an increase in boundary crossings by new mains.
New domestic properties must be added to the district property count. New
industrial/commercial metered or unmetered properties must be recorded, graded to the
appropriate category, and monitored.
Where new supplies are laid across a boundary between adjacent districts, the new main
should be metered or valved if there is a supply from an alternative source. If a new main is
laid across a boundary which does not join two districts, the boundary is extended to
encompass the new area of distribution. Mid-block water mains in dense developing areas
should also be carefully investigated. New meters should be installed and appropriate meter
records updated.
• Changes in operation: Flow changes within a district, or between districts, can significantly
affect the interpretation of flow data.
Changes to the flow pattern fall into two categories:
(i) Permanent changes
Increase or decrease in pressure: The effect of pressure on demand and leakage is well-
known. Any permanent change to system pressures should be followed by night demand
measurement and a repeat achievement of base levels of leakage.
Changes in pumping: Additional or reduced pumping may affect the range of flow through
the district meter. A pump switching on and off during supply operation may cause a change
of direction, e.g. by gravitation. Correspondence changes in flow rate, velocity, and flow
direction may require a new meter.
Rezoning: Sudden changes in demand by rezoning, or by changes in population or industry
may affect the flow range of the meter and flow direction.
(ii) Temporary changes: As with permanent system changes, pressure, flow rate, and flow
direction can also be affected in the short term during normal operation of the distribution
system. Examples of these changes are:
⇒ sub-division of the district by valving during leak detection and location;
⇒ valving during routine operations such as repairs, cleaning, or renovation;
⇒ temporary changes in demand caused by population fluctuation or cyclic industrial
demand patterns.

March 2002
These should be recorded as awareness of such activities will affect data interpretation.
Maintenance of plant and equipment:
i) routine maintenance and fast repair of any defects minimise loss of data;
ii) regular calibration of flow meters to ensure they are maintained within accuracy limits
(refer to SABS 0306: 1999 Clause 10.3), and
iii) regular maintenance of the associated flow logging and data transmission equipment to
ensure that adequate monitoring levels are achieved.
Cost framework
Initial cost Ongoing cost Relative cost Risk/Confidence
R150 000 (for district R15 000 p.a. 100% (with respect 95% confidence
of 1000 connections) to metering)
Reference and Suggested Further Reading
(See next section).
3.2.3 Water meter types, applications and selection
Scope
This section provides a comparison of the commonly available water meters, an indication of
some of their applications as well as details/references of how to select and correctly size water
meters.
Accuracy: The closeness of the actual reading to the true value.
Accuracy curve: The signature curve of a meter that is established under laboratory conditions
for a particular type of meter illustrating the relative change accuracy of measurement as the rate
of flow through the meter changes.
Principles
There are no universally suitable flow meters for all applications and it is important to choose the
one that meets nearly all the requirements for a particular installation. Different types of meters
have different accuracy curves defining the change in accuracy as the rate of flow of the water
changes. This accuracy curve related to a flow range defines the meter’s performance
specification.
Generalised accuracy (signature) curves for a mechanical turbine, electronic ultrasonic,
differential pressure averaging pitot and differential pressure orifice plate are illustrated in Figure
3.3.
15
% Difference of Actual Flow
10
TURBINE
Diamond-Shape AVERAGING PITOT
0 ULTRA SONIC (Time of flight)
ORIFICE PLATE (100mm T-type)
-5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Flow Rate % of Maximum Flow
Figure 3.3 : Flow meter accuracy curves

March 2002
There are two main categories of meters, viz. those that extract energy from, and those that add
energy to the flow. Examples of those that extract energy from the flow are Differential Pressure,
Turbine (e.g. velocity), Vortex, Averaging Pitot and Positive Displacement meters. Meters that
add energy to the flow are Electromagnetic, Ultrasonic and Thermal types.
The meters most commonly used in the Water Industry are:
• Positive Displacement
• Velocity (incl. Woltmann, Single and Multi Jet)
• Electromagnetic
• Differential Pressure
• Vortex
• Ultrasonic
A comparison of these various types of meters is given in Table 3B(a).
Table 3B: Comparison of water meter types
Water meter types
Parameters Positive Electro- Differential
Velocity Vortex Ultrasonic
Displacement magnetic Pressure
Error (%) ± 0.2 to ±1 ±0.2 to ±0.5 ±0.2 to ±1 ±0.5 to ± 1 ±1 over ±1 to ±2
measurement
(under ideal
range
conditions)
over over over over over over
measuremen measurement measurement measurement measurement
Re 20000
t range range range range range
Linearity (%) ±0.5 to ±1 ±0.1 to ±0.3 ±0.5 to ±1 Dependent on ±1 ±0.1 to ±1
over differential
over over over over
measuremen pressure
measurement measurement measurement measurement
t range measurement
range range range range
Repeatability (%) ±0.02 to ±0,2 ±0.1 to ±0.2 Dependent on ±0.1 to ±1 ±0.2 to ±1
±0.5 over differential
over over over
measuremen pressure
measurement measurement measurement
t range measurement
range range range
Operational turn 100 to 150:1 10 to 250:1 10 to 100:1 3 or 4:1 4 to 40:1 5 to 100:1
down ratio
(hydraulics)
Pressure drop at 1-2 velocity 1-2 velocity Minimal 4-6 velocity 1-2 velocity Minimal
maximum flow heads heads heads heads
Minimum velocity 0.8 0.2 Below 0.1 Depends on About 0.4 0.1
(m/s) maximum
(with sensors
velocity
in contact with
water)
Maximum velocity 9 5 12.5 8 9 10
(m/s)
Diameter (mm) 5 to 600 3 to 1000 2 to 3000 6 to 2600 12 to 300 6 to 3000
Flow direction Bi- Uni- Bi- Some meters Uni- Bi-directional
directional directional directional bi-directional directional

March 2002
Water meter types

Parameters Positive Electro- Differential
Velocity Vortex Ultrasonic
Displacement magnetic Pressure
Number pipe 5 to 20 0 5 to 10 5 to 80 1 to 40 10 to 50
diameter required
upstream
Number pipe 3 to 10 0 0 to 5 5 to 8 5 2 to 5
diameter required
downstream
Filter requirement Required Required Not required Not required Not required Not required
Installation costs 3 3 3 2 to 4 3 1 to 3
Calibration costs 4 3 3 1 to 4 3 1 to 3
Operation costs 3 3 1 2 to 3 3 1
Maintenance costs 4 3 3 2 to 3 3 3
Spares costs 4 4 3 1 to 3 3 2
* Note:
Cost Ratios:
1 signifies low (i.e. least costly)
5 signifies high (i.e. most costly)
The meters most commonly selected for small diameter pipes (i.e. less than 300 mm diameter) are
velocity and positive displacement meters. The meters most commonly selected for large
diameter pipes (i.e. greater than 300 mm diameter) are electro-magnetic and differential pressure
meters.
Concepts
Ultrasonic meters are prone to inaccuracy on treated water mains because they rely upon
particulate matter, air bubbles or other entrained elements for their operation. It may be found
necessary to replace ultrasonic meters with electro-magnetic or mechanical turbine types. Basic
installation faults on electro-magnetic and ultrasonic meters, caused by inexperienced installation
personnel, are also not uncommon, resulting in significant meter reading error.
The performance of hydraulic restriction meters (differential pressure) – venturi, dall tube, orifice
plate – as well as older designs of electro-magnetic meter, may also be poor, especially at low
flows. Inaccuracies of up to 25% are not uncommon.
In South Africa, mechanical water meters (i.e. velocity and positive displacement) smaller than
100 mm diameter are specified and their use controlled in terms of SABS 1529 (1994) and the
Trade Metrology Act.
Temporary Metering
Even with a fully metered system of permanent installations, temporary metering will be
necessary if hydraulic modelling is implemented. Calibration of system and major customer
meters may also require temporary metering.
Temporary meter types are: ultrasonic clamp-on and insertion meters (electro-magnetic and
turbine). Ultrasonic clamp-on types have the advantage of not interfering with the pipe, but may
not be sufficiently accurate for the reasons previously given and compounded by the need to
know the precise internal bore of the pipes to calibrate the signal. Insertion meters require skilled
use in “flow profiling” and the turbine type suffers from significant wear rates.

March 2002
As with many technologies, there are frequent new product launches and refinements which mean
that specifications and equipment are continually subject to change.
Data Loggers and Pulse Units
One of the most significant opportunities, in distribution system management, in recent years has
come with the development of inexpensive, robust and reliable data loggers.
Loggers are electronic devices capable of capturing data from flow meters and/or pressure
sensors. They enable continuous records of flow through meters to be produced without the need
for telemetry. This provides the data necessary for proper management of the distribution system,
particularly in the control of leakage.
The following factors need to be taken into account when considering the specification of
different makes and types of logger:
• Memory configurations – for example:
⇒ Logs until memory full
⇒ Barrels (continuous roll-over memory) – i.e. when memory is full, logging continues
but the oldest data is overwritten
⇒ When full, the logger time setting changes to the next longest period and the existing
data is recalculated into the new period format.
• Memory capacity.
• Logger time intervals, e.g. 30 seconds to 60 minutes.
• Flow sensor types supported, e.g. pulse heads.
• Battery life – long life non-rechargeable batteries have been found to be more satisfactory
than rechargeable batteries.
• Logger casing waterproofed to a specified standard, e.g. IP68.
• Need for dual channel loggers, i.e. capable of logging pressure as well as flow.
• Window displays – not all loggers have visual display facilities.
• Method of downloading and software available for storage and analysis of data.
Mechanical meters now generally have a magnetic coupling between the undergear and the
reading register. A pulse unit is a device that generates electrical pulses and is fitted between the
magnetic drive and the reading register of the meter. The electrical pulses are transmitted to a
logger and converted into flow measurement.
Factors Affecting Meter Installations
SABS 1529 (1994) and the Trade Metrology Act, 1973 specify the metrological characteristics of
mechanical water meters and meters with mechanical measuring elements and electronic
indicators. Once these minimum requirements are met, the deciding factor used for the selection
of management/district meters and associated systems in a developing area are related to the
following:
• Environmental considerations: The environment in which the meter is to be operated and
maintained has a great influence on the final choice of a particular meter make and model.
The prevalence of lightning has a major impact on disruption to the monitoring of flow with
the aid of electronic based metering devices.
• Maintenance/operational requirements: The installation of a by-pass around the meter
installation facilitates maintenance and operations without interruption to supply.

March 2002
• Institutional considerations: Mechanical meters are more applicable to the maintenance

capabilities of a developing area where electro-technical maintenance teams are not available
within the institution or expensive to hire from outside the organisation.
• Hydraulic considerations: The operation of old water supply and distribution systems usually
has evidence of debris within the water. Mechanical meters are particularly susceptible to
damage through large particles in the water. This problem can be alleviated through the
installation of a screen/sieve/filter upstream of the meter.
• Security considerations: Innovative ways of securing and protecting meters and associate
equipment is required in areas with high crime and vandalism. Cognisance should be taken
on the efficient use of the time on site during collection of data as well as during maintenance
and operational efforts. This will ensure personnel’s visits are limited in frequency and
duration without any reduction in the quality and continuity of data obtained.
• Telemetry (remote monitoring): Allows both day and night demand to be continuously
monitored, enabling the bursts to be detected and repaired more quickly. It also provides the
means of preparing management reports through proprieting software packages provided
with the data loggers.
Communication problems, unreliable equipment and software “bugs” have tended in the past
to corrupt the data bases of telemetry systems with the result the information derived is
useless for the purposes with which it is intended. There is a definite need for a reliable, low
maintenance, user friendly remote monitoring system.
Theory
The selection of a water meter for a required duty is complex and the consequences of an
incorrect selection are loss of performance, time and money which contributes to the non-
physical loss of water.
Selection of the most suitable type and size of meter for a particular application requires the
matching of the water demand associated with the application to the performance specification
and other parameters of a water meter. This water demand can be determined theoretically,
empirically or through a combination of both. There is a continuum of methods for the selecting
water meters as described in Table 3B(b).
Table 3B(b): Meter selection methods, applications and data sources
Method Application Data Sources
Theoretical Provisional meter selection for Average demands - “Red book” (1991)
planning and design exercises for (Management Meters) - Van Schalkwyk (1997)
new installations
Average demands - SABS 0252 (1994)
(Buildings) - BS6700 (1987)
Instantaneous peak demands - “Red book” (1991)
(Management Meters) - Booyens (2000)
- Johnson (1999)
Peak demands (buildings) - SABS0252 (1994)
Minimum demands - SABS0306 (1999)
- WRc (1980)
Semi-empirical First approximation of a meter Average demands - Existing meter readings
(theoretical) replacement for an existing or consumptions from
installation associated with billing system
preliminary maintenance surveys Instantaneous peak demands
As per Theoretical
- method above
Minimum demands As per maintenance
- records or theory

March 2002
Method Application Data Sources

Empirical Detailed maintenance surveys to Average, minimum and - Electronically logged
reduce “lost” water due to maximum demands data of demand profiles
incorrectly sized existing meters Seasonal adjustment to Manually read hourly
-
demand profiles meter readings
Monthly billing records
-
Methodology
A simplified (generic) methodology for the selection of water meters is as follows:
Step 1 - Determine average water demand for the particular installation.
Step 2 - Establish peak (maximum) water demand and whether fire flow is to be included.
Step 3 - Establish the minimum water demand (usually related to minimum night flows).
Step 4 - Compare the flow range determined in steps 1 to 3 with the manufacturer’s
specification for various water meters.
Step 5 - Determine the energy head loss for the meter corresponding to the maximum flow
established in step 2 and establish if it is within the hydraulic requirements of the
installation.
Step 6 - Consider the purchase and installation cost for the meter selected and other
financial considerations.
This is an iterative process that in practice could involve numerous sub-steps within each step. An
example of a comprehensive computerised meter selection system is described by Johnson (2001)
and covers all the methodologies mentioned in Table 3B(b) and was applied in the case history
detailed in Box 3.2.
Typically it is found that the meter will be smaller than the main in which it is to be inserted,
requiring tapers to be fitted. Rule of thumb with mains operating at normal velocities is that the
meter diameter will be about two-thirds of the pipeline, e.g. 200 mm meter in a 300 mm diameter
main. Notwithstanding manufacturers’ claims as to low flow accuracy, generally it is desirable to
try to maintain low flows above 0.5 m/s and below 3.0 m/s to achieve acceptable accuracy.
Box 3.2 Case History of the Implications of Installation of Incorrectly Selected Water Meters
In 1997, a consortium that included Meinecke do Brazil undertook a pilot project for SABESP for the change-out of 354 bulk
consumer meters in São Paulo.
Starting with available billing data and the meter database, the consortium selected a total of 354 high-priority meters to be
evaluated. Site inspections and data logging followed. With the use of meter sizing software, replacement meters were
selected. These were installed. Follow-up logging was undertaken to confirm that the selection and sizing was correct:
Results of pilot study:
• 6 meters were undersized (larger meters were fitted)
• 248 meters were oversized – comprising 70% of all meters (smaller meters were fitted – including 27 combination meters)
• 100 meters were correctly sized (but not necessarily accurate, a few were renewed/recalibrated, most were replaced).
Payback:
• Billed consumption increased by 2,000,865 m³ in the first year
• The average payback on the capital outlay was 2 months
• In 83 cases, the payback was less than 1 month.
Source: Bold (2001)

March 2002
Cost framework
Ongoing
Initial cost (complete) Relative Cost Risk/Confidence
Cost
R 1 500 (domestic connection) R150 p.a. 1% of establishing a district 99% confidence
R15 000 (150 dia) R1 500 p.a. 10% of establishing a district 95% confidence
References and suggested further reading

Bold BE (2001). Applying the Latest Technology to Improve Water Supply Systems. African
Water Conference, Midrand.
British Standards Institution BS6700 (1987). Design, Installation, Testing and Maintenance of
Services Supplying Water for Domestic Use Within Buildings and their Curtilages.
British Standards Institution BS7405 (1991). Selection and Application of Flow Meters for the
Measurement of Fluid Flow in Closed Conduits.
Booyens JD (2000). Spitsvloei in Munisipale Waterverspreidingnetwerke. M.Eng in Civ. Eng.
Rand Afrikaans Univ.
Department of Planning, Provincial Affairs and Housing (1991). Guidelines for the Provision of
Engineering Services and Amenities in Residential Township Development (Red Book). Prepared
by the Division of Building Technology, CSIR.
Johnson EH (1999). Degree of Utilisation – The reciprocal of the peak factor. Its application in
the operation of a water supply and distribution system. Water SA 25 (1) 111-114.
Johnson EH (2001). Optimal water meter selection system. Water SA, Vol. 27, No. 4.
Miller RW (1989). Flow Measurement Handbook. McGraw-Hill.
South African Standard Specification SABS 0252-1 (1994). Code of Practice Part 1: Water
Supply Installations for Buildings.
South African Standard Specification SABS 1529-1 (1994). Water meters for cold potable water,
Part 1: Metrological characteristics of mechanical water meters of nominal bore not exceeding
100 mm.
Van Schalkwyk A (1996). Guidelines for the Estimation of Domestic Water Demand of
Developing Communities in the Northern Transvaal. Water Research Commission Report No.
480/1/96.
WRc (1985). District Metering Part 1: System Design and Installation. England.
WRc (1987). District Metering Part 2: System Operation. England.
3.3 Reducing Physical Losses
3.3.1 Leakage Control - General
Scope
The purpose of this section is to identify some of the factors that influence leakage/wastage, detail
methods of leakage control and provide an indication of the effectiveness of the various control
methods.

March 2002

Wastage: Water that, having been obtained from a source and put into a water distribution
system, leaks or is allowed to escape or is taken therefrom for no useful purpose.
Leakage: That part of the unaccounted-for water that escapes through defects in the
infrastructure other than as the result of a deliberate or controllable action over a
specified period.
“Passive” leakage control is practised when leaks that are reported by the general public or by
operations personnel on general duties are repaired promptly.
“Active” leakage control (ALC) is the practice of seeking out and then promptly repairing leaks
that have not been reported, generally, although not necessarily, those that are not
visible.
Factors influencing leakage and wastage
There are various factors that cause water leakage from potable water supply and delivery
systems and these can be summarised as follows (SABS 0306: 1999):
• Water pressure, there is a hydraulic relationship between pressure and the flow rate for a
particular size hole in the pipe. The higher the pressure, the higher the flow rate.
• Soil types, various soils such as clays are subject to movement as the moisture of the soil
varies. This mechanical movement can cause fractures in pipes and fittings. The
corrosiveness of soils also has an influence on pipe materials.
• Climate, variations in temperature, rainfall, humidity all have an effect on the structural and
chemical characteristics of the asset.
• Traffic vibrations induced by vehicles have an effect on the asset through mechanical
movements.
• Pipe materials and condition, the original quality of the material and coatings have an effect
upon rate of occurrence and magnitude of leaks. The standard of workmanship involved with
the installation of the piping systems and terminal water fittings is also an influencing factor.
• Other resources, adequate skilled human resources as well as financial resources will
facilitate the management of leakage control and therefor reduce the leakage levels.
• Corrosion potential of the pipe and soil systems together.
The classification of water losses and some of the reasons for these losses are illustrated in Figure
3.4.
Basic Principles
There is often a failure to appreciate that time is fundamental to the practice of leakage control,
whether “passive” or “active”. When a leak occurs, its discovery and repair may be a matter of
hours only in the case of a major burst that causes loss of supply and/or flood damage. But other
leaks may run for many months or years before discovery. Even quite small leaks can lose very
considerable quantities of water if they run for many years. Consequently the objective of leakage
control is: to minimise the time between a new leak occurring and its repair. This is illustrated in
Fig 17 in SABS 0306.
In a reticulation system new leaks are occurring all the time, at a rate dependent on the factors
previously mentioned. This phenomenon is known as the “natural rate of leak propagation and
when considered in conjunction with the time factor means a water loss control programme must
comprise two stages:
1) reducing losses to a practicable/economic level
2) keeping them there, permanently.

March 2002
There are many examples of good results from one-off campaigns as (1). Unfortunately a not
insignificant number of indicatives fail to be sustained as in (2).
FIGURE 3.4 : CLASSIFICATION OF WATER LOSSES
DISTRIBUTED WATER
CONNECTIONS
LEAKAGE
LEGAL CONNECTIONS
REGISTERED CONNECTIONS
(50mm < DIAMETER < 150mm)

WITH WATER METER
PRIMARY DIST. SYSTEM

HOUSE CONNECTIONS
(DIAMETER > 150mm)

WATER METER READ
(DIAMETER < 50mm)

SECONDARY DIST.
NO REGISTERED CONNECTION
WATER METER WORKING
ILLEGAL CONNECTIONS
NO METER READING
NO WATER METER
UNDER REGISTER
INFLUENCE AIR
NOT WORKING
REGISTERED CONSUMPTION
TAMPERING
BYPASS
CONSUMPTION LEAKAGE
USED WASTE
LEAKS
SYSTEMS ITEM LOCATION REASON
CLIMATE
PIPE WALL METHOD OF PROF SKILL
TRANSPORT
PIPES PIPE LAYING SUPERVISION
JOINTS INTERNAL
PRESSURE
DISTRIBUTION VALVES
CORROSION EXTERNAL
FITTINGS
HOUSE
MATERIAL PRODUCTION
CONNECTIONS
STORAGE
TRANSPORT

March 2002

Methods of leakage control
Leakage control can be applied to the following main group of assets:
• Service reservoirs and water retaining structures.
• Large dedicated supply pipelines with few or no off-takes.
• Water distribution networks.
In all cases, the activity comprises the three stages of:
1. estimating the amount of loss
2. locating the source(s) of loss
3. stopping the loss by repair or operational control.
The time between (2) and (3) is a measure of the effectiveness of the control methodology and
procedures adopted.
In water distribution networks, the basic methods of leakage control employed comprise:
• passive leakage control
• active leakage control
• pressure management.
3.3.2 Service Reservoirs
Leakage from a reservoir is determined by isolating the reservoir for 24 hours or more and then
measuring the drop in water level to within 5 mm, which will produce a measurement of the
leakage with an error of 0,25 percent of capacity or less. If it is only possible to isolate the
reservoir for a maximum period of two hours, then depth readings to an accuracy of ± 0,3 mm are
required. Typical discrimination for submersible pressure and level transducers for this function
is 0,2 mm for 300 mm span or 0,5 mm for 1 metre span are required.
Service reservoir leakage is expressed either as a quantity per day or as a percentage of capacity
leaking away per day.
Overflow or spillage from reservoirs can be detected by either visual inspection or specifically
constructed weirs that are calibrated in conjunction with the reservoir level measuring equipment.
3.3.3 Large Supply Pipelines
One simple commonly used method is by means of a by-pass meter. Two valves on the trunk
main are selected and closed. A tapping is made on either side of the upstream valve and a meter
connected between the tappings. Any leakage on this section will be registered on the meter. This
method does not require any sophisticated equipment but care must be taken to ensure that the
valves used are fully closed.
A method that does not take the trunk main out of supply is one whereby insertion meters are
installed on the inlet and outlet of the trunk main. By comparing upstream flow (or velocity) with
downstream flow (or velocity) over a range of flows it is possible to determine the degree of
leakage between the two measurement points.
For the detection of leaks of 10 mm per second or greater, analysis of a plot of the upstream
velocity versus downstream velocity is undertaken. For leaks between 3 and 10 mm per second
the measurement needs to be repeated with the meters exchanged and analysis is undertaken with
the aid of a computer program.
Whatever technique is used to determine a leakage the problem still remains in locating it.
Various methods can be employed such as: walking the main to look for signs of water, changes
in the colour of grass or other vegetation, etc.; sounding valves and fittings for leakage noise;
use of chemicals as tracers, etc.
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3.3.4 Passive Leakage Control

This method makes no attempt to measure and detect leaks but only to repair those leaks which
are visible and reported, or those found as a result of complaints of low pressure, or of no water,
or of noises in the internal system. Most water undertakings repair visible leaks and this method
of control is not normally effective in reducing unaccounted for water to a high degree. It is
usually found that areas of high visible leaks are also areas of high invisible leaks.
Notwithstanding the limitations of the method, it can vary in its effectiveness according to the
practises of the water undertaking, essentially in relation to the time taken between the burst
being reported and its repair. A water undertaking that claims to practice passive leakage control
should have appropriate records and should be monitoring the activity. In simple terms, this just
comprises a report logging system that allocates an incident number which is then linked to the
repair “job”. The measure of performance is the average time between report (whether internal or
from consumer/third party) and repair.
3.3.5 Active Leakage Control
In active leakage control (ALC) the objective is to identify, locate and repair leaks that are not
reported. When moving from passive control to active control, there is firstly the need to catch up
on the backlog of non-reported leaks and then to establish a maintenance regime that will prevent
a return to the status quo and suppress the “natural rate of leak propagation”.
The location of leaks under ALC falls into three types:
a) routine
b) intelligent search
c) monitored zones.
The routine method involves leak detection, generally by acoustic methods, across the whole
network in sequence. Typically this might have a one or two year cycle. No distinction is made
between one part of the network and another.
Intelligent search is a natural progression from routine in which leak location is targetted with
greater frequency in areas that are known to be more troublesome, effectively where there is a
higher natural rate of leak propagation.
The fundamental weakness of both of these methods is that the leak detection teams do not have a
target to work to. In intelligent search the effort is more focused and should therefore be more
productive in terms of water saved per Rand cost of resources deployed, but is inevitably less
efficient and effective than monitored zones.
The use of district and particularly, zone metering enables the areas of highest leakage to be
identified and an estimate of the amount of leakage to be made. The leak detection team have
therefore a target to work to and need not search the whole area once the necessary
number/severity of leaks have been found.
District metering
The metering of districts, sub-districts and zones are dealt with in detail within the metering
chapter.
In zone metering, the objective is to reduce the zone size so that the occurrence of a new leak
will be significant in relation to the flow at night and the accuracy of the meter.

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There are two district stages in ALC using monitored zones:

1. The zone must be installed. This comprises the design of the zone and its meter(s), the
installation of the meter(s) with data loggers and the checking/addition of boundary valves
(trial valving). The work required to install a zone should not be under-estimated. During this
process errors and omissions in mains records often become apparent, boundary valves are
found to be faulty and have to be repaired or replaced. There are no short-cuts.
2. After successful installation the zone is then established. This commences with the
interpretation of the logger data from the meter and setting of initial targets, i.e. what is a
reasonable minimum night flow (ref. Water audit calculation) [or indeed total daily flow in
case of high leakage area], and how many leaks are we looking for? Leaks are then detected
and repaired and the achievement both in terms of total volume and reduction in specific loss
computed, which comprises the “first pass”.
Success in some zones may come early on, but in others the results may be disappointing despite
considerable time and effort being deployed in several passes. In older areas which have mains
that are “fragile”, initial repairs reduce the total demand, resulting in an increase in pressure that
merely triggers new leaks. If this is repetitious then a very relaxed target for the zone may have to
be accepted and/or it is scheduled for rehabilitation.
In the case of leaks detected on the consumer’s side of the stop cock, waste notices should be
issued and rigorously followed up.
It is emphasised that once initial zone establishment is achieved, DMAs must be
continuously monitored and prompt action taken to locate and repair any new leaks
identified. This zone maintenance requires a lower level of activity than zone establishment, but
is nevertheless additional to the situation pre-project and will require some organisational change
and additional resources, paid for out of the ongoing savings being made, with a net financial
benefit to the authority.
Leak Detection Techniques
“Finding the needles in the haystacks”
Several methods are available and in each location different methods/makes of equipment seem
to be more successful. Often this comes down to the personal preference/aptitude of the personnel
concerned. The engineer in charge of the leakage control effort should, however, keep an open
mind.
Leak detection methods include:
step testing
direct sounding of fittings
leak-noise correlation
ground microphone
acoustic loggers
Specialist techniques are available for detecting leaks in trunk mains (which typically have a low
noise level), but the first step in leak detection in trunk mains and overflow at service reservoirs is
to scrutinise bulk meter data. Hydraulic modelling may well point the way to identifying an
anomaly.
Step Testing
A method that is used in conjunction with sub-district and zone metering is step testing. In this
method, sections of the zone are isolated at night by closing intermediate valves in sequence,
whilst reading the zone meter. In a section with significantly higher than average leakage, the
reduction in flow through the zone meter will be greater than in a section without significant
leakage. This appears as a “step” in the flow trace.

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The three basic types of step tests are detailed below:

i. Christmas Tree: This method gives a reverse opening sequence whereby valves are
closed in a predetermined sequence commencing at a point the furthers from the
monitoring point. When a significant drop in flow or increase in pressure occurs then the
location of the leak can be assumed to be between the two previous set of valves operated
upon.
This method may not be practical in situations where low night flows are of very short
duration.
ii. Open and Close: This is a method where each section is turned off and on again for a
brief period so that the supply is interrupted for only a short time. The results are much
more difficult to analyse but the procedure may be necessary to better maintain supplies
for essential services.
iii. Double Locking: For this test, as the metered supply is cut off to a section an alternative
supply is made available from outside the district. This is ideal where it can be arranged
but requires more labour and an assurance that all valves, not only the boundary valves,
close drop-tight.
Step testing is not recommended for old, badly maintained reticulation networks where the
operation of valves can result in excessive maintenance and rehabilitation costs. In such
situations, acoustic loggers obviate the requirement for step testing as valve operations are not
required.
Similarly if there is high general leakage then distinct steps may not appear on the flow trace.
Since step testing only reduces the area of search, it is still necessary to employ specific leak
location techniques to pinpoint the leak(s) within the step tested section.
Acoustic Methods – General
The sound of water escaping from a defect has been the basis of leak location for many decades
and remains the basis of most modern methods. It will be appreciated that the nature and intensity
of the noise is dependent on the characteristics of the defect aperture and how much water is
escaping (imagine a whistle). Unfortunately it is the smaller leaks that generally make more noise
than the larger ones and in a high leakage area that has not been tackled previously, it is often
advisable to start with the tried and tested method of sounding all fittings and usually checking
inside all valve, hydrant and meter chambers. Once this has been done and the repairs completed,
more sophisticated methods can then be effective.
Sounding
Fittings on water mains and service connections are “sounded” by inspectors. This sounding is
basically listening for the characteristic noise of leaking water using a form of stethoscope or an
electronic listening device with amplifier. Other acoustic devices include a geophone/ground
microphone that registers the vibration generated by the leak. Leak sound correlations are used to
identify, by interpolation, the location of a leak between two points on the water main to which
sensors are attached. Leak noise correlators are most effective on metallic pipes, on AC/FC and
uPVC pipes the sensors must be closer together and interpretation of the readouts requires greater
skill.
Acoustic (noise) Loggers
Acoustic (noise) loggers are strategically placed within the distribution network on valves and
hydrants. The loggers are pre-set to record during the period that coincides with the minimum
night flow, when background noise is likely to be lower. Noise amplitude will vary due to
random effects, but there is always a consistent minimum due to the constant noise of leakage.
Noise generated by a leak tends to have reasonably consistent loudness (amplitude). The location
of the leak is established from the simultaneous analysis noise recorded by the various loggers as
well as their location during the survey.

March 2002
The advantage of acoustic noise loggers include the fact that the specific empirical measurements
provide a better indication of leakage than general theoretical values.
Other methods
⇒ Intelligent pigging
Intelligent pigging utilises the principles of ultrasonic or magnetic-flux to determine the
position of leaks within large diameter steel pipelines. Although intelligent pigging is well
established in the oil and gas industry it has yet to be adopted by the water industry to any
great extent.
⇒ Statistical pipeline leak detection
The method detects leaks in pipelines using computer calculations of statistical probability.
The system checks for unusual trends in flow and pressure and is reputed to be sensitive
enough to be able to trace leaks as small as 0,5 percent of the total flow through the pipeline.
This system has been cost effectively applied to oil and gas pipelines but has still to be
adopted by the water industry.
⇒ Network analysis utilising inverse problem solving
Leak detection in water-distribution systems can be accomplished by solving an inverse
problem using measurements of pressure and/or flow. The problem is formulated with
equivalent orifice areas of possible leaks as the unknowns. This method will not substitute the
more traditional leak surveys but can serve as a guide that would assist the more conventional
methods.
⇒ Infrared spectroscopy
An image of the pipe underground is established from the latent heat reflected from the pipe.
This method is not applicable for areas which have numerous underground services because
of their side spectrum of emitting sources.
⇒ Subsurface interface radar (SIR)
This method which “sees” into the ground up to a depth of 6 metres is reputed to be able to
locate leaks within pipes. However, a pilot study conducted within an established urban area
revealed that the SIR only had an approximately 64% success in locating pipes. The
equipment is complicated and expensive requiring a considerable level of technical expertise
to operate. The cost effectiveness of this method of leak detection has still to be established.
⇒ Tanker method for distribution systems with intermittent supply
Leak detection within water distribution systems that are consistently subject to intermittent
water supply because of insufficient availability of water, poor condition of the distribution
system and lack of funds to increase capacities require the following approach:
i. Comprehensive mapping of the distribution network using pipe locations and acoustic noise
sounding equipment.
ii. Isolation of a small area of approximately 100 connections or 500 m pipe length using values
in the network and at consumer meters.
iii. Injection of water from a mobile water tanker and pumping equipment into the isolated area
through a water meter with a data logger installed. Installation of pressure gauges or loggers
on either side of the isolation point also facilitates determining of the area is isolated.
iv. Undertake leak detection using any of the previously mentioned methods such as acoustic
sounding sticks and correlators.
v. After location and repair of the leaks redo the test to compare minimum flows before and
after.

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3.3.6 Leakage Targets and Quantities

In most literature on leakage control, typical leakage rates or targets are quoted, these being based
upon experience of conditions in countries where there is a considerable wealth of experience
over several decades. In the UK, for example, leakage rates are generally quoted as litres per hour
per property and vary from 15–25 l/hr/property for passive leakage control to 5–8 l/hr/property
for full zone metering (maximum 2000 properties) under active leakage control. In Germany, the
DVGW standard sets a target that varies according to the nature of the sub-soil, varying from
0,15 to 0,6 m³ per hour per km of system length.
Only recently has there been an attempt to reconcile the different approaches and derive a method
for setting targets that is valid in urban developments of widely different characteristics (Lambert
2000). This approach is consistent with the well-known BABE (burst and background estimates)
theory which recognises the existence of small background leaks which cannot practically be
eliminated, and “bursts”, which are of significant magnitude that, individually, they can be
detected by the methods described above. The method of calculation is presented in section 4.3.5
of the WC/WDM Planning Framework Guidelines Manual.
When implementing active leakage control, the question that is naturally asked is “how many
leaks are there?” To this question there is not a simple answer since one cannot know the
proportion of leaks of different sizes, although generally there are likely to be many more small
leaks on service connections and fittings than mains leaks. To help with the planning and
implementation of ALC, the concept of the “equivalent service burst” (esb) was derived. Thus if
one esb is 30 m³/d and the zone target represents a saving of 150 m³/d, then the leakage team has
a target of 5 esbs. In theory, therefore, the team continues to search until 5 esbs are found and
repaired – this may take more than one pass - or if fortunate one large leak may be found and the
search stops.
The value of one esb as proposed in Managing Leakage (UK Water Industry, 1994) is 32 m³/d at
50 m pressure, however experience has shown that in some systems, smaller leaks can be found
and for the purpose of estimating the cost of ALC (repairs) it may be prudent to adopt a lower
value.
Box 3.3 Case History. Tlhabane Water Loss Management Project

The main objective of the Tlhabane Water Loss Management Pilot Programme was to improve and manage the water losses
occurring in the distribution network.
The two-year project commenced in August 1998 and was implemented in five phases based on the draft SABS 0306 (1999) and
described briefly as follows:
⇒ Develop a plan for the Water Loss Management programme
⇒ Select, order, purchase and install meters, valves and a monitoring system
⇒ Implement water loss and leak detection procedures
⇒ Analyse results
⇒ Undertake a water audit/balance.
The project included several skills transfer and training workshops for RCC’s officials.
The project involved the establishment of three water management districts within the water distribution network providing
potable water to some 45 000 residents of the suburb.
The method(s) adopted for the water loss control in Tlhabane was based on the philosophy of “to measure is to know”.
Empirical measurements taken during this water loss programme included:

March 2002
• Diurnal flow patterns

• Listening/sounding surveys
• Night usage/wastage surveys
• Meter reading surveys
• In-situ meter testing.
Some of the findings and observations of this investigation include:
• The existing 250 mm diameter management water meter supplying the lower reservoir was under-reading by 29%.
• The empirical measurement of minimum night flows, domestic night usage/wastage, institutional night usage/wastage and
commercial/ industrial night usage/wastage indicates that 11% (or nearly 86 000 m³/ annum) is leakage from the
distribution network, 14% is attributable to legitimate night usage (some 112 000 m³/annum) and the remaining 75% (or
just over 595 000 m³ per annum) is wastage/leakage within properties together with possible unauthorised usage. This net
minimum night flow represented approximately 28% of the water suplied to Tlhabane (some 0,68 million of the 2,4 million
m³/annum).
• Leak detection surveys identified over 140 leaks of which approximately 8% were in the distribution system and the
remainder within properties. All leaks identified in the distribution system were repaired.
• Various unmetered connections or metered connections that did not appear on the RCC billing system were identified
which were the cause of a loss of revenue to the Council.
• Comparison of the Council’s billing database with a field survey of approximately 44% of the residential properties
highlighted some anomalies in the billing database.
• In situ and off-site testing of a small sample of domestic meters indicated that generally the meters complied with the
accuracy requirements of SABS 1529. However, the results clearly identified wastage/leakage within properties.
References and Suggested Further Reading

Stewart Scott (2000). Tlhabane Water Loss Management Project. Final report for Rand Water.
• Volume 1 – Final Report.
• Volume 2 – Training and Operating Manual.
Regulations for Water Mains (1984). DVGW Technical Information Bulletin (Germany).
Lambert A (1994). Accounting for Losses: The Bursts and Background Concept, Journal
CIWEM (UK), April.
Managing Leakage (1994). UK Water Industry Water Research Centre (UK).
SABS 0306 (1999). The management of potable water in distribution systems.
McKenzie R (1999). Development of a Standardised Approach to Evaluate Bursts and
Background Losses in Water Distribution Systems in South Africa, SAWRC, June.
Lambert A (2000). A Realistic Basis for International Comparison of Real Losses from Public
Water Supply Systems, Journal CIWEM (UK), June.
3.3.7 Pressure Management
Related Strategy Objective:
The term "pressure management" is taken to mean the design and operation of the network so that
adequate pressures are available to meet consumer service levels at all points in the network and
under all demand conditions, whilst also minimising stress on the network by avoiding excessive
pressures and fluctuations.
AZNP average zone night pressure
PRV pressure reducing valve
PSTN public switched telephone network

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Principles
The amount (flow) of water from a pressurised pipe system, in line with basic hydraulic theory, is
dependent on the size of the opening and its shape, and the pressure in the system at the point of
discharge. This principle applies to a leak in a pipe in just the same way as a consumer's tap.
A reduction of operating pressure within the distribution system will reduce the volume of
leakage water lost in a given time from a given sized hole or crack. A saving may also be
realised, especially in older networks of cast iron with lead services, by reducing the frequency of
burst occurrences. A reduction of operating pressure will also reduce waste and pressure related
consumption e.g. the flow from an open tap or garden sprinklers, as well as reducing customer
leakage.
Other benefits that flow from an effective pressure management regime include:
• direct and consequential cost savings, e.g. damage to property, with fewer bursts
• fewer interruptions to supply to consumers
• cost savings in purchase of new pipes and fittings to a lower pressure rating
Concepts
The objective of pressure management is to develop a pressure regime within the distribution
network that is as close as possible to the ideal of providing just the declared minimum at all
times and no more. The factors which act as a constraint to the ideal are (a) topography,
(b) friction losses within the network, and (c) fluctuations in consumer demand.
In new systems the design should be carefully undertaken to achieve an optimal pressure profile
using hydraulic modelling methods. Wherever possible pressures should not exceed 50 m and
the average pressure across the system should be significantly lower. Sufficient capacity should
be provided in the mains so that the diurnal fluctuation does not exceed +/- 5 m. Careful zoning
configuration and location of service reservoirs should minimise the need for PRVs, but may not
eliminate them altogether in areas of undulating topography.
Where the topography of the supply area varies significantly, it may well be the case that the
system is already sub-divided into basic pressure zones. Normally, however, pressure within
these primary zones will still vary to a considerable extent. Pressure management as envisaged
within this document may be seen as an extension of that principle by separating off areas that,
due to their elevation, are operating at much higher pressures than are necessary for basic service
provision.
Methods of Pressure Control
Table 3D(a) Methods of Pressure Control
Method Advantages Disadvantages
Break pressure tanks, service No special maintenance regime Likely to be costly unless designed
reservoirs required in as part of a general system
improvement scheme
Pump control Simple and cheap Limited application
Valving, zoning Simple and cheap Limited application
Pressure reducing valves Versatile, relatively inexpensive, Prone to incorrect siting or sizing if
need not restrict flow rates not adequately designed
Limited life device and regular
maintenance required

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• The simplest form of pressure reducing device is a break pressure tank, indeed service
reservoirs within a large supply network fulfil that function as well as providing basic storage.
An example would be where a municipality's take off from a water board trunk main is via a
service reservoir whose top water level is much lower than the pressure in the trunk main. If
there is insufficient storage within the distribution network then its provision can provide the
opportunity to reconfigure the network in such a way as to improve the pressure regime.
• Pump control applies where the network is fed from a booster pump, generally, but not
necessarily, without a header tank. Applicable to either multiple or variable speed pumps the
method involves linking the pump start / speed to a pressure monitor on the pump delivery
which is set so that pressure at the highest point in the network is kept to no more than the
minimum needed, as far as practicable.
• Valving or zoning applies where there are several service reservoirs at different levels. By
changing the zone boundaries it may be possible to reduce average pressures.
• An in-line pressure reducing device performs a similar role to a break pressure tank, but the
downstream static head is not reduced to atmospheric at the device location.
• In-line devices are:
Throttle Simply by partially closing a valve, pressures will reduce downstream, but the
amount of pressure reduction is wholly dependent on the flow through the throttle.
If set such that sufficient pressure is maintained to supply consumers during peak
hour demand, at night the pressure reduction will be much less. This is the opposite
of what would be the feature of an ideal design.
Fixed Outlet This comprises a throttle whose aperture is continuously adjusted so as to maintain
PRV a fixed pressure downstream of the valve. Whereas there is a fixed outlet pressure
at the valve, the pressures within the zone will vary according to demand and
distance from the PRV. In the case of a large zone, or one which has higher than
average pipe losses within the zone, the valve setting to attain sufficient pressure for
peak hour demand at the critical point in the network will be significantly higher
than desirable for low demand periods.
Dual Outlet Sometimes known as "two point" PRV in which the outlet pressure is time based.
PRV The pressure setting between 06.00 to 22.00, say, would be the same as for the fixed
outlet valve, but a lower setting from 22.00 to 06.00 would still attain the minimum
pressure at the critical point. The average pressure in the network over 24 hours is
therefore less than is the case with the fixed outlet PRV.
Dual Outlet Instead of operating on a timer, the PRV is linked to a flow meter and the high or
Flow low setting is determined by the flow through the valve. Thus whilst generally the
Regulated higher pressure would apply during the day and the lower at night, the unit can
respond to any flow variation regardless of time of day, ‘toggling’ between
pressures as the flow in the system rises and falls. Therefore the average pressure
will generally be less than with the standard dual outlet type. This type of control
also ensures that, in the case of a fire demand during a period of low pressure, the
pressure setting will revert to the higher level.
Flow In this type the PRV is also linked to a flow meter and continuously adjusts its
Modulated outgoing pressure according to demand. It is therefore possible to achieve a near
PRV constant minimum pressure at the critical point in the network and to achieve the
lowest possible average pressure in the network downstream of the valve.
It will be appreciated that the increase in performance offered by the more sophisticated PRVs
necessitate a higher maintenance commitment and increased risk of control breakdown.

March 2002
Within gravity fed parts of the network, a pressure reduced area must be hydraulically isolated
from adjacent areas and it is often convenient to combine this with a district meter area with the
pressure reducing device being physically adjacent to the meter within a common structure.
Whereas the principle of district metering for active leakage control necessitates the creation of
relatively small supply areas, pressure reduced areas can be as large as the topography and system
configuration permits, indeed the larger the area the more cost-effective the PRV installation
becomes. Where applicable, a single pressure reducing device can serve more than one district
meter area (although in that case care must be taken in positioning the PRV and district meters to
avoid meter accuracy problems).
What cannot be done is for a pressure reduced area to be fed from more than one pressure
reducing device, since this will introduce an inherent hydraulic instability.
The implementation of a pressure reduction scheme is likely to limit the capacity of a distribution
system to deliver water to customers. The impact on commercial customers, particularly those
with fire fighting sprinkler systems, high rise buildings and the fire services, needs to be taken
into account. Even domestic and other customers who are not affected in any material way, may
perceive a difference and some customer complaints may result, even if advance notice has been
given. The existence of combination boilers, kidney dialysis machines and other pressure-
sensitive appliances should be appreciated.
Theory
The relationship between flow through a fixed orifice and pressure obeys the square root law, but
many leak defects within pipe systems, such as at joints and cracks in plastic materials, vary in
opening according to pressure. Three basic relationships are recognised in this regard: "fixed
path", "linear path" and "expanding path"1. An individual leak and a pipe network do not
necessarily have the same relationship.
Experiments carried out as part of the UK National Leakage Initiative2 recommended that for
examining the effect of pressure on leakage in a zone, the relationship between leakage and
average zone night pressure (AZNP) should be taken as:
Leakage Index = 0.5 AZNP + 0.007 AZNP2.
The effect of this formula is shown in Tables 3.2.2(b) and (c)
Table 3D(b) Leakage Index
Pressure Leakage
m Index
70 69.3
65 62.1
60 55.2
55 48.7
50 42.5
45 36.7
40 31.2
35 26.1
30 21.3
25 16.9
20 12.8
1
SABS 0306 section 9.3.5 Fig 20
2
UK Water Industry Managing Leakage Report G Managing Water Pressure [ref para equ]
March 2002
Table 3D(c) Water Savings Achievable

Percentage Reduction in Leakage
Before 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25
After
70
65 10%
60 20% 11%
55 30% 22% 12%
50 39% 32% 23% 13%
45 47% 41% 34% 25% 14%
40 55% 50% 43% 36% 27% 15%
35 62% 58% 53% 46% 39% 29% 16%
30 69% 66% 61% 56% 50% 42% 32% 18%
25 76% 73% 69% 65% 60% 54% 46% 35% 21%
20 82% 79% 77% 74% 70% 65% 59% 51% 40% 24%
The total water saved divides into 3 components. We need to estimate these for financial
calculations.
1. leakage in the WSI's mains and service connections
2. leakage in the consumers' systems
3. reduced pressure dependent consumption
Methodology for PRV Implementation
The following depends upon having reasonably competent records of the mains and sufficient
contours / spot heights to be able to interpolate to within one metre.
Ideally pressure management schemes should be designed using validated hydraulic models, but
as these are not yet common practice in SA, the following procedure is used:
1. Determine minimum level of service pressure to be adopted, e.g. 15 m in the water main
for low rise residential developments, 25 m in urban centres
2. Estimate static pressures in system at key nodes and extremities by reference to top water
level of the service reservoir or water tower and draw zero flow pressure contours.
3. Examine the configuration of network and, where pressures are excessive, look for parts
that can readily be fed through a single supply link by closure of as few adjacent area
boundary valves as possible. None of these vales should represent a primary feed into an
adjacent area.
4. Check if break pressure tank solution is possible, especially if there is insufficient
distribution storage.
5. Locate likely critical point or points in the pressure reduced area from topography and
distance from the potential PRV location
6. Estimate peak hour demands in the network and calculate pressures at the PRV location
and at the critical point with pressure reduced zone isolated.

March 2002
7. Assuming this confirms potential of the site, discuss proposals with fire officer and agree
on any operational procedures, design features.
8. Design and install flow meter (that may also be used for active leakage control).
9. Advise consumers of possible changes to pressures in their system, both inside the pressure
reduced area and in adjacent areas.
10. Identify critical consumers, e.g. kidney dialysis patients, and ensure that they are aware and
that they have emergency contact details.
11. Advise water services admin office to expect consumer reports of pressure problems and
ensure that these are properly recorded for possible follow up.
12. With flow meter installed, close boundary valves and measure pressures upstream and
downstream of the meter and at critical point(s), ideally using electronic data loggers for 24
hours, but visual observations from standard hydrant pressure gauges otherwise.
13. At night, close inlet valve to zone and check for zero pressure. If not then there is zone
breach that must be found and rectified before proceeding to next step.
14. Optional: use line valve to throttle pressure at night to achieve minimum pressure at critical
point(s) and confirm the pressure drop across the valve.
15. If all OK decide on type of valve to be specified and procure.
16. Design PRV (and meter if applicable) installation, build chamber, install and commission
valve (and telemetry if applicable). Reduce pressures in steps over a period of weeks.
17. Monitor PRV performance closely for first few weeks.
18. Establish maintenance regime and maintenance contract with valve supplier or other
competent service provider
19. Appreciate the benefits!
Always fit the simplest valve that will do the job. Only choose dual outlet pressure or flow
controlled valve if there is significant diurnal pressure variation and the water savings
benefits are worthwhile.
PRVs should be fitted downstream of the flow meter and on a by-pass so that it can be taken out
of line if a fault occurs. If necessary, the pressure reduction can be maintained approximately by
valve throttling as a temporary expedient.
The sizing of the PRV is important and reasonably reliable flow estimation as well as pressure
ranges must be provided to suppliers when obtaining quotations.
Telemetry adds to the cost but is strongly recommended if a flow control PRV is adopted.
Methodology for PRV Maintenance and Sustainability
PRVs are definitely not ‘fit and forget’ items. They are akin to short life pumps, requiring regular
maintenance and renewal every 5 – 10 years. Telemetry is therefore of benefit since it enables a
10 minute check to be made on the valve on, say, a weekly basis, to ensure that it is operating as
intended.
Items which require regular checks, and, if necessary, corresponding alterations in PRV settings
are:
(i) Status of boundary valves.
(ii) Extensions at margins of PRV area e.g. additional properties/roads/streets at elevations
near design setting.
(iii) Additions/changes to consumption profile within defined area; e.g. new housing site or
changing industrial consumption.

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(iv) Regular checks on PRV inlet/outlet settings to confirm profile against design settings.
(v) Status of valves within the PRV area.
Yearly maintenance of a PRV should include cleaning of filters in the small bore pipework to the
pilot valve. If the water contains sediment, whether from the treatment plant or from deposits
inside the pipelines, then more frequent maintenance may prove to be necessary. If there is any
doubt as to the capacity of the WSI to undertake PRV maintenance, a maintenance contract
should be established with the original supplier or other suitable specialist service provider. With
a PSTN type telemetry link they can monitor valve performance remotely.
Box 3.3.2 Case Study: City of Cork (Ireland) 1998/99
As part of a comprehensive water conservation and network management project for this city of 127,000 population, validated
hydraulic models were used to design district meter areas and identify opportunities for pressure reduction. Out of a total of 15
potential locations, 3 were chosen for a pilot / demonstration before proceeding with the full programme. In particular it was
desired to evaluate the effect of different levels of control, with a view to deciding on the specification for future PRV installations.
The 3 PRVs were to control pressures in 5 DMAs:
1 Mahon South East
2 Southern A South East and South West
3 Chetwynd North West and North Central
Having regard to fire risks in the zones it was decided to procure 2 no. PRVs with dual outlet flow control and 1 no. PRV with full
flow modulation. Although fixed outlet pressure PRVs would not be fitted, for evaluation purposes fixed and two point time based
operation could be simulated by setting the valves to operate in those modes. It was also decided to fit the PRVs with telemetry
loggers to be able to monitor the PRV performance from the Corporation offices.
Results:
PRV 1
Flow range before PRV fitted 7.5 - 20 l/sec
Pressure range upstream 40 - 45 m
Critical point pressure 37 - 44 m
Proposed downstream pressure at valve 25 - 30 m
Predicted saving 3.57 l/s, 308 m3/d
The valve was commissioned with the downstream pressure set at 28m. The night flow fell from 7.3 to 4.4 l/s. 250 m3/d saved.
After a week the valve was changed to operate in dual outlet mode to give a day pressure of 25m and night pressure of 18m. The
flow at night fell to 1.8 l/s but coincided with a leak repair estimated to account for 1.0 ll/s. PRV saving 393 m3/d.
PRV 2
Flow range before PRV fitted 11 - 28 l/sec
Pressure range upstream 30 - 48 m
Critical point pressure 23 - 44 m
Proposed downstream pressure at valve 25 - 30 m
Predicted saving 3.76 l/s, 325 m3/d
The valve was commissioned with the downstream pressure being set at 28m. The night flow fell from 11.3 to 6.9 l/s. 383 m3/d
saved. The critical point pressure dropped to 20 - 23m.
A week later the valve was changed to operate in dual outlet mode, the pressure being reduced further at night. The control was set
to give a day pressure of 26.5m and night pressure of 24m. This reduced the flow at night to 5.8 l/s. 479 m3/d saved.
After a further week the valve was changed to full flow modulation. The control was set to give a maximum day time pressure of
26.5m, the night time pressure falling to 21m. This change in pressure control dropped the flow at night to 4.7 l/s. 575 m3/d saved.
PRV 3
This PRV failed to commission concurrently with the other two due to zone breaches which took many months of "detective work"
by the superintendents and inspectors to resolve, supported by the hydraulic modeller. Eventually success was theirs and the zone
was reconfigured, but it meant that the saving achieved of 2.8 l/s was less than the 4.5 l/s originally envisaged. This despite a very
thorough exercise at the start of the project to check each main and valve on the existing record drawings with the inspectors, and
many corrections being made.

March 2002
Cost Framework
Pressure reduction is often the most cost-effective of all demand management measures, the
larger the supply area fed through a single PRV, the greater the financial benefit.
Cost Elements (per PRV) Labour Plant Materials

Initial Costs:
Investigation and design
Flow meter* meter, building materials
Replace defective boundary valves valves, building materials
PRV installation PRV, building materials
Telemetry
Order of Initial Cost (2001) R100,000
Ongoing Costs:
Routine checks and maintenance as noted
PSTN charges
Replace PRV (allow every 5 years)
Order of Annual Cost (2001) R10,000
* may be shared with district metering for active leakage control
Typical range of average incremental cost: xx R/kl saved [?standard NPV discount rate,
period?]
[NB within the WSI manual we can deal only with financial costs. In the CMA manual we will
deal with economic costs - social, environmental]
Risk Factors / Confidence
Risk factors:
• investigation and design short cuts leading to incorrect choice of PRV
• zone boundary breaches
• reduced pressure acceptability to consumers used to higher pressures
• ditto fire service
• lack of maintenance
Overall confidence factor: High
The financial and economic benefits of pressure reduction and methodology for estimating cost-
benefit are given in [CMA Manual].
3.4 Asset Management
3.4.1 Key Principles and Components
Related Strategy Objective: Objective 1 – Implement efficient distribution management
measures.
Scope
The scope of this section is to identify the key principles and components of asset management.

March 2002

Demand Management in the context of asset management is “The active intervention in the
market to influence demand for services and assets with forecast consequences”.
The structured evaluation of all options including the “no build option” is the essential ingredient
of Demand Management.
Asset management – The sum of all those activities leading to infrastructure appropriate to the
cost effective delivery of services.
Principles
There are five key principles:
i) focus on aligning assets with the service delivery requirements of the community;
ii) develop a consistent framework for evaluating assets;
iii) establish clear accountability for asset management decisions;
iv) integrate asset management with executive management decision making and link asset
management with the budgetary process;
v) evaluate assets in terms of need to meet community requirements.
Once these principles are understood and followed, the application of asset management can be
undertaken with clarity, consistency and with simple common sense.
Essentially asset management consists of the following activities:
⇒ identification of need;
⇒ initial provision and subsequent upgrade;
⇒ operation and maintenance; and
⇒ disposal and/or removal
Identification of need requires that sufficient reasonably reliable information on the extent,
condition and performance of assets is available for informed analysis.
Concepts
The concept of an asset management cycle can be used to illustrate the framework for
commercial effectiveness structured around basic asset management fundamentals.
Figure 3.5 : Asset management cycle
Asset Management Cycle
Goals
Processes Outcomes
Business Plan Service Strategy

Forward Target and Budget Requirements
Needs Analysis
Asset Assessment
Asset Performance
Performance Assessment
Asset Strategy
Operating Maintenance Replacement and Disposal

Plan Plan Acquisition Plan Plan

March 2002
Theory
The age of infrastructure such as pipelines can act as a proxy variable for determining the
approximate value of water lost due to leakage. This linkage between the age distribution of
pipelines and the cost of leakage can be achieved through the application of the Fundamental Law
of Decay. The rate of deterioration of infrastructure overtime can be illustrated in Figure 3.6
whereby a pipeline system’s age distribution is converted to a weighted Law of Decay S-curve
relating to the annual cost of water leakage from the systems. These weighted curves have been
derived from pipe age data and year 2000 costs to illustrate the effect that the deterioration of
infrastructure can have on leakage costs if maintenance and refurbishment of the piping system
was neglected.
It is important to be aware that, whilst generally the older parts of the system will exhibit, on
average, poorer condition and performance than newer parts, when it comes to looking at
particular components, such as individual lengths of water main, age alone is not sufficient
justification for replacement or retention. Many examples can be found of old mains being in
better condition than much newer mains. Reasons for this can include quality of original
materials from a particular supplier, quality of workmanship and supervision of works at the time
of installation.
Figure 3.6 : Fundamental Law of Decay
600.00
Pipelines Age Distribution
35
500.00 30
Percentage of Pipes
25
20
Percentage
400.00 15
10
Value R million
300.00 0 Value(R)
10 20 30 40 50
Ave. Age Years
200.00
100.00
0.00
1979 1983 1986 1989 1991 1994 1997 1999 2002 2005 2007 2010 2013 2015 2018 2021 2023 2026 2029 2031
Years
References and Suggested Further Reading:

University of Melbourne (1996). Project Management Practices 4 – Asset Management of
Infrastructure. Engineering Education Australia (Pty) Ltd.
3.4.2 Meter Management
Related Strategy Objective : Objective 1 – Implement efficient distribution management
measures.
Scope
The objective of this section is to briefly describe the management of water meters from their
purchase through to their final disposal.
Accuracy envelopes are used to define the accuracy band within which the meter’s accuracy
curve is expected to be situated as well as its specified flow range.

March 2002
The South African Standard Specifications SABS 1529-1 (1994) as well as the International
Standards ISO 4064 (1993) provide a generic definition of this accuracy envelope from the
minimum flow rate (qmin) up to their maximum or overload flow rate (qs) as follows:
• qmin is the lowest flow rate at which the meter is required to give indications within the
permissible tolerance and is specified as a ratio of the permanent flow rate (qp) for various
metrological classes of water meters.
• qp is the flow rate for which the meter is designed and at which the meter is required to
operate in a satisfactory manner for a short period of time without deterioration. This short
period of time is specified by some manufacturers as 24 h in the life of the meter.
• qs is the rate that is equal to 2 qp and also represents the highest flow rate at which the meter
is required to operate in a satisfactory manner for a short period of time without deterioration.
This short period of time is specified by some manufacturers as 24 h in the life of the meter.
• Between qmin and qp, a transitional flow rate (qt) is specified dividing the flow range into two
separate permissible tolerance zones.
• qt is also specified as a ratio of qp for various metrological classes of water meters.
qp is also referred to as qn and qs as qmax in the International Standards ISO 4064 (1993).
Principles
The water meter should be managed throughout its life cycle. After the meter has been selected
(See 3.1) and purchased, it usually goes through the following steps in its life cycle:
• Stock - The meter is placed in stock and pertinent records are kept regarding the meter’s
particulars and inventory details.
• Installation request - A formal request for installation of a new meter is received and after
the receipt of the prescribed payment and documentation/ plans, the meter is issued to the
plumber for installation.
• Removal request - An existing meter could be required to be removed because of planned
maintenance scheduling, the meter ceases to function properly or stops. The old meter is
then exchanged for a new meter after the prescribed documentation has been completed.
• Movement recording - Details of meters issued, installed and returned to the
workshop/depot are recorded.
• Testing & repairs - Meters returned to the workshop are inspected, tested,
repaired/refurbished and tested again. Testing of meters are usually conducted in terms of
SABS 1529. All test results are recorded. Meters that pass the prescribed tests are returned
to stock and those that fail are scrapped.
The keeping and updating of meter records facilitates the management process and should
include at least the following:
- meter serial number
- meter type and size
- stock reading
- stock date
- scrapped date
- town planning allotment area
- water supply area (reservoir)
- installation reading
- date installed

March 2002
- change slip number

- consumer code (Treasurer’s rate scale)
- name and address of consumer (current)
- meter reading route numbers (current and history)
- replacement meter number
- reason for replacement
- test results
Concepts
Meters do not and should not stay in one place for the duration of their useful life. The decision
as to when to move (remove) this asset can be dictated by an event such as a failure or reduction
in performance. Systems should therefore be put in place in order to detect such anomalies. These
systems could be manual, electronic or a mixture of both. Variations in consumptions that exceed
the statistical limits established from historic data or mete readings are usually indicative of
problems.
The water audit and balance are also useful tools to help identify problematic meters. Planned and
routing maintenance schedules help pre-empt or reduce serviceability problems.
Methodology
Any system of meter records should provide such basic data for each meter as size, make, type,
date of purchase, where the meter is located at all times, and information on all tests and repairs.
One method of maintaining such records is by use of a meter history card. Basic meter data is
inserted at the top of the form, and the remainder of the card is designed to record the various
installations and test and repair work in chronological order. Each line of the test and repair
record section is divided into two segments, the upper being used to record the test results for the
meter on its removal from service and the lower to record the final test results before the meter is
reinstalled. These meter history cards are filed in sequence, either according to the manufacturer’s
serial number or the utility’s number, if the utility has its own system of meter numbers.
Although this method of maintaining meter records is a good one, it requires transcribing
information from other primary records.
Integration with data that is available on billing systems can facilitate access to related consumer
information.
A useful method to manage revenue meters that monitor the large water demands is briefly
described as follows:
(i) Obtain billing records of the largest consumers.
(ii) Analyse and rank the top 100 (say) consumers.
(iii) Prepare a list of the meters and consumer details for these large users.
(iv) Schedule regular recordings (i.e. weekly) of the meters as well as analysis of their
consumptions.
(v) Inspect and replace those meters that exceed pre-determined statistical limits.
A useful summary format to aid the management of large district (non-revenue) meters is
illustrated in the example below:

March 2002
District: ………………………….. Meter: ……………
Average day for week
Ratio peak/ average

Consumption (Ml)
week/average day
week/average day
Ratio maximum
Average day for
Ratio minimum
Comments
Date on
month
Peak
day
25.6.00 22,708 3,244 9,00 1,126
2.7.00 18,018 2,574 7,38 0,894
9.7.00 19,572 2,796 8,28
16.7.00 19,348 2,764 8,10
23.7.00 21,161 3,023 9,18 2,880 3,188
30.7.00 17,801 2,543 8,64
6.8.00 10,227 1,461 7,38
Theory
The application of confidence limits facilitate the determination of the applicable limits with
which water demands/usage would be expected to be found.
For large number of data (i.e. ≥ 30) then the confidence (fiducial) limit for this data can be
determined by the following formula:
S ± zc σs
where S = sample mean
σs = standard deviation (standard error)
Zc = from table below.
Confidence level 99.73 99% 98 96% 95.45 95% 90% 80% 68.27 50%
% % % %
zc 3.00 2.58 2.3 2.05 2.00 1.96 1.64 1.28 1.00 0.674
3 5 5
Generally the 95% confidence level is used, i.e. S ± 1,96σs
Box 3.4: Example of a computerised water meter management system

Maintaining water meter records on a manual card and inventory book system requires considerable time and effort because of
the number of units involved and because water meters do not always remain at one location during their useful lives but are
moved, refurbished or repaired.
Computerised records that contain all relevant data facilitates increased productivity in the management of a water meter
inventory. The availability of historic and current water meter data in an electronic format together with the statistics
derived from such data, assists with the decision making process related to programmed actions.

March 2002
Figure 3.7 Water Meter Replacement Feedback
Inventory details of this module include the following:

⇒ Identification – The meter’s serial number and type are identified
⇒ Specification – The meter’s size and accuracy envelope is specified
⇒ Situation – The meter’s previous and current location addresses are recorded
Data and facilities required for determining programmed action include the following:
⇒ When – Installation, removal and testing dates with associated meter readings
⇒ How – Flow ranges for testing with associated calibration standards as illustrated in Figure 3.4.2(b)
⇒ How often – Reporting facilities help identify those meters requiring periodic removal and testing.
(or much)
Figure 3.8 Water Meter Testing Details
The optimisation of the meter refurbishment programme also facilitates the establishment of the following:
⇒ The optimal frequency for the removal of water meters of a specific size and type
⇒ The cost of water lost through failed (i.e. stopped) meters
⇒ The cost of water lost through inaccurate meters.

March 2002

American Water Works Association. Water Meters – Selection, Installation, Testing and
Maintenance. AWWA Manual M6.
Speigel MR (1972). Schaum’s outline of theory and problems of statistics in SI units. McGraw-
Hill.
3.4.3 Rehabilitation Planning
The term rehabilitation in its widest sense is generally defined as:
"all measures that involve changing the condition, design or specification of a
network in order to rectify performance deficiencies within the network "
Rehabilitation includes measures to reinforce the hydraulic capacity of the network to deal with
increases in demand from the areas that are already served, but not extensions to the network or
associated reinforcement to meet demand in new areas.
Rehabilitation of a network can take several forms:
Replacement of mains, in which the old main or service connection is either abandoned or
destroyed and is replaced by a new pipe.
Renovation in which the existing main is retained and continues to perform a structural
function
Reinforcement in which the hydraulic capacity of the network is increased, either by
providing a new main or mains, or by renewing an existing main in a larger size
Techniques for rehabilitation that are designed to minimise disruption to the public by on-line
replacement or relining to minimise the amount of open trench works are commonly termed
trenchless technology or no-dig. In reality, however, there is still a significant amount of
excavation required, at access points and for service connections.
A water main is a length of pipe between valves or junctions and is the minimum length to which
a particular type of rehabilitation would apply.
The term interruption to supply is used in this manual report to mean the short term absence of
water to a consumer or group of consumers arising from the occurrence of a defect in the water
network that is subsequently repaired, such as a burst or plant breakdown. This is distinct from
an absence of water due to an excess of demand over supply, necessitating rationing in some
form.
Principles
Focused or Integrated Approach?
Performance deficiencies in a water distribution network that affect the consumer may relate to
the quantity supplied, the pressure at which it is supplied, and the continuity of service as
applicable. Some of these also affect the WSI's cost of operations in terms of paying for water
production that is not put to beneficial use, repairing bursts, having to flush mains to remove
products of corrosion, etc.
Compensation to consumers as a result of a failure to meet expected standards of service may
also apply in certain circumstances.

March 2002
Rehabilitation may be undertaken for reasons of water quality, structural condition and
performance, and hydraulic factors. For the purposes of WC/WDM, rehabilitation would focus
on the structural condition of the infrastructure that is at the root cause of excessive physical
water loss. A single strand approach is not the most cost effective in the long run, however. For
example it may be decided to replace a defective high leaking water main, but the question then
arises as to the size - in a single strand approach the replacement would be the same size, but
adopting an integrated approach would see the main correctly sized for future demands.
Network Serviceability Requirements
The water supply and distribution network is the means of delivering water from the point of
production to consumers. The objective of an integrated rehabilitation plan is therefore attain a
configuration and condition that, with competent operation and maintenance, the WSI can
provide consumers with water that meets statutory standards of quality, at sufficient but not
excessive pressure, and on a continuous 24 hour per day 365 day per year basis. From the WSI's
perspective, the cost of operation and maintenance to achieve satisfactory consumer quality
standards should not be excessive.
Water Quality
Whilst for the most part, water quality is dependent on the raw water source and the form of
treatment of the raw water, compliance with the standards also requires that the passage of water
through the network does not cause an otherwise compliant water to become non-compliant
because of the internal condition of the pipes and fittings. For example iron mains and lead
service connections.
Pressure and Flow
The minimum pressure in the water main when consumers are drawing water at the maximum
hourly rate of demand will normally be stated in the bylaws under general conditions of supply,
e.g. 15 m head. When pressure drops below the minimum target level this can represent a trigger
level for rehabilitation, but when providing new or rehabilitated mains a higher design pressure
would normally be set, e.g. 25 m head, as a design safety margin. Fire flow provision also needs
to be considered but under that condition it is only necessary to ensure that negative pressures in
the mains do not occur. Maximum pressure should ideally not exceed 50 m since problems with
plumbing fittings can occur and burst rates are likely to increase exponentially.
Interruptions to Supply / Mains Failures
Typical average mains failure rates for a system are:
Trunk mains:
"good" condition 0.015 -0.020 per km per year
"below average" 0.06 - 0.07 per km per year
Distribution mains:
“low” 0.10 – 0.15 per km per year
“average” 0.20 – 0.35 per km per year
“high” 0.40 – 0.55 per km per year
In a recent survey of 27 water undertakings in Europe: (AWWRF, 1998)
10 undertakings had "low" failure rates <0.2 per km per year
7 had "moderate" failure rates 0.2 - 0.4 per km per year
9 had "high/very high" failure rates 0.4 - >1.0 per km per year

March 2002
Failure rates also vary according to pipe material and age (and it is not necessarily the case in a
given system that the oldest mains exhibit the highest failure rate).
The above statistics relate to the whole network but when individual mains or zones are
considered, much higher failure rates expressed per unit of length will be found. Whilst the
impact of bursts on the consumer is partly a function of the efficiency of response by the water
undertaking, typical trigger levels for rehabilitation of mains that are deemed to encompass both
consumer service and economic factors are:
• times per year per 1000 population in urban areas*
• 4 times per year per 1 km of pipeline in rural areas
*equivalent to around once per year per km
Service Pipe Defects
Individually, these are dealt with as and when they arise as part of normal operations, but
considered as a group within a DMA where there has been a history of past failures, the
likelihood of an ongoing significant commitment to service repair works may be expected.
Average defects rates collated from a number of sources have been reported as:
Communication pipes and stop taps 1 – 2 per 100 services per year
Supply pipes and internal plumbing c 2 per 100 services per year
Valves and Stop Taps
Valves and stop taps are essential appurtenances that if, in poor condition, absent in key locations
or inaccessible, make normal operational activities more difficult, and therefore costly, and will
aggravate the effect on consumers and third parties of burst incidents.
Leakage
Ideally, a water distribution network would not leak. Except for water taken for operational
purposes and fire fighting, all water produced would be delivered to consumers. In practice,
however, there are no leak free systems, although it is perfectly possible using good quality
modern materials and high standards of design and installation, to provide new mains and
services that are virtually 100% watertight on completion.
Due to many factors, water networks do develop leaks and the numbers inevitably increase over
time if no action is taken. But providing prompt repairs are made to bursts that cause loss of
supply or cause damage to persons or property, the system can be said to remain "serviceable".
Mains may be regarded as unserviceable on leakage grounds if there are security of supply or
hydraulic capacity problems and if, due to the condition of the mains, the leakage cannot be
practically or economically reduced.
Many leaks are found on service connections and since they are generally of smaller flow than a
most mains leaks, they are less likely to show on the surface and likely to run for much longer
before discovery and repair. They will also be greater in number than mains leaks. Service pipe
leakage can therefore represent a greater proportion of total losses than mains leakage and in a
rehabilitation programme service pipe renewal should be evaluated accordingly.
Financial and Economic Factors
In a system that is in need of rehabilitation, excessive operating costs for the WSI go hand in
hand with poor serviceability in relation to consumer needs. Parts of a network that are in poor
condition will incur higher than average costs with regard to:
• numbers of reported bursts to be repaired
• frequency of intervention and numbers of unreported bursts to be repaired to maintain leakage
at target levels under active leakage control
• frequency of mains flushing to remove loose particle corrosion products

March 2002
Social factors that come into the economic appraisal include reliability of supply expected by
existing and potential industrial consumers, third party damage resulting from burst events, and
disruption to commercial activities in urban centres. The point at which a particular main
becomes unserviceable due to its high cost of maintenance is a matter for economic appraisal, but
many such mains will probably also be classified as unserviceable on grounds of consumer
service quality.
Integrated Approach
If an integrated approach is to be adopted, it is recommended that generally rehabilitation is
prioritised and undertaken on a Zonal basis, dealing with all of the known deficiencies in the a
zone within the one contract. An integrated design for the rehabilitation works in a DMA would
deal with all serviceability issues concurrently in the most cost-effective manner.
Where there are unlined iron mains, if not now but in the future they will give rise to water
quality problems. Relining will deal with the water quality problem, but in an integrated
approach their continued deterioration would be assessed and a decision made on whether just to
reline or whether to renew, according to structural condition. Relining of course stops any further
internal corrosion, but not external corrosion.
Structurally sound mains can therefore be non-structurally relined, providing that there is
sufficient hydraulic capacity. Structurally defective mains can either be replaced by pipe
insertion or by pipe bursting to increase hydraulic capacity if required, as an alternative to
conventional open cut construction. In considering hydraulic capacity, it should be remembered
that reducing leakage demand will effectively release capacity for consumption.
In town centre zones, rehabilitation by Zone also provides an opportunity to rationalise the
configuration of the network - often the historical development of the network has left a legacy of
duplication of mains and unnecessary redundancy.
Prioritisation by Zone
To prioritise rehabilitation works by DMA, the following physical and performance
characteristics should be evaluated, to the extent that data are available:
A. Mains properties - proportion of old unlined cast iron mains (% of total length)
B. Connections - lead services (% of total connections)
C. Structural performance (per km of main)
D. Leakage performance (per km of main or connection)
E. Water quality - unlined iron mains, dirty water complaints, sample data (per 100 customers)
F. Hydraulic performance – length of mains or numbers of consumers having less than the
minimum pressure stated in the bylaws at peak demand (per km or per 100 connections)
G. Other factors - critical consumers, sensitive mains, development planning
For each category, a simple ranking order procedure is quite satisfactory, e.g for 10 Zones, from 1
for the highest to 10 for the least in need of rehabilitation.
Having established the ranking order for each condition and performance category these are then
used to derive a composite or weighted zones prioritisation rating.
Having established the ranking order for each condition and performance category these are then
used to derive a composite or weighted zone prioritisation rating. The weightings will be a matter
for the WSI to determine according to its priorities.
Some of the categories overlap since a particular condition can have more than one effect.
Weightings can be used to reflect this.

March 2002
Rehabilitation of Mains
Within a Zone, in the detailed design stage, available condition, performance and strategic
importance information on individual mains or groups of mains would be examined for:
• burst frequency
• leakage (from step testing)
• physical condition
• soil corrosivity (in relation to metallic mains and fittings)
• head loss
• age
• importance
Each parameter can be given a score and weighting in a similar manner to the procedure for
prioritising zones. A possible format and provisional condition and performance rankings based
on a 0 to 5 score for each parameter is outlined in the table below, but as with the prioritisation by
zone, the scorings and weightings will be determined by the WSI according to local priorities and
issues.
Table 3E Example of Scoring System for Mains Rehabilitation
Parameter Scoring Range Weighting
Burst frequency 0 = < 0.05/km.yr 5 = >2/km.yr 2
Leakage 0 = <UARL 5 = >5Xuarl* 2
Physical condition 0 = excellent 5 = very poor 3
Soil corrosivity 0 = non aggressive soil or not relevant (plastic main, non-ferrous fittings) 1
5 = highly aggressive soil
Head loss 0 = <1 m/km 5 = >20 m/km 1
Age 0 = < 20 years 5 = >80 years 1
Importance 0 = not critical or sensitive and without development impact 5 = both 1
critical and sensitive and with development impact
* UARL – Unavoidable Real Losses litres/connection.day – see Planning Framework manual section
4.3.5
In respect of physical condition gradings, a 0 score would represent a main that is in best "as
new" condition, designed and installed under a competent quality control regime. New mains
laid with only minimal building control inspection may well not achieve a 0 score. At the other
end of the range, a cast iron main with a physical condition score of 5 would be one which, from
test sample analysis, had a predicted remaining life of less than 5 years.
Where the available information relates to a part of a zone comprising a group of mains, e.g.
interpolation between pipe samples or step test results, the rating would be applied equally to the
whole group.
The resultant rating would then be used to determine whether an individual main should be
replaced. For example using the above suggested scoring and weighting values a rating of 15
should provide a trigger point, since one would suppose that a main in “very poor” condition (5 x
3 = 15) should be replaced, regardless of any other factors. It may be visualised that the trigger
value may vary according to the cost of rehabilitation, since cost benefit needs to be
demonstrated.
Having determined which mains are to be replaced on (mainly) structural grounds, the hydraulic
regime of the zone would be examined, a validated hydraulic model of the existing system being
a valuable, some would argue essential, tool in this regard. As a baseline case, the result of
March 2002
adopting structural and non-structural liners where appropriate would first be evaluated. The
hydraulic design would then be optimised by selective size for size pipe replacement or up-sizing
as required to meet the level of service and fire flow design criteria.
Trunk mains can be considered on the same principle as distribution mains, but in all cases the
importance score would be 5.
Rehabilitation of Services - Structural and Hydraulic Considerations
The factors that determine the need for replacement of service pipes and connections are similar
to those applicable to mains, except that it is impracticable to assess the condition of individual
services. As far as structural and hydraulic performance is concerned they can be grouped on a
street by street basis. Historic failure rates, the condition of ferrules and stop taps and leakage
rates would all be considered in determining the need for rehabilitation.
Rehabilitation of Services – Water Quality (Lead)
The present maximum permitted level in South Africa under SABS 241 is 100 µg/l with a
recommended maximum 50 µg/l. Therefore replacement of lead services for water quality
reasons may only be required in a minority of cases. [In Europe the permitted lead concentration
was reduced in a 1998 directive from 50 to 10 µg/l (at the consumer’s tap) and this is giving rise
to the implementation of both chemical dosing to reduce plumbosolvency, where the water
characteristics are suited, and lead service replacement programmes.]
Operational Considerations
As well as determining the rehabilitation for individual mains, the opportunity should be taken to
deal with any operational problems and to rationalise the configuration of the network. Examples
would include:
• the replacement of defective key valves that would not otherwise be renewed as part of the
mains relining or replacement
• any additional valves required to minimise numbers of consumers affected by shut-offs
• elimination of unnecessary parallel mains, ensuring that redundant mains are sealed off and all
services transferred
Box 3.5 Case Study Waterford (Ireland) 2000/1
The implementation of a water conservation and network management project for the Corporation of Waterford (pop 45,000),
identified a number of cast iron mains totalling 6.5 km in length that had very poor structural, leakage and hydraulic performance.
These were allocated a high priority for selective rehabilitation in a first phase works contract, in advance of a planned DMA
rehabilitation programme.
The mains were generally very old and in and around the commercial centre of the city and a "no-dig" solution using a PE all
welded pipe and services system was designed, with a combination of slip lining and pipe bursting according to the hydraulic
requirements determined from hydraulic model.
A contractor was appointed who had considerable rehabilitation works experience in the UK, but their Irish division was unused to
this kind of work. A very experienced contracts supervisor was assigned to ensure that many of the novel (in Ireland) procedures
were followed and quality standards met. This included consumer care procedures and a "street in a week" completion (including
permanent reinstatement) planning methodology. The rigorous PE joint testing regime in the specification was followed and all
jointing operatives had to possess a current certificate of competence in use of the apparatus.
Waterford Corporation personnel were trained in the use of PE pipes and fittings to enable them to make new connections and
repairs resulting from third party damage. The Corporation also purchased and now uses impact mole apparatus to make "no-dig"
service connections in PE.
On completion of the work, the Corporation reported a reduction in water into supply of nearly 2,000 m3/d, corresponding to a
specific saving of 12.8 m3/hr per km of main for the 6.5 km. The selected mains were in several DMAs where average specific
losses were in the range 4 - 6 m3/km.hr. The associated low pressure and dirty water problems which the project was also designed
to address, were also rectified.
The Corporation, not unused to complaints from the public about street works, were pleasantly surprised that an article in the local
newspaper complimented them on the efficiency with which these essential works were carried out and the care that had been taken
to minimise disruption to the community.

March 2002
Theory
The hydraulic design of a rehabilitated network follows standard design criteria (ref section 2.5)
with leakage demand being separately modelled. In an urban area leakage losses in poor
condition zones can easily be of the order of 5xUARL or more, whereas a system in near new
condition should not exceed 1xUARL, exclusive of consumer leakage.
It is of interest to compare these values with the permissible leakage specified in tests on
completion of new water mains.
Procedure for Implementation - Integrated Approach
The following depends upon having reasonably competent records of the mains, including pipe
materials and approximate year laid (can be roughly estimated if not recorded by reference to age
of development), and burst locations. It assumes that the network is or will be sub-divided into
management districts or Zones.
Ideally rehabilitation schemes should be designed using validated hydraulic models, but as these
are not yet common practice in SA, the following procedure is used:
1. Collate all data on burst locations and consumer complaints if available and prepare
incident maps (in GIS if available).
2. Collate physical evidence of system condition that can be location referenced, e.g. pieces
of failed pipe, services, corroded valves, photographs
3. Establish pressure contours within system by reference to topographical maps, service
reservoir levels, field pressure tests
4. Review customer profile in Zones - key and critical
5. Identify "sensitive" mains
6. Establish development potential each Zone
7. Use ranking system to prioritise by Zone
8. Develop unit costs for rehabilitation elements, estimate approximate works in each Zone
and develop phased programme
9. For first phase priority Zone carry out field investigations - pipe sampling and laboratory
testing, soil tests, pressure monitoring
10. Review results of active leakage control - frequency of intervention, step tests, etc. to
confirm "fragile" mains
11. Estimate future demands, including potential leakage reduction, and assess pressure
changes, identify mains under hydraulic stress
12. Use scoring method to prioritise mains
13. Decide on relining / renewal policy for iron mans
14. Determine hydraulic reinforcement required - use poor condition mains that are going to be
replaced on structural grounds for this reinforcement, wherever possible
15. Finalise integrated design and estimate costs
16. Make the business case!
17. Appoint a competent contractor for the works and employ adequate supervision - one
inspector / clerk of works for every two gangs plus RE
18. Keep good records of the work which will invariably differ from the design and on
completion ensure that the previous mains records and any asset databases are amended
19. Finally: Make absolutely sure that all old mains are disconnected

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Procedure for Implementation - Focused Approach (Leakage)

The following methodology is applicable to a single DMA:
1. As integrated methodology 1
2. Collate physical evidence of system condition that can be location referenced, e.g. pieces
of failed pipe, services, corroded valves, photographs
3. Review results of active leakage control - frequency of intervention, step tests, etc. to
confirm "fragile" and high leakage mains. If necessary repeat and sub-divide step tests
4. Understand pressure regime and assess benefit of pressure reduction, if appropriate
5. Decide on criteria for replacement of individual mains (abbreviated version of integrated
approach)
6. Apply criteria and identify mains to be replaced
7. To the extent practicable, review hydraulic regime within the Zone and decide if slightly
smaller mains may be acceptable in some cases, permitting use of slip-lining technology,
or if size for size or up-sizing is needed.
8. Also examine opportunities for system rationalisation without incurring significant
additional cost
9. Finalise design and estimate cost, to include replacement of all services, stop taps and
consumer meters unless these are relatively new.
Methodology for Maintenance and Sustainability
No special measures other than good asset management practice
Cost Framework
Cost Elements Labour Plant Materials
Initial Costs:
Order of Initial Cost (2002) All in rate R/m 100/150/200 dia plus R/ service connection
Ongoing Costs:
Order of Annual Cost (2002) No additional operational cost. Cost savings be reduction of burst
frequency, mains flushing as applicable to particular scheme.

March 2002
Risk Factors / Confidence

Risk factors:
• Poor workmanship, inadequate supervision
Overall confidence factor: High
References/Suggested Further Reading

Decision Criteria to Prioritise Replacement and Rehabilitation of Mains and Appurtenances,
LNEC, Lisbon, for AWWRF, 1998
Monograph on Best Practice: Rehabilitation of Water Mains, CIWEM, 1996
Water Supply 5th edition Table 15.7 A C Twort et al
3.4.4 Asset (Infrastructure) Management Systems

Scope
The purpose of this section is to facilitate the identification of appropriate maintenance systems
as well as associated data requirements that will assist to reduce the levels of leakage, wastage
and unaccounted-for water through the application of these systems.
Preventative maintenance (PM): Incorporating actions that are performed on a regular and
scheduled basis to keep equipment or structure operating effectively and to minimise unforeseen
failures. These actions consist of inspections and/or maintenance tasks.
Corrective maintenance (CM): CM takes place when equipment or structures have already failed
and/or no longer function as they should according to standard operating conditions.
Principles
A considerable amount of capital is generally invested in a water services authority’s engineering
infrastructure within financial and other constraints is required to ensure maximum benefit to the
authority. This effective management needs a systematic approach incorporating all technical,
financial and other factors, consisting of a comprehensive co-ordinated set of activities associated
with the research, planning, design, construction, maintenance and evaluation of assets. This can
be achieved through management systems, both manual and computerised.
Before a water system can respond and complete a data acquisition cycle, from data capture
through to its application, the data must be applied to facilitate the design, planning, operation
and management of the water supply and distribution system.
Maintenance activities are generally divided into two categories, viz. preventive and corrective
maintenance.
An organisation must at all times try to optimise maintenance costs and hence its physical and
non-physical water losses. This can only be done by creating a proper balance between corrective
maintenance and preventive maintenance. The optimal amount of maintenance is illustrated in
Figure 3.9. Preventive maintenance becomes more expensive than corrective maintenance as the
amount of maintenance increases. Preventive maintenance can therefore be applied effectively
only when:
• the possible equipment/structure failure can be predicted with a fair measure of accuracy, so
it can be repaired before failure occurs;

March 2002
• the time spent on preventive maintenance is less than it would take to repair equipment/
structure which has already failed.
Figure 3.9: The Cost of Maintenance
Optimum amount of maintenance
Total maintenance cost

Annual average unit cost
Cor
rect
ive
ma
inte
nan
ce c
ost
t
cos
ce
nan
inte
e ma
ve ntiv
Pre
Minimum level of preventive

maintenance
Amount of Maintenance
The key elements of an effective maintenance programme are:

• Institutional support – senior management and general management support (funding and
active participation)
• System maintenance – maintenance personnel should have the tools and skills as well as
clearly defined responsibilities
• An effective inventory control system – including purchasing system
• Logistic support – vehicles, materials, and structures
• Financing – funds especially for preventative maintenance must be provided
• Accurate up-to-date records and reporting facilities
• Human Resources and Training – a continuing management and technical training
programme from maintenance personnel
• Proper location of resources – organise and locate maintenance department personnel
according to their function and location.
The key elements of a maintenance management system are:
• An inventory of all equipment and infrastructures that require preventive or corrective
maintenance
• Works orders, as they are essential for issuing, recording and following up maintenance tasks
• Preventive maintenance is the only way to ensure reliable operation of equipment and
comprises of
⇒ maintenance procedures (i.e. based on O&M manuals and experience)
⇒ scheduling (i.e. based on time, usage, etc.)
⇒ monitoring (i.e. current on-line or historic)
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• Feedback and control of planned maintenance activities according to schedule

• Resource management to ensure its optimal and “legal” utilisation
• Records of maintenance history to provide information about equipment reliability and
replacement.
Concepts
Computerised management systems provide ready access to information, thereby fulfilling the
needs of management by supporting the human decision-making process, providing models
which identify applicable types of data, and therefore limiting the capture and storage of
unnecessary data. These factors all play a part in the institutional strengthening process related to
Water Demand Management. These management systems allow interactive and fast access to
data as well as assisting managers in retaining control. Managers can handle more subordinates
leading to wider spans of supervision and yet still rapidly apprising them of the consequences of
any decisions taken and allowing them to take timely corrective measures.
Although management of the asset base has historically been dependent on the subjective
assessments of those responsible for day-to-day operation and maintenance of the assets, there is
a requirement for the asset base to also be managed from higher levels of the organisation in a
way which will ensure that future investment delivers maximum benefit for customers and
shareholders alike that includes the minimisation of physical and non-physical water losses.
A computerised asset management system generally comprises three major constituents, namely
(i) inventory, (ii) programmed action and, (iii) optimisation.
Inventory details include the identification, specification and situation of the assets that would
typically be held in an asset register. Programmed action includes details of when, how and how
often (or how much) the asset should be inspected, maintained or tested. Optimisation indicates to
the manager why and to what extent inspecting, maintaining or testing of the asset should entail
as well as indicating the extent of related potential benefits.
Examples of some of the generic components of the major constituents of asset management
systems for various selected assets or functions with associated data requirements is given in
Table 3F below.

Table 3F: Management Information Systems – Generic Components and Data Requirements
Major water asset
Services Leakage
designation/function Pumping Treatment Pipelines and Meters and
Boreholes reservoirs and control
Management equipment works distribution systems instrumentation
storage tanks management
system constituents
INVENTORY - Identification Make, model, serial Make, model, Manufacturer, Diameter, identity Name, capacity Serial number, District code,
numbers and type of serial number and drawings, code, component type main consumer
pump, motors and/or type processes name, chamber type
energy source(s) number
- Specification Pump capacity, motor Impeller size, no. Dimensions, Dimensions, Volumes, Size, accuracy Length of
ratings, static water stages, drive type, capacities, materials, coatings, dimensions, envelope, pipelines,
levels, specific pump ratings, ratings, jointing, pressure shape, purpose, instrument number of
capacity starter motor efficiencies, ratings (class), elevations specific specs properties and
characteristics profiles bedding, hydraulic connections
capacity
- Situation Location of site, Location of site, Location of site, Location, route, co- Location and Current and Name of area,
position on site, co- position on site position on ordinates, position elevation, co- previous location parent (supply)
ordinates, depth of site/in building ordinates area
screens
PROGRAMMED ACTION Annual pump Annual pump Daily - Daily visual checks - Annual check Installation, Survey planning
effectiveness and effectiveness and housekeeping for leaks for cracks, removal and details with
- When
performance tests, performance tests. and safety. leaks testing dates and planned and
- Annual flushing
annual well Weekly/ monthly Biannual valve readings completion
- 5 yr check of
efficiency tests test of standby checks. As per - Biannual valve dates
joints
monthly drawdown pumping insp.
tests equipment - monthly
- Biannual hydrant
check of
insp.
covers
- Chemical tests
- How Mechanical Cavitation Temperature, - Visual inspections - Visual Ranges for Predominant
redevelopment, e.g. (acoustic). pressure, power inspections calibration with leak detection
- Operate equipment
jetting, compressed Vibration tests and chemical associated method a cause
- Drop tests
air. Chemical usage tests. Jar - Pressure and flow standards of leaks
with hook
rehabilitation, (e.g. and chemical tests
gauges
acid, chlorine) tests
- Chemical tests
- Soil to pipe/
structure
(voltage)
potentials

Table 3F: Management Information Systems – Generic Components and Data Requirements
Major water asset

Services Leakage
designation/function Pumping Treatment Pipelines and Meters and
Boreholes reservoirs and control
Management equipment works distribution systems instrumentation
storage tanks management
system constituents
- How often Limits established Determined from Physical and Limits establish from - Determined Reporting Empirical
from log of well hydraulic and chemical testing incident and from water facilities to determined
(or much)
development and energy efficiency (daily). As per maintenance reports audit identify periodic minimum night
maintenance tests. Vibration pumping removal and flow and
- Determined
exercises analysis equipment. testing constituents
by water
Treatment stress
quality
tests
analysis
OPTIMISATION Optimal yield Optimal period Optimal Optimal hydraulic - Minimise - Optimal Optimal
for maintenance treatment and quality levels spills and frequency for expenditure for
- What extent
processes leakage removal leakage
(minimise management.
- Reduction in
wastage)
water loss
- Potential benefits Sustained delivery of Optimal Optimal Optimal delivery/ - Reduction in Savings in lost Optimal leakage
water maintenance costs treatment costs distribution costs water loss water due to benchmark
inaccuracies

March 2002
Box 3.6 Example of Incident Job Card
City Council
Incident Job Card Regi ster Plumber Backfil l Entered Priori ty Problem
IR #: Date Reported:
Inc ident Detail Priority Meters Burst Contr actor

Descr iption of Pr oblem: High Ins tall Leak
Medium Test Hydrant
Low Stop Valve
Serv ice Unstop PRV

Type Replace Pump
Water Other Choke
Reclaim Depos it Paid ? Other
Sewage Own Materials ?
Report Reported by: Contact Per son

Detail Address: P hone - Busines s
Phone - Home
Account # Phone - Cell
Location Street A ddres s S uburb

Detail Nearest Stand # Position Descr iption
Nearest Inter sec tion
Meter Zone
Communication Res ponsible Team: Radio Other

Detail Res ponsible Person: Phone Date & Time
Communicated to: Fax Communicated
Job Card
Feedbac k Date Completed: Completed by:

Size &
Materials AC S teel Copper Concrete Plastic Other Possible Cause Other Comments:
15mm Pr ess ure
20mm Age
50mm S abotage
75mm Theft
100mm Corrosion
150mm W ork manship P enalty to be Yes No
Other Other Charged ?
Costing Detail
Number of Labourers: Of grade For Hour s total
Transport Km Us ing fleet no.
Material: AC Diameter: 15mm Length of pipe used: m

S teel 20mm
PE 50mm Fittings Used:
PVC 75mm
Concrete 100mm
Copper 150mm
Other Other

March 2002
Cost Framework
Initial cost (complete) Ongoing cost Relative cost Risk/Confidence
R150 000 R15 000 p.a. 95% confidence
Related Strategy Objective
References/Suggested Further Reading
American Water Works Association (1986). Introduction to Water Distribution. Principles and
Practices of Water Supply Operations. Volume 3.
CIWEM (1996)Monograph on Best Practice: Rehabilitation of Water Mains.
De Wit PWC & Hamersma SA (1992). Production of Operations Management. A practical
approach. International Thomson Publishing (Southern Africa) (Pty) Ltd.
Jordan JK. Maintenance Management. American Water Works Association.
Walski TM (1987). Water Supply System Rehabilitation. American Society of Civil Engineers.
Report on Levels of Service for Water Industry for England and Wales, Office of Water Services
(OFWAT) (1999/2000)
3.5 Design and Quality Standards of New Infrastructure
3.5.1 Standards and Codes
Related Strategy Objective : Objective 7 – Ensure the implementation of WC/WDM best practice
in new developments.
Scope
This section briefly describes those standards and codes of practice that are currently available for
water infrastructure and components that will promote efficient use of water as well as limit
losses/wastage of water.
Standards and codes of practice provide the necessary guidelines for the design, specification,
implementation, operation and management of engineering infrastructure. These standards and
codes of practice are not always legally enforceable.
Table 3G(a) indicates some of the Guidelines and Legal requirements associated with the various
water infrastructure and their components.
Table 3G(a)
Description Guide Legal Requirements
Potable Water Drinking Water SABS 241 Water Services Act (No.
Standards 108 of 1997)
Basic Water and Sanitation “Red Book” Guidelines for the provision of Water Services Act
Provision Engineering Services and Amenities in
Residential Township Development
Water Losses SABS 0306 : 1999 Water Services Act
Metering - SABS 1529 - Water Services Act
- SABS 0306 - Trade Metrology Act
Medium-Pressure Pipes - SABS 1200L
Erf connections - SABS 1200LF
Pipe Bedding - SABS 1200LB

March 2002
Description Guide Legal Requirements

Valves - SABS 1200LK
Steel Pipe and Linings - SABS 1200LN
Fire Fighting - SABS 090
- Red Book
Health and Safety Regulations - Occupational Health
and Safety Act No. 85
- Compensation for
Occupational Injuries
and Diseases Act 130
Employment Regulations - Basic Conditions of
Employment Act 75
- Employment Equity
Act 55
- Skills Development
Act 97
Sewage Effluent Disposal Permissible Utilisation and Disposal of - National Water Act 26
Standards Sewage Sludges. WRC Report TT 85/97
Hazardous Materials Regulations - Occupational Health
and Safety Act
- Government Gazette
No. 665 dated 1/11/99
Compulsory specification for water supply components
The SABS is currently preparing a compulsory specification for water supply components that
will include normative reference to existing SABS specifications or parts thereof. This
compulsory specification will be referred to by current legislation with the aim of protecting the
consumer, as well as the protection of South Africa’s valuable water resources.
Example of some of the SABS specifications which are proposed to be referred to in the new
compulsory specifications for water supply components are listed in the table 3G(b).
Table 3G(b): SABS specifications, which are proposed to be referred to in the new compulsory
specification for water supply components
Project
SABS Number Title
Number
3527/54884 SABS-ISO 49 Malleable cast-iron pipe fittings
3527/50120 SABS 1551-1 Check valves PT 1 PN series
3527/50140 SABS 144 Cast-iron reflux valves
3527/50070 SABS 198 Pressure-control valves – hot water systems
3527/53240 SABS 1808-15 Backflow preventers – reduced pressure
3527/50590 SABS 1509 Flushing devices – WC cisterns
3527/50030 SABS 664 Cast-iron gate valves for waterworks
3527/50300 SABS 665 Cast-iron gate valves for general purpose
3527/50020 SABS 226 Water taps – metallic
3527/53882 SABS 1529-5 Water meters – Part 5
3527/50160 SABS 821 Water closet flushing cisterns

March 2002
Project
SABS Number Title
Number
3527/50110 SABS 1240 Flush valves for water closets
3527/50180 SABS 1021 Polyacetal water taps
3527/50540 SABS 1480 Single-control mixer taps
3527/50130 SABS 191 Cast-steel gate valves
3527/50190 SABS 776 Copper-alloy gate valves
3527/50420 SABS 1056-3 Ball valves – Part 3 – Light pattern type
3527/50580 SABS 752 Float valves
3527/50060 SABS 1067-1 Copper based fittings for copper tubes – Part 1 – Compressor fittings
3527/50870 SABS 1067-2 Copper based fittings for copper tubes – Part 2 – Capillary solder
fittings
3527/51500 SABS 546 Cast-iron fittings for asbestos-cement pipes
3527/54861 SABS 1733-1 WC Flushing systems (low-capacity flush) Part 1 – systems including
flushing cisterns
3527/54907 SABS 1808-5 Water supply and distribution components –Part 5 - Flexible
connectors
3527/54897 SABS 1808 8 Water supply and distribution components – Part 8 – Tap converter
(metering)
3527/54898 SABS 1808 9 Water supply and distribution components – Part 9 – Tap (metering)
3527/54899 SABS 1808 10 Water supply and distribution components - Part 10 – Valves (copper
alloy) (non-return)
3527/54900 SABS 1808/16 Water supply and distribution components – Part 16 – Drinking
fountain
3527/54901 SABS 1808/30 Water supply and distribution components – Part 30 – Taps
(laboratory)
3527/54896 SABS 1733 - 2 WC Flushing systems (low-capacity flush) systems including flush
valves not (started yet)
3527/54903 SABS 1808-32 Water supply and distribution components – Part 32 – Valves (float)
3527/54905 SABS 1808 53 Water supply and distribution components - Part 53 – Drain cocks for
hot water
3527/????? SABS 1806-26 Water supply and distribution components – Part 26 – Backflow
preventers – double check
3527/53848 SABS 1808-31 Water supply and distribution components – Part 31 – Valves (control)
(Hydraulically operated)
3527/54851 SABS 1808-35 Water supply and distribution components – Part 35 – Valves and taps
(electronic)
3527/54852 SABS 1808-37 Water supply and distribution components – Part 37 – Valves and taps
(electronic)
3527/54854 SABS 1808-40 Water supply and distribution components – Part 40 – Cocks (draw off)
(range) and (tank)
3527/54823 SABS 1808-13 Water supply and distribution components – Part 13 – Diaphragm
valves nominal diameter 15-300 mm

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3.5.2 Achieving a “leak-free” system

3.5.2.1 Water Mains
Related Strategy Objective: Objective 7 – ensure the implementation of WC/WDM best practice
in new developments.
Scope
This section provides the basic background for limiting leakage from water pipes and fittings
upon installation as well as during the design life of the asset.
Galvanic corrosion – Corrosion that occurs when dissimilar metals are joined in an electric circuit
in the presence of an electrolyte.
Electrolytic corrosion – Corrosion that occurs due to stray direct currents utilising the metallic
pipeline as conductor for portion of its transmission path through the ground.
Stress corrosion – Corrosion that is caused by points of concentrated stress adjacent to areas of
the pipe that are under uniform stress where an electrolyte is present.
Biochemical corrosion – Corrosion that is caused by the presence of soil bacteria that creates
corrosive chemicals. This anaerobic-bacterial corrosion is another cause of galvanic corrosion.
Permissible leakage rates – The maximum leakage rate allowed from a pipe system on its
installation and prescribed by SABS 1200-2 Clause 7.3.3.
Pipe bedding – The soil bedding cradle and fill blanket for buried pipes carrying fluids.
Principles
The classification of water losses and some of the reasons for these losses were previously
illustrated (see Fig 3.4). The design and specification of water supply and distribution systems
has an influence on the degree of losses that will eventually result after years of installation and
operation. The general design and quality standards of new infrastructure is given previously in
3.5.1 and workmanship/supervision in 3.5.3 that can influence the minimisation of leakage/
wastage.
On installation water mains are required to be tested hydraulically in order to establish their water
tightness. Pipelines are generally tested at 1,25 times their maximum working pressure for at least
3 hours by means of a suitable temporary pumping system. The water is pumped into the pipeline
for another hour and the water measured to determine the leakage rate.
SABS 1200L medium pressure pipes stipulates the standards required design, specify, quantify
and construct water mains.
The soil around the pipe supports it and this support, in the form of pipe bedding, is specified
according to the structural strength of the pipe itself. A pipe is either classified as rigid (i.e. pipe
diameter is reduced by not more than 1% when under external radial forces) or as flexible (i.e.
pipe dia will be reduced by more than 1%).
During the design life of an asset such as metallic water mains and components, it is possible that
they will be subject to external corrosion causing leaks and breaks.
External corrosion converts the iron (Fe) in the pipe wall to an oxidised form and weakens the
pipe in a process known as graphitisation. The process proceeds rapidly in moist soils with high
concentrations of dissolved solids and low resistivities (e.g. clays). The process can be
accelerated if stray dc current finds its way to the pipe.
Corrosion of pipes is essentially a loss of electrons from the iron atoms (i.e. anodic areas)
converting them into ions. If electrons can be placed back into the pipe (i.e. cathodic area) at
virtually the same rate, corrosion would be reduced. This process is known as cathodic protection
and is used regularly on oil and gas pipelines.

March 2002
There are two types of cathodic protection; galvanic and impressed current. In galvanic cathodic
protection, a metal (usually magnesium) that corrodes at a higher rate that the pipe is buried near
the pipe and wired to the pipe. As this metal corrodes, an electrical circuit is set up and the pipe is
protected. The buried metal is called a “sacrificial anode”. In impressed current cathodic
protection, the electrical source is not the sacrificial anode, but commercial ac power which is
rectified to dc power and directed into the ground using buried anodes.
Severity of corrosion in any given case will depend upon many factors, some of which may be
more important than others. The factors most likely to affect the rate of corrosion are:
a) Relative positions of metals in galvanic series
b) Size of anode area with respect to cathode area
c) Location of anode with respect to cathode
d) Resistance of metallic circuit
e) Type and composition of electrolyte
f) Conductivity or resistivity of electrolyte
g) Uniformity of electrolyte
h) Depolarising conditions.
One of the most important constituents influencing internal metal corrosion in a water supply and
distribution system is the dissolved oxygen in the water. Other parameters used to establish the
corrosivity of water include chlorine concentration, the presence of chlorides and sulphates,
whether the water is hard or soft, etc. The Ryznar Index can be used as a guide to determine the
water’s expected corrosion tendency.
The material type of the pipes and fittings as well as the type of protective coatings have an
influence on the rate of corrosion of these fittings.
Concepts
The design, specification and quality of construction will all have an influence on the growth of
the leakage from a water main. It is also important to note that the practical limits for future
leakage measurements cannot expect to be lower than those stipulated for the construction of the
asset.
The preparation of the trench, the compaction of the pipe bedding and the type of soil used all
have an influence on the pipe’s ability to withstand the soil and other external pressures without
damage or failure. SABS 1200LB provides details of the standards required for the design,
construction and specification of pipe bedding.
External and internal corrosive protection coatings and linings assist in reducing the rate of
corrosion. Damage to these coatings can occur during installation or during maintenance
activities which can increase the rate of corrosion at these points of concentration. Cathodic
protection systems can slow down or even reverse this process of corrosion. There are two main
types of cathodic protection systems, viz. sacraficial anodes and impressed current systems.
Sacraficial anode systems take advantage of the effect of dissimilar metal cell that is strong
enough to counteract corrosion cells normally existing on pipelines.
The driving voltage exists between pipe steel and galvanic anode metals. As this voltage is low, it
is only used in low resistivity soils and usually placed at specific “hot spots” on the pipeline.
Impressed current systems utilise a rectifier as a power source linked to a bed of anodes as well as
the pipeline. The current is therefore forced to flow from the anode bed, through the ground to the
pipeline where the ions are deposited.

March 2002
Theory
The leakage rate increases as the test pressure increases as illustrated in Figures 3.10 and 3.11.
These graphs have been determined from the formulae for permissible leakage rates given in
SABS 1200L, Clause 7.3.3.
Figure 3.10
Permissible Leakage Rate for Steel and Plastic Pipes
6.00
5.00
4.00
Leakage Rate (l/h/km)
100 mm Dia
150 mm Dia
3.00 200 mm Dia
250 mm Dia
300 mm Dia
2.00
1.00
0.00
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Test Pressure (Mpa)
Figure 3.11
Permissible Leakage Rate for AC Pipes
45
40
35
30
Leakage Rate (l/h/Km)
25
100 mm diameter
150 mm diameter
20 200 mm diameter
250 mm diameter
15 300 mm diameter
10
0
0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Test Pressure (Mpa)
The effect of external protective coatings is illustrated by the following:

- The current required to protect an uncoated steel pipe would be approximately 100 mA/m²
while a pipe with a coating that provides 5 mega ohms of resistance would require only 0,35
mA/m² from a cathodic protection system.
References and Further Reading
American Water Works Association (1964). Steel Pipeline Design.
Peabody AW (1970). Control of Pipeline Corrosion. National Association of Corrosion Engineer.
SABS 1200 L (1983). Standard Specification for Civil Engineering Construction
Part L: Medium-Pressure Pipelines.
Part LB: Bedding (Pipes)
3.5.2.2 Service Connections
Related Strategy Objective: Objective 7 – ensure the implementation of WC/DM best practice in
new developments.

March 2002
Scope
The purpose of this section is to briefly describe the design and construction requirements for
service connections.
Service connection – The connection (communication) pipe between the water reticulation main
and the boundary of an individual property (erf).
Ferrule – A short metal tube that is screwed or plugged into the wall of a pipe or into a saddle to
form a connection.
Saddle – A metal ring split into two semi-circular halves that are clamped round a pipe and used
with a ferrule to form a connection.
Stop tap (stop valve) – A shut-off device installed in a pipeline to control the flow of water.
Principles
Water service connections are the pipes that lead from the water main to the customer’s
plumbing. Service connections vary in size depending on the pressure at the main, the distance
from the main to the meter, the quantity of water required, and the residual pressure needed for
the required quantity of water. Plastic and copper pipe are commonly used for residential service
lines, whereas larger industrial service lines may be cast-iron, asbestos-cement, or other common
piping material used in distribution systems.
In most cases, each customer is served through an individual service line. However, sometimes
multiple service connections within a short section of main provide for large service demands, or
one large service line is used to serve all occupants of a multi-family apartment complex.
Because most service lines are underground, water suppliers must maintain accurate records on
the size, location, and components used, in order to quickly and efficiently repair, replace, or shut
off a service.
Water meters are used to measure and record the volume of water flowing through a line. The
primary function of metering is to aid a water utility in equitably charging customers for the
water they use. Different types of water meters are available for various applications. (Also see
Section 3.1).
The sizing of new water connections is usually achieved with the application of the European
Load Unit System. This is an empirically formulated method that uses mathematically defined
loading units to calculate the probable peak demand flow rate. SABS 0252 : 1994 provides details
of a similar approach based on the probable peak demand flow.
Concepts
The position of the service connection is usually dictated by the positioning of the stop tap and
water meter as access to the meter as well as the site should be maintained. Where corrosive soils
are present or there is a risk of spillage in industrial areas, polyethylene pipes should be installed.
Damage to the connection at the water main can be minimised by the introduction of a long bend
in the polyethylene pipe. Drawings should indicate the minimum cover over the connection pipe,
the distances from property boundaries and position/depths of the meter.
Meters are usually specified by the local authority. (Also see Section 3.1). SABS 1200LF
provides details on the design, specification and construction of erf (service) connections.
American Water Works Association (1986). Introduction to Water Distribution Principles and
Practices of Water Supply Operations.
SABS 1200 LF (1983). Standard Specifications for Civil Engineering Construction. Part LF – Erf
Connections.

March 2002
3.5.2.3 Workmanship and supervision (monitoring)

Scope
The purpose of this section is to briefly describe the principles, concepts and general
requirements applicable to the construction of water distribution systems.
Satisfactory workmanship – Capable of fulfilling or having fulfilled the intended function as
acceptable to or approved by the Engineer.
Engineer – The natural or juristic person or partnership named as the Engineer in the Special
Conditions of Contract for Works of Civil Engineering Construction.
Quality of materials and workmanship – As described in a contract and in accordance with the
Engineer’s instructions or subject to tests.
Total quality management – Aimed at continuously improving the quality of the products and
services supplied or provided by an organisation through participation by all levels of that
organisation.
Principles
A leak free system will be achieved in an underground pipe system only if the labour force has
the necessary skill to achieve the required standard of workmanship and that there is sufficient
knowledgeable and diligent supervision in attendance, aided by effective QA procedures, to
ensure that it happens. We must remember that components of high quality, such as pipes and
valves, are produced in factories under rigorous quality controlled conditions. Only by continuing
this quality culture in the installation phase will the objective of a leak free system be realised.
The construction site is sometimes the antithesis of the quality regime that is taken for granted in
the manufacturing industry.
The material, equipment and workmanship used or applied to construct a water distribution
network must be specified and monitored in order to ensure satisfactory workmanship and the
quality of materials.
The materials used would normally be specified according to South African or British Standards
such as SABS 286 and 946 for fibre cement pipes, BS 2035 and SABS 546 for cast iron pipes and
fittings, SABS 719 and BS 534 for steel pipes and fittings as well as SABS 966 and SABS 533
for uPVC and polyethylene pipes respectively.
Construction requirements are clearly indicated in the SABS 1200 series of documents.
Concepts
Quality does not necessarily refer to the very best product, but to the best product for the
customer’s particular needs.
Total quality is purposefully aimed at satisfying the customer’s needs. This customer may be
another process within the business, or it may be an external customer.
Total quality is aimed at constant improvements throughout the product cycle from its planning,
design, specification, construction/installation through to its operation and maintenance.
The quality of workmanship and the associated monitoring functions need to fall within the
concept of Total Quality Management in order to achieve the aim of a “leak free” system.
Quality control facilitates the monitoring/supervision process as it is a continuous process to
prevent defects or deviations from the specified standards.

March 2002
Theory
The cost of quality = cost of control + cost of failure
= (cost of prevention + cost of inspection)
+ (internal cost of failure + external cost of failure).
The cost associated with quality can be limited by determining the relationship between the cost
of quality and the degree to which the quality of the product has been adapted to meet the set
quality standards. When the degree of adaptation is high (few defects), the cost of failure will be
low and the cost of control fairly high. When the degree of adaptation is low (many defects), the
opposite will apply. The business must consequently strive to function between these two
extremes, namely at that point where the total cost of quality per unit is the lowest. Figure 3.12
illustrates this concept.
Figure 3.12: The cost of quality curve
High
Total cost
Cost of failure
Minimum cost
Average cost
Cost of control
Low
Number of defects High

De Wit PWC & Hamersma SA (1996). Production and Operations Management. A practical
approach. International Thomson Publishing (Southern Africa) (Pty) Ltd.
South African Institution of Civil Engineering (1990). General Conditions of Contract for Works
of Civil Engineering Construction. Sixth Edition.
South African Bureau of Standards (1986). Standardised Specification for Civil Engineering
Construction, Part A: General.
3.5.2.4 Tests
Scope
The purpose of this section is to briefly describe the various tests that facilitate the
implementation of a “leak-free” system.

March 2002

Leakage during testing of pipes is the volume of water that must be supplied to the pipeline to
maintain a specific test pressure after all air has been expelled from the line.
Principles
Tests form an important part of inspections relating to quality control in that they provide an
objective indication to the degree that particular quality standards are achieved. These quality
standards related to the following requirements:
• Technological requirements, i.e. set standards.
• Psychological requirements, i.e. satisfy consumer’s psychological needs.
• Reliability and maintenance, i.e. higher quality products should be more reliable than one
of a lower quality.
• Contractual requirements, i.e. as laid down contractually.
• Ethical requirements, i.e. high ethical standards should be maintained for a higher quality
product.
The tests relating to the following components/aspects are briefly described in this section.
• Pressure testing for water tightness of pipes.
Once the trench has been partially backfilled, the pipe, regardless of type, must be tested
for an amount of leakage and ability to hold pressure. This can be done in sections as the
pipe is completed or it can be done after the entire pipe has been laid. In either case, it
should be done before complete closure of the trench.
The following procedure is suggested:
1. Check that all anchors and thrust blocks have been installed. Allow at least five days
for the concrete to cure.
2. Install a pressure pump equipped with make-up reservoir and a method for measuring
the amount of water pressure and water pumped in the system to be tested. The method
used to measure water volume could be a calibrated make-up reservoir (preferably), a
calibrated positive-displacement pump, or a very sensitive water meter. This set up
should be installed at the end of the pipe, at a service connection, or at a hydrant.
Alternatively, a line with a pressure gauge, pump, and sensitive water meter could be
connected from an existing live hydrant to the line being tested. A double-check valve
should also be placed in the line to prevent any backflow into the supply line or tank.
3. Close appropriate valves, corporation stops, etc. Notify customers, if necessary.
4. Slowly fill the test section with water while expelling air through valves and hydrants.
5. Start applying partial pressure with the pump. Before bringing the pressure to the full
test value, bleed all air out of the mains by venting through service connections and
air-release valves.
6. Once the lines are full and all the air has been let off, leave on partial pressure and
allow the pipe to stand for at least 24 hours.
7. For pressure testing, the pressure specified in SABS 1200L, shall be maintained for a
period of at least 3 hours.
8. Examine the trench for visible leaks or pipe movement. Any joints, valves, etc. that
show leakage should be checked, adjusted, or repaired as needed. The test may need to
be repeated after any adjustments or repairs.

March 2002
9. After the test pressure has been maintained for at lest two hours, conduct a leakage test
by measuring, with the make-up reservoir, the amount of water that has to be pumped
into the line in order to maintain the specified test pressure.
10. Compare the amount of leakage to the suggested maximum leakage given in SABS
1200L (Clause 7.3.3). A swift loss of pressure is likely due to a break in the line or a
major valve opening. A slow loss of pressure may be due to a leaking valve or a curb
stop not shutting off.
If the line has failed the leakage test, it is necessary to find where the excessive leakage
is taking place. There are a few steps that can be taken to ensure that there is a pipe
leak and not a leak at a fitting. First, leave the line under normal pressure. The next
day, repeat the test. If the leakage measured the next day is greater than before, the leak
probably is in a pipe joint or a damaged pipe. If the leakage is the same, it is probably
in a valve or service connection.
• Testing of water meters
New and repaired water meters must be tested and verified correct in terms of the Trade
Metrology Act, 1973 (Act 77 of 1973). SABS 1529-1: 1994 provides details of the test
required and the acceptable error limits of these tests.
There are three basic elements to a meter test:
⇒ Running a number of different rates of flow over the operating range of the meter to
determine overall meter efficiency.
⇒ Passing known quantities of water through the meter at various test rates to provide a
reasonable determination of meter registration.
⇒ Meeting accuracy limits on different rates for acceptable use.
Tests are generally carried out on a test facility such as a flow laboratory which consists
basically of a calibrated water tank, a rate of flow indicator, a regulating valve and water
supplied at a constant pressure.
Meters can also be tested in situ as clearly detailed in Annexure G of SABS 0306:1999.
• Cathodic protection – test measurement of potential
The application of a copper sulphate electrode and voltmeter in the field provides an
indication of the magnitude of cathodic protection a pipe system has. The copper sulphate
electrode consists of a copper rod inserted into the top of a tube containing a saturated
solution of copper sulphate. The bottom of the tube is plugged with porous wood.
The electrode is placed in contact with the ground via the wooden plug, the copper rod is
connected to the voltmeter and the voltmeter in turn is connected to the pipeline via a
contact point. The pipe usually has sufficient cathodic protection if the voltmeter records
between –0,85 and -2,5 volts.
A record in the form of a graph indicating the various voltage readings corresponding to
the various measurement points along the pipeline is a pragmatic way of identifying which
lengths of pipe are or are not protected by cathodic protection.
• Testing of fire hydrants
After installation and before backfilling (and after pressure testing a newly installed water
main), test the hydrant as follows:
1. Open the hydrant fully and fill with water; close all outlets.
2. Vent air from the hydrant by leaving one of the caps slightly loose as the hydrant is
being filled. After all air has escaped, tighten the cap before proceeding.

March 2002
3. Apply a maximum operating pressure of the water main.

4. Check for leakage at flanges, outlet nozzles, and operating stem.
5. If leakage is noted, repair or replace components or complete hydrant until the
condition has been corrected.
American Water Works Association (1986). Introduction to Water Distribution – Principles and
Practices of Water Supply and Operations.
South African Standard Specification (1994). SABS 1529-1: Water meters for cold potable water
Part 1 – Metrological characteristics of mechanical water meters of nominal bore not exceeding
100 mm.
3.5.3 Hydraulic Design
Related Strategy Objective
Scope
The purpose of this section is to provide a basic introduction to hydraulic principles as related to
achieving the ideal pressure regime within the water distribution system.
Pressure head (m) – Gauge pressure measured in metres head elevation of water.
Residual pressure – The pressure available at a particular point in the distribution network.
Principles
Water flowing through pipe the network from reservoirs situated on high topographical elevations
to the consumer’s house connection is subject to a loss of water pressure that is, in turn, related to
the amount of water demanded by the consumer within a particular period of time.
When conditions of no water demand occur then, in theory, the pressure in the distribution system
will be equivalent to the static pressure of supply. This would generally be when the pressure is at
its highest. There is a relationship between pressure and flow through a hole in the pipe, therefore
leakage rates will also occur during this period of high pressures.
The topography, positioning of reservoirs, layout of pipes and selection of pumping equipment
must be considered in context of the need to supply water to consumers at a minimum acceptable
pressure during conditions of high water demands as well as not to exceed the maximum pressure
during no flow conditions.
Concepts
Some of the general concepts related to the design of water distribution networks include:
• The traditional maximum head specified in the reticulation (under zero flow conditions) does
not exceed 90 m. However, in order to reduce leakage/wastage, this should be considerably
reduced to lower than 50 m;
• the minimum pressure head during the design peak flow should not be less than 6 m at a
terminal (standpipe, house connection, etc.);
• minimum pipe sizes should not be less than 15 mm (internal diameter);
• it is advantageous to use the minimum number of different pipe sizes to reduce the holding
stock required for maintenance and repair;
• distribution pipelines should not pass through residential or privately owned property, or
under roads, if at all possible;

March 2002
• where pipelines need to cross roads, care should be taken to ensure the pipe is well bedded
and at a sufficient depth (0,8 m). It is advisable to maintain a larger diameter pipe than may be
required from design considerations for road crossings;
• comments in the section on valves and other fittings are also valid for distribution networks;
• where air valves and scour valves are required, taps on standpipes or at other terminals should
be sited to fulfil this function as well;
• isolating valves should be located at street corners, or opposite erf corner boundary pegs.
Where pipes intersect, isolating valves should be installed in the smaller diameter branches;
• pipes should not rise above hydraulic gradient, otherwise there may be problems with
siphonage.
The reticulation should be designed so that the residual pressure in the reticulation main at any
point is within the following limits:
Minimum peak hour demand: 15 m plus 2,75 x number of floors of building.
Maximum at zero flow : 50 m.
Please note the relationship leakage/pressure in Table 3D (c) e.g. 61% reduction if pressure
reduced from 60 to 30 m.
Theory
Any of the recognised hydraulic formulae may be used to calculate friction issues in pipelines, for
example:
The Darcy-Weisbach equation for determining head loss in a pipeline:
flv 2
Ht =
2 gd
The Chezy equation for determining flow velocities:
2 gd
v² = hf = C²RS
fl
The Manning-Strickler equation for flow velocities:
1 2/3 1/2
v= R S , and the
n
Prandi-von Karman equation and Colebrook and White equation to determine f in the different
hydraulic zones
ht = head loss
f = resistance coefficient
l = length of pipe
v = velocity
d = diameter of pipe
g = acceleration due to gravity
C = Chezy’s constant = 8g

March 2002
R = hydraulic mean radius = – d/4

hf
S = slope of energy line (hydraulic gradient) =
l
n = roughness coefficient
The Manning equation is usually preferred because of the difficulty in determining the value of f.
Friction loss calculations must take into account the long-term conditions of the internal surface
of the pipes and the possible increase in friction loss due to the quality of the water conveyed.
Friction coefficients adopted and the motivation for their choice should accompany the design.
Allowance should also be made for losses in specials, fittings and laying imperfections by
increasing the calculated friction loss by a nominal 7,5%.
Reference and Suggested Further Reading
Department of Planning, Provincial Affairs and Housing (1991). Guidelines for the provision of
engineering services and amenities in residential township development (Red Book). Prepared by
the Division of Building Technology, CSIR.
3.6 Dual Distribution Systems
Related Strategy Objective: Objective 1 – Implement efficient distribution management.
Scope
This section briefly introduces the concept of dual distribution systems as a possible option of
augmenting water supply and keeping available potable water resources fit for use.
- A dual system is defined as a water supply facility which supplies two grades of water through
two separate pipe networks in the same service area, one being potable and the other probably
non-potable.
- Indirect re-use (potable or non-potable), when water for drinking and/or other purposes is
abstracted from a source into which effluent has been discharged.
- Direct potable re-use, when treated effluent is reclaimed and fed directly into a potable water
supply system (such as in Windhoek).
- Direct non-potable re-use, when treated effluent is reclaimed and fed directly into the non-
potable leg of a complete or limited dual system.
- Non-potable/irrigation/garden water, water that is microbiologically and chemically safe for
inadvertent, short-term consumption by humans.
Principles
Dual systems should be considered when the re-use of effluents and non-potable water as a
secondary source is contemplated.
Dual water systems can reduce to demand for potable water by some 25 to 50% compared to that
required by a conventional distribution systems.
The principle of increased agricultural irrigation to leach surplus salts from the root zone of crops
is applicable. As the salt load is carried mainly by the garden water system, it is distributed over
the entire supply area, rather than discharged into the water source.
The reticulation costs of a dual system are approximately 160% that of a single system and not
double as would be expected, this is because of the reduction in treatment costs.
Mass balances and cost comparisons indicated that re-use in dual systems entail smaller
desalination streams, less salts to be removed, better water utilisation indices and probably better
economics than to reclaim effluents for direct potable re-use.
March 2002
Concepts
The concept of using dual systems becomes more attractive when the treatment of raw water for
potable use is very expensive such as:
• where sea or brackish water (with high TDS concentrations) is the closest available water
source;
• where intensive indirect re-use of water may cause high TDS concentrations in the source (as
with the Vaal River Barrage); and
• where the high increment cost of developing new fresh water sources may dictate
consideration of reclamation and direct re-use of treated sewage effluents.
Box 3.7 Garies Local Authority
Garies Local Authority is situated within the Benede Oranje Catchment Area on the West Coast of South Africa and has a
population of approximately 1500 people. The area has an average monthly rainfall of 14 mm and during the summer months, the
average temperature is 32°C. The average daily water consumption is 275 m³ (2000) and expected to be 347 m³/d in 2005.
Boreholes can deliver approximately 300 m³ per day of potable water and 219 m³ per day of salt water.
In 2000, nearly 95% of the 325 households were connected to the sewerage reticulation system. A dual water distribution system is
utilised to provide salt water for use with the waterborne sewage system and potable water for human consumption.
Operating and maintenance costs are included in the fixed tariff for the salt water supply. The Council introduced a double-billing
system that separates current water accounts and previous debts as well as a potable water disconnection policy to encourage
payment of water accounts. The salt water system is not included in the disconnection regulations which prevents any health risks
from the lack of flushing water. Monthly charges for full waterborne sanitation systems is R34 (2000).
A surface dam has been constructed to replenish the groundwater resource through infiltration.
References and Suggested Further Reading:

Botha J (1998). Dual water supply – a viable option. Water Sewage & Effluent (December).
Botha J & Pretorius WA (1998). Die uitvoerbaarheid van dubbelwater-voorsieningstelsels. Water
Research Commission Report KUV 113/98.
Garies Local Authority (2000). Integrated Water Services Development Plan: Starter
Requirements : Focus on Demand Management. DWAF and Octagonal Development CC.
3.7 Intermittent Supply Rationing
Scope
This distribution management tool can be considered in cases where the water demand is in
excess of the water available at source or from a particular water distribution reservoir. It can also
be considered in areas where the water demand needs to be reduced to cut operational costs.
It is most advantage to use the tool in areas where total water wastage from the distribution
system is high. Wastage comprises water that, having been obtained from source and put into a
water distribution system, leaks or is allowed to escape or is taken therefrom for no useful
purpose (SABS 0306: 1999. Sub-section 3.1.53). Total wastage comprises wastage from the
distribution system both upstream and downstream of customer connections.
It is easiest to apply in areas where no water FLOW control devices have been installed to deliver
a fixed maximum amount of water to individual customer units over a period of twenty four
hours. If such flow control devices are not adjusted, customer units with these devices fitted will
be further rationed unjustly.
The existence of water meters, which are used for billing customers, can also be problematical.
This is because supplying distribution pipework with water intermittently allows air to enter the
pipelines and to accumulate during the period feed water is shut off. After reconnecting, ideally
all the accumulated should leave through the air release valves fitted to the pipelines. However,
this is often not the case, and instead some of the air passes through the water meters. When this

March 2002
occurs the flow of air through the meter causes it to over register and customers get billed for
water they have not used.
Definition
Intermittent supply rationing refers to the means by which a WSI controls the water demand in a
distribution system, or an isolatable part thereof, by closing the inlet isolating valve(s) to the area
for predetermined periods. For large areas, this valve is usually a distribution reservoir’s outlet
valve, fitted downstream of any bulk water meter.
Principles
The draft regulations relating to compulsory national standards, issued in terms of section 9(1) of
the Water Services Act 1997, state that no customer is to be without a water supply for more than
seven full days in any year (see regulation 3(b)(iii)). Thus to maintain minimum standards, in
terms of the regulations, WSIs wishing to introduce intermittent supplies must ensure that at least
one complete flow no-flow cycle takes place every 24 hours rather than, say, every 48 hours.
Thus, a cycle comprising a flow period of 16 hours followed by a no-flow period of 32 hours is
not permitted in terms of the regulations whilst a flow period of 8 hours followed by a no-flow
period of 16 hours is permitted, provided all the other requirements of a basic water supply
service are met.
As the flow period per day decreases, the peak water demand from the system will rise, and the
pressures in the system will fall, until customers at or near the system’s critical pressure point will
not have access to water for a part of the flow period. It is therefore essential that the flow period
is long enough to allow customers access to water for the full flow period and that the minimum
flow of water from shared access points is not less than 10 litres per minute (see regulation 3(b)(i)
relating to compulsory national standards).
Whilst intermittent supply rationing is introduced to control the water demand in a distribution
system, or an isolatable part thereof, it still generally allows customers with unregulated
household connections to access an amount of water in excess of any free basic amount. If this
excess amount is such that the WSI needs to recover the cost, it is recommended that payment be
based on a graded flat rate system which makes use of bulk water meters to calculate the total
revenue to be raised. For more detailed recommendations on introducing a graded flat rate
payment system see section 5.3 of “Prepayment water meters and management systems: a booklet
for local authorities and community institutions” Department of Water Affairs and Forestry
(DWAF) April 2001. Where a household already has a meter and there is evidence that the
discharge of air through the meter is causing it to over register, the customer should be asked to
pay the graded rate or the metered consumption, whichever is less.
Methodology
Before intermittent supply distribution management is introduced it is important for the WSI to
clarify its aims and to have a reasonable understanding of both its customers and the distribution
system. For example are there any non domestic customers who need an uninterrupted 24 hour
supply? What is the total inflow to the system each hour over a 24 hour period? This immediately
allows the WSI to calculate the maximum water saving possible from shutting off the supply over
different time periods. Further analysis of the system and, in particular, of the minimum night
flow, will help the WSI to estimate what percentage of the maximum savings are likely to be
transferred to water usage at another period, after intermittent supplies have been introduced. For
example a high minimum night flow, with low explainable normal night use, indicates high
combined losses from pipe leaks, pipework fittings and customer fittings. This minimum night
flow demand, which is wastage, will not be transferred, if intermittent supply rationing is
introduced. Low minimum night lows indicate low wastage and means that customers may
transfer water usage to other times.
If it appears that intermittent supply rationing on its own is not going to reduce the demand
sufficiently, a WSI can consider combining this management tool with other methods of reducing
the demand, such as placing restrictions on the use of hoses.

March 2002
After clarifying its aims and estimating the number of hours per 24 hours that the water needs to
be shut off, the WSI needs to discuss the implementation strategy with its customers. Care needs
to be taken to check if there are any customers that will be more than inconvenienced by the
proposals. The hours of shut off also need to be discussed. In areas with shared standpipes
customers often take the opportunity to encourage as much water collection outside school hours
as is practical. For example water demand may be remarkably constant from 6am through to 8pm
but when told that the WSI is planning to supply water for 7 hours each day from 8am to 3pm,
they may recommend that Monday to Friday during school terms the hours be changed to 3 hours
in the morning from 5am to 8am and 4 hours in the afternoon 3pm to 7pm.
Customers are also likely to ask about longer term plans. It is important that WSIs answer such
queries honestly and thoughtfully, so that they do not make promises they cannot keep. This
means having a good understanding of all the other water demand management and cost recovery
techniques, so that they know what types of systems and actions are likely to be appropriate for
any future upgrading that is to be implemented: refurbishment, pressure management, equity
valve or in tank FLOW regulators used in conjunction with yard or roof-mounted tank,
conventional metering, conventional metering combined with an electronic maximum daily
QUANTITY regulator, prepayment meters with or without a maximum daily QUANTITY
regulator. Customers should not be left with the impression that intermittent supply rationing is
only a short term interim measure until all individual households connections are fitted with
conventional water meters, if in fact such a solution would be inappropriate and therefore is
unlikely to be implemented.
For customers with individual household connections the introduction of intermittent supply
rationing may mean having to learn how to store water hygienically. The provision of appropriate
education in this respect is also required in terms of draft regulation 3(a) relating to compulsory
national standards.
After these essential preliminary steps have been taken the WSI will be ready to implement the
intermittent supply rationing as follows:
• Shut the selected isolating valve(s) at the agreed time. As the valve gets close to the fully
closed position, close it more slowly to prevent dangerous water hammer upstream of the
valve. There will only be more than one valve to close in instances where there is more than
one valve feeding the system to be controlled.
• Re-open the selected valve(s) to refill the pipelines at the agreed time.
Ensure the pipelines are refilled slowly, so that they are not damaged by water hammer as the
refilling process ends.
• Especially in the early days, the system should be monitored to ensure that no unintended
outcomes have occurred: e.g. excessive queues at shared standpipes or customers near the
critical pressure points being deprived of water for additional periods because of an excessive
peak demand.
• Monitoring is also necessary to check that the WSI’s objectives have been met.
• Lastly, the quality of the water towards the end of the distribution system needs to be checked
occasionally to ensure that no poor quality water is being sucked into the pipelines whilst
they are not under pressure.
WSIs need not allow these water hammer and water quality warnings to discourage them unduly
from using intermittent supply rationing. It has been used successfully for several years on a
number of remote community-operated schemes in Northern Province.
Advantages
Once customers agree to its introduction, intermittent supply rationing can implemented at very
short notice at minimum cost.

March 2002
In areas where the water wastage is high, the demand for water can often be halved by
intermittent supply rationing.
Disadvantages
There is no fire protection water available during the period the water is switched off.
Example ‘A’
A number of remote communities, in Northern Province, visited by the author in 1994 had stand
alone reticulated schemes operated by the communities themselves (see Department of Water
Affairs and Forestry (DWAF) 1997, pp 33 & 34). All these schemes, which supplied water to
customers through a limited number of shared standpipes, were operated on an intermittent
supply basis, with water being available fairly regularly in the morning, and again later in the
afternoon and evening, for a total of up to 12 hours per day. The reasons these communities
operated their schemes on an intermittent supply basis varied from scheme to scheme but was
always for one or a combination of the three reasons which follow:
• Operating the scheme in this manner reduced running costs by curtailing demand and water
losses.
• The water source or pumping equipment could not deliver the total unrationed demand.
Water was therefore only made available when there was water in the distribution reservoir.
This manner of operation helped to ensure that all customers had equal access to the limited
water delivered by the system.
• Organising pump operators to operate the pumping equipment on a semi-continuous basis,
including overnight, to ensure that the full unrationed demand could be met proved more
difficult than organising the limited set hours for water availability.
Example ‘B’
Since the introduction of the free basic amount of water policy in July 2001, many of the larger
municipalities have indicated that they can afford, in the medium term at least, to supply all
households with 6 kilolitres of water per month free. However, many poor urban families within
these municipalities, with unregulated unmetered house connections, are using up to 20 and 25
kilolitres per month and paying a low flat rate for this water rather than paying on a consumption
basis (Hemson 2001). This is threatening the financial viability of the free basic amount of water
policy in these larger municipalities. In many instances, intermittent supply rationing could be
used to reduce the free water delivered to around the 6 kilolitres level. An example of how this
was done in one of Odi Retail’s peri-urban supply areas, in North West Province was the shutting
off of the supply to the villages for 36 hours out of every 48 hours. This was undertaken after an
extensive cost recovery and awareness campaign and with the co-operation of the community.
Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (1997). “Implementing prepayment water metering
systems”. The Director Interventions and Operations Support, Department of Water Affairs and
Forestry, P/Bag X313, PRETORIA, 0001 South Africa. Oct 1997, pp 71.
Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (2000). “Water supply service levels: a guide for local
authorities”. The Director Interventions and Operations Support, Department of Water Affairs
and Forestry, P/Bag X313, PRETORIA, 0001 South Africa. Nov 2000, pp 35.
Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (2001). “Prepayment water meters and management
systems: a booklet for local authorities and community institutions”. The Director Interventions
and Operations Support, Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, P/Bag X313, PRETORIA,
0001 South Africa. Apr 2001, pp 33.
Department of Water Affairs and Forestry (2001). “Draft regulations under Section 9(1) of the
Water Services Act, 1997: compulsory national standards”. The Director Interventions and
Operations Support, Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, P/Bag X313, PRETORIA, 0001
South Africa. May 2001, pp 10.
March 2002
Hemson, D (2001). “Free water?” An unpublished e-mail from Dr David Hemson, Social Policy
Program, University of Durban-Westville, P/Bag X54001, DURBAN, 4000 South Africa. Feb
2001, pp 2.


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WC/WDM Implementation Guidelines for WSIs DRAFT

Guideline Manual for WSIs 3.1

Guideline Manual for WSIs 3.2

Guideline Manual for WSIs 3.3

11 DISTRICT, SUB-DISTRICT & ZONE INVENTORY

Guideline Manual for WSIs 3.4

CONCEPTS AND THEORY

Guideline Manual for WSIs 3.5

Guideline Manual for WSIs 3.6

2.8 Total water losses (i.e. unauthorised)

Guideline Manual for WSIs 3.7

4.4 Unit cost of UFW (based on cost recovery)

Guideline Manual for WSIs 3.9

Guideline Manual for WSIs 3.10

Figure 3.1: Flow chart for water management district programme

DESIGN OF WATER DESIGN OF OPERATIONS SIZE & LINKING WATER OPTIMISATION

2.INVESTIGATION OF EXISTING ZONES

CHECK EXTENT OF SATISFY IDEAL ADJUST TO SUIT WATER METHODICAL DESIGN

5.DESIGN OF UTILIZE EXISTING

DEFINITION OF DETAILED METHOD FOR 4.MAINTENANCE OF

NETWORK DEFINE SERIES &

CALIBRATION POPULATION AND LAND

INSTALLATION PHYSICAL DEFINITION ADMINISTRATIVE

OPERATIONS & VERIFICATION

Guideline Manual for WSIs 3.12

3.2.2 District and Zone Metering

SEPARATION POINT BETWEEN

Guideline Manual for WSIs 3.14

Guideline Manual for WSIs 3.15

Guideline Manual for WSIs 3.17

Guideline Manual for WSIs 3.18

ORIFICE PLATE (100mm T-type)

Flow Rate % of Maximum Flow

Figure 3.3 : Flow meter accuracy curves

Guideline Manual for WSIs 3.19

Guideline Manual for WSIs 3.20

Water meter types

Guideline Manual for WSIs 3.21

Guideline Manual for WSIs 3.22

• Institutional considerations: Mechanical meters are more applicable to the maintenance

Guideline Manual for WSIs 3.23

Method Application Data Sources

Guideline Manual for WSIs 3.24

References and suggested further reading

Guideline Manual for WSIs 3.25

Definitions, Terminology, Abbreviations

Guideline Manual for WSIs 3.26

FIGURE 3.4 : CLASSIFICATION OF WATER LOSSES

(50mm < DIAMETER < 150mm)

PRIMARY DIST. SYSTEM

(DIAMETER > 150mm)

(DIAMETER < 50mm)

SYSTEMS ITEM LOCATION REASON

Guideline Manual for WSIs 3.27

General Approach and Methodology

3.3.4 Passive Leakage Control

Guideline Manual for WSIs 3.29

There are two district stages in ALC using monitored zones:

Guideline Manual for WSIs 3.30