KCA – 202

MOBILE COMPUTING
UNIT – II

Wireless Networking
Wireless networking refers to computer networks that utilize radio waves instead of physical cables to connect
devices and transfer data. It has become increasingly popular due to its several advantages, including:
 Mobility: Wireless networks allow devices like laptops, tablets, and smartphones to connect to the
network and access resources (internet, printers, etc.) without being confined by cables. This provides
greater flexibility and movement within the network's coverage area.
 Scalability: Expanding a wireless network is generally simpler compared to wired networks. Adding
new devices typically involves configuring them to connect to the existing wireless network, eliminating
the need for additional cable infrastructure.
 Cost-effective: In some scenarios, setting up a wireless network can be more cost-effective than
installing wired connections for every device. You save on the cost of cables and avoid the hassle of
running them throughout a building.
Here's a deeper dive into how wireless networking works:
 Network Components: A typical wireless network consists of several key components:
o Wireless Router: This device acts as the central hub, connecting to the wired internet
connection and broadcasting the wireless signal that devices can connect to.
o Wireless Access Points (APs): In larger areas, additional access points can be used to extend
the coverage area of the wireless network and ensure a strong signal throughout.
o Wireless Adapters: These are built-in components on most modern laptops and smartphones
or external adapters for desktops that allow them to connect to the wireless signal and
participate in the network.
 Data Transmission: Wireless networks use radio waves to transmit data between devices. The specific
radio frequencies used can vary depending on the technology (e.g., Wi-Fi, Bluetooth).
 Security: Wireless networks can be vulnerable to eavesdropping or unauthorized access. To safeguard
your network, it's crucial to implement security measures like WPA2 encryption and use strong
passwords for your Wi-Fi network.
Here are some of the common types of wireless networking technologies:
 Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11 standards): The most prevalent wireless networking technology for home, office,
and public Wi-Fi hotspots. It offers varying speeds depending on the specific Wi-Fi standard
(802.11a/b/g/n/ac/ax).
 Bluetooth: Designed for shorter-range connections between devices for data transfer or audio
streaming. Commonly used for connecting wireless headphones, speakers, or transferring files between
devices.
 Cellular Networks: Mobile network technologies like GSM, CDMA, and LTE provide internet access and
data connectivity for smartphones and cellular devices on the go.
Wireless networking has revolutionized the way we connect and access information. It offers mobility,
convenience, and scalability, making it an essential part of modern communication infrastructure.
Wireless LAN Overview - MAC Issues
Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs) offer flexibility and convenience, but they also introduce challenges
compared to wired networks. Here's an overview of WLANs with a focus on MAC (Medium Access Control)
layer issues:
WLAN Basics:
 Function: WLANs connect devices within a limited area like a home, office, or public space using radio
waves instead of cables.
 Components: Wireless routers or access points (APs) broadcast a signal that devices with wireless
adapters can connect to.
 Standards: Common standards include IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi) with various versions offering different
speeds and features.
MAC Layer in WLANs:
 Function: The MAC layer controls how devices share the wireless medium (radio channel) to avoid
collisions and ensure efficient data transmission.
 Protocols: WLANs use protocols like CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision
Avoidance) to manage channel access. Devices listen for the channel to be free before transmitting and
backoff if they detect another device transmitting.
Common MAC Issues in WLANs:
 Hidden Node Problem: A device outside the range of an access point (AP) but within range of another
connected device can't detect the AP's transmissions. This can lead to collisions when both devices try
to transmit simultaneously.
 Exposed Node Problem: A device within the range of multiple APs might associate with the weaker
AP, leading to lower performance and potential connectivity issues.
 Increased Collision Rate: Due to the shared nature of the wireless medium, collisions are more likely
compared to wired networks. This can lead to retransmissions and reduced overall network
throughput.
 Fairness Issues: Some devices with stronger antennas or aggressive behavior might unfairly dominate
channel access, impacting the performance of other devices.
 Increased Signal Interference: Interference from other radio waves (e.g., cordless phones, Bluetooth
devices) can disrupt data transmission and reduce network performance.
Mitigating MAC Issues:
Several techniques can help address these MAC layer issues:
 RTS/CTS (Request To Send/Clear To Send): An optional handshake mechanism where devices
request permission to transmit before sending data, reducing collisions.
 Power Management: Devices can adjust their transmission power to minimize interference and
conserve battery life.
 Channel Selection: Access points can dynamically select channels with less congestion to improve
performance.
 Quality of Service (QoS): Prioritization mechanisms can be implemented to ensure better
performance for critical applications like voice calls.
  Spatial Reuse: Modern standards like 802.11ac and Wi-Fi 6 utilize techniques like spatial division
multiplexing (SDM) to transmit to multiple devices simultaneously, improving efficiency.

IEEE 802.11
IEEE 802.11, also widely known as Wi-Fi, is a set of standards that define the protocols for wireless local area
networks (WLANs). It specifies how devices communicate with each other and the network using radio waves
instead of cables.
Here's a breakdown of key aspects of IEEE 802.11:
Function:
 Establishes the foundation for wireless networking, enabling devices like laptops, smartphones, tablets,
and printers to connect to a network and access the internet or share resources without wires.
Components:
 The standard focuses on the Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical (PHY) layers of the OSI model.
 MAC layer manages how devices share the wireless channel to avoid collisions during data
transmission.
 PHY layer defines the physical characteristics of the radio waves used for communication, including
frequency, modulation techniques, and signal strength.
Benefits:
 Mobility: Users can connect and move around freely within the coverage area of the wireless network.
 Scalability: Adding new devices is generally simpler compared to wired networks.
 Cost-Effectiveness: In many cases, setting up a wireless network can be more economical than
installing cables for every device.
Different Versions (amendments) of IEEE 802.11:
 Several versions of the standard have been developed over time, each offering improvements in speed,
range, security, and features. Here are some common ones:
o 802.11a: Offered higher speeds (up to 54 Mbps) in the 5 GHz band but had limited range.
o 802.11b: Provided wider compatibility and range (up to 11 Mbps) in the 2.4 GHz band.
o 802.11g: Combined the benefits of 802.11a and 802.11b, offering higher speeds (up to 54
Mbps) in the 2.4 GHz band.
o 802.11n (Wi-Fi 4): Introduced significant speed improvements (up to 300 Mbps) using MIMO
(Multiple-Input Multiple-Output) technology.
o 802.11ac (Wi-Fi 5): Further increased speeds (up to 1.3 Gbps) using wider channels and more
advanced modulation techniques.
o 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6): The latest standard offers even faster speeds (up to 9.6 Gbps), improved
efficiency, and better performance in congested environments.
Security:
 Wireless networks can be vulnerable to eavesdropping or unauthorized access.
  The standard supports various security mechanisms like WPA (Wi-Fi Protected Access) and WPA2,
which use encryption to safeguard data transmission.

Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a short-range wireless technology standard designed for exchanging data between fixed and
mobile devices over short distances. It establishes a personal area network (PAN) to connect devices and
facilitates wireless communication. Here's a closer look at Bluetooth:
Key Features:
 Range: Bluetooth typically operates within a range of 10 meters (33 feet) with a maximum theoretical
range of 100 meters (330 feet) in Bluetooth 5.0.
 Frequency: It utilizes the unlicensed Industrial, Scientific, and Medical (ISM) radio bands in the 2.4 GHz
frequency range.
 Applications: Bluetooth is prevalent in various applications, including:
o Connecting wireless headphones and speakers to smartphones or laptops for music playback.
o Enabling data transfer between devices like phones and computers for sharing files or photos.
o Allowing hands-free communication through wireless headsets for mobile calls.
o Connecting wireless keyboards, mice, and game controllers to devices.
o Smart home applications for controlling lights, thermostats, and other smart devices.
Data Transfer Modes:
 Bluetooth can operate in different modes depending on the need:
o Classic Bluetooth: Provides a reliable connection for data transfer and audio streaming but
with lower data rates.
o Bluetooth Low Energy (LE): Designed for low power consumption and extended battery life,
often used in wearable devices and Internet of Things (IoT) applications.
Advantages:
 Convenience: Bluetooth offers a cable-free connection for easy and flexible device interaction.
 Standardization: The widespread adoption of Bluetooth standards ensures compatibility between
devices from different manufacturers.
 Low Power Consumption: Especially in Bluetooth LE mode, it promotes battery efficiency in devices.
Limitations:
 Range: The relatively short range compared to Wi-Fi can be a constraint in some scenarios.
 Data Rate: Classic Bluetooth offers lower data rates compared to other wireless technologies like Wi-Fi.
Future of Bluetooth:
 Newer versions of Bluetooth like Bluetooth 5.2 and upcoming versions aim to enhance features like:
o Increased data transfer rates.
o Improved range and connection stability.
o Lower latency for real-time applications.
o Continued focus on power efficiency.
Wireless multiple access protocols
In wireless communication, especially for cellular networks, multiple access protocols play a crucial role in
enabling numerous devices to share the limited radio spectrum efficiently. Here's a breakdown of some key
wireless multiple access protocols:
Challenges and Need for Protocols:
 Shared Medium: The radio spectrum is a shared resource. Without proper protocols, multiple devices
transmitting simultaneously would create chaos and unintelligible data due to collisions.
 Collision Avoidance: The primary function of these protocols is to prevent collisions and ensure
efficient data transmission for all devices within a network coverage area.
Common Wireless Multiple Access Protocols:
1. Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA):
o Basic Idea: Devices listen (carrier sense) to the channel before transmitting. If the channel is
busy, they wait for a random amount of time (avoid) before attempting again to minimize
collisions.
o Variations:
 CSMA/CD (Collision Detection): If a collision occurs during transmission, devices
detect it (collision detection) and retransmit after a random backoff time.
 CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance): Devices avoid collisions altogether by sending a
request to transmit (RTS) before sending data. The receiver responds with a clear to
send (CTS) if the channel is free.
2. Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA):
o Concept: The available radio spectrum is divided into multiple frequency channels. Each device
is assigned a specific channel for transmission, eliminating collisions as devices don't transmit
on the same frequency.
o Example: GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) cellular networks traditionally
employed FDMA.
3. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA):
o Principle: The radio channel is divided into time slots. Each device gets allocated specific time
slots for transmission within a frame, ensuring no overlap and preventing collisions.
o Example: GSM also utilized TDMA in combination with FDMA for channel access.
4. Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA):
o Core Function: CDMA allows multiple devices to transmit on the same frequency channel
simultaneously. It assigns unique codes to each device's signal. The receiver can then
differentiate and decode the signals based on their specific codes.
o Example: CDMA is a core technology used in cellular networks like CDMA2000 and its variants.
Choosing the Right Protocol:
The selection of a suitable multiple access protocol depends on various factors, including:
 Network Capacity Requirements: The desired data rate and number of users the network needs to
support.
  Spectrum Availability: The amount of radio spectrum available for allocation.
 Complexity and Cost: The implementation complexity and cost associated with each protocol.
 Application Requirements: The specific needs of the application, such as real-time data requirements
or low power consumption.
Modern Cellular Networks:
Modern cellular networks like LTE (Long-Term Evolution) and its successor 5G often employ a combination of
these techniques, like Orthogonal Frequency-Division Multiple Access (OFDMA) which builds upon FDMA
principles, to optimize spectrum usage and provide efficient communication for a large number of users.

TCP over Wireless:

 Challenge: The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is designed for reliable data delivery over wired
networks. Wireless networks, however, introduce challenges like higher bit error rates, delays, and
packet loss due to fading or handoffs (switching cell towers). These issues can negatively impact TCP's
performance.
 Impact: TCP's congestion control mechanisms, which interpret packet loss as network congestion, can
lead to unnecessary slowdowns in data transfer over wireless networks.
 Solutions: Several approaches have been developed to optimize TCP for wireless transmission,
including:
o Tuning TCP timers: Adjusting timeout values to account for potential delays.
o Selective Acknowledgements (SACK): Allows selective retransmission of lost packets instead
of entire data streams.
o Explicit Congestion Notification (ECN): Provides explicit notification to the sender about
network congestion rather than relying solely on packet loss.

Wireless Applications:
Wireless communication has revolutionized how we connect and access information. Here are some key
application areas:
 Mobile Broadband: Cellular networks provide internet access and data connectivity for smartphones,
tablets, and other mobile devices, enabling on-the-go connectivity.
 Wireless Local Area Networks (WLANs): Wi-Fi technology enables wireless networking within
homes, offices, and public spaces, connecting devices like laptops, printers, and smart devices.
 Bluetooth: Short-range wireless connectivity for data transfer (file sharing) and audio streaming
between devices like smartphones, headphones, and speakers.
 Internet of Things (IoT): Wireless technologies like Wi-Fi, Bluetooth Low Energy (LE), and cellular
networks connect various sensors, devices, and appliances, enabling data collection, automation, and
remote control in smart homes, industries, and cities.
 Location-based Services (LBS): Wireless technologies like GPS and cellular network signals are used
to determine a device's location, enabling navigation apps, ride-hailing services, and location-based
advertising.

Data Broadcasting:
Data broadcasting refers to a one-to-many communication method where data is transmitted from a single
source to multiple receivers simultaneously. Here's a breakdown of the concept:
 Function: Data broadcasting is suitable for disseminating information to a large audience without
needing individual connections for each receiver.
 Applications: Examples of data broadcasting include:
o Cellular network broadcasts: Emergency alerts, system information updates for mobile
devices.
o Satellite radio and television: Broadcasting audio and video content to a wide geographical
area.
o Digital Audio Broadcasting (DAB): Transmitting radio programs digitally, offering improved
sound quality and more channels.

Mobile IP:
Mobile IP (Mobile Internet Protocol) is a protocol designed to enable seamless communication for mobile
devices as they move between different locations on a network. Here's how it works:
 Problem: Traditional IP addresses are typically static and tied to a specific network location. When a
mobile device moves (e.g., from one Wi-Fi network to another), its IP address changes, potentially
disrupting ongoing communication.
 Solution: Mobile IP introduces two key entities:
o Home Agent (HA): Resides on the mobile device's home network and is responsible for
maintaining the device's permanent IP address.
o Foreign Agent (FA): Located on the network the mobile device is currently visiting. It acts as an
intermediary between the mobile device and the rest of the internet.
 Process: When a mobile device moves to a new network, it registers with the FA there. The FA then
tunnels data packets to the mobile device's care-of address (temporary IP) on the visited network,
while still using the permanent home address for communication with the outside world. This ensures
uninterrupted communication despite the change in location.

WAP architecture
WAP (Wireless Application Protocol) architecture is a set of communication protocols and an application
programming model designed to enable wireless devices like mobile phones to access internet content and
services in a similar way to traditional web browsing on personal computers.
Here's a breakdown of the key components and functionalities:
Client (Mobile Device):
 Users interact with WAP services through a micro-browser installed on their mobile phone.
 This browser can be a simplified version of a traditional web browser, optimized for the smaller
screens and limited processing power of mobile devices at the time WAP was introduced.
 The micro-browser interprets Wireless Markup Language (WML) code, a markup language specifically
designed for WAP content, to render web pages on the mobile device's display.
Gateway:
  Acts as an intermediary between the mobile device and the internet.
 It translates requests from the WAP micro-browser into standard HTTP requests understood by web
servers on the internet.
 The gateway may also perform additional functions like security checks, content transformation
(adapting content for smaller screens), and user authentication.
Origin Server:
 The actual web server that hosts the content or service the user is trying to access.
 Origin servers typically don't require any modifications to work with WAP clients as the gateway
handles the necessary translation between WAP protocols and standard internet protocols.
Communication Flow:
1. User Initiates Request: The user interacts with the WAP micro-browser on their mobile device,
requesting a specific webpage or service.
2. WAP Micro-browser: The micro-browser processes the user's request and formulates a WML
document or request specific to the WAP protocol.
3. WAP Request to Gateway: The WML request or document is sent from the mobile device to the WAP
gateway.
4. Gateway Translation: The WAP gateway translates the WAP request into a standard HTTP request
that web servers can understand.
5. Request to Origin Server: The gateway transmits the converted HTTP request to the relevant origin
server on the internet.
6. Response from Server: The origin server processes the request and sends a response back to the WAP
gateway.
7. Gateway Processing: The WAP gateway may perform further processing on the response, such as
content adaptation if necessary.
8. Response to Mobile Device: Finally, the WAP gateway sends the processed response back to the
mobile device.
9. WML Rendering: The WAP micro-browser on the mobile device receives the response and interprets
the WML content to display the webpage or service for the user.
Benefits of WAP Architecture:
 Standardization: Provided a standardized way for mobile devices to access web content, facilitating
the development of mobile web services.
 Accessibility: Enabled basic web browsing capabilities on early mobile phones that lacked the
processing power and screen size for full-fledged web browsing.
 Foundation for Future: Laid the groundwork for future mobile web technologies and advancements in
smartphone capabilities.
Limitations of WAP Architecture:
 Limited User Experience: Early WAP browsers offered a less user-friendly experience compared to
modern web browsing due to limitations in screen size, processing power, and content complexity.
 Slower Speeds: WAP relied on slower cellular data networks of the time, leading to longer loading
times and a less interactive experience.
  Security Concerns: Early WAP versions had security vulnerabilities that have been addressed in later
mobile web technologies.
Evolution of Mobile Web:
WAP architecture served as a stepping stone for the evolution of mobile web browsing. With advancements in
mobile technology, faster cellular networks, and more powerful devices, WAP has been largely superseded by
modern web standards and protocols like HTML5, CSS3, and JavaScript, which offer a richer and more
interactive mobile web experience.

Protocol stack
A protocol stack, also referred to as a network stack or communication protocol suite, is a fundamental concept
in computer networking. It's a layered architecture that defines the communication protocols working together
to enable data transmission between devices on a network.
Here's a breakdown of the key aspects of protocol stacks:
Layered Approach:
 The protocol stack is organized into distinct layers, each with specific functionalities and
responsibilities. This modular approach promotes clarity, simplifies development, and allows for
independent development and improvement of each layer.
Common Layered Model (OSI Model):
 The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a widely recognized layered reference model for
network communication. It defines seven layers, each with specific functions:
o Physical Layer: Deals with the physical transmission of data bits over a physical medium like
cables or radio waves.
o Data Link Layer: Focuses on error-free data transmission between directly connected devices.
o Network Layer: Responsible for routing data packets across networks, determining the best
path for data to reach its destination.
o Transport Layer: Provides reliable data transfer between applications on different devices,
ensuring complete and in-order delivery.
o Session Layer: Establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between communicating
applications.
o Presentation Layer: Handles data formatting and presentation aspects, ensuring data is
interpreted correctly by different systems.
o Application Layer: Provides network services directly to applications like file transfer, email,
or web browsing.
TCP/IP Protocol Suite (The Dominant Stack):
 In practical implementations, the TCP/IP protocol suite is the most prevalent protocol stack used in
modern networks, including the internet.
 It has a similar layered structure but with a slightly different breakdown compared to the OSI model.
The four main layers in TCP/IP are:
o Network Interface Layer: Combines the functionalities of the OSI Physical and Data Link
layers.
 o Internet Layer: Equivalent to the OSI Network layer, responsible for routing packets across
networks.
o Transport Layer: Similar to the OSI Transport layer, providing reliable data transfer services.
(TCP and UDP are the two main protocols at this layer)
o Application Layer: Encompasses the functionalities of the upper layers (Session, Presentation,
and Application) in the OSI model, providing various network services and applications.
Benefits of Layered Protocol Stacks:
 Modular Design: Simplifies development, testing, and troubleshooting of network communication
issues.
 Interoperability: Standardized protocols at each layer enable communication between devices from
different vendors.
 Scalability: New protocols and functionalities can be added to specific layers without affecting the
overall architecture.
Understanding protocol stacks is essential for anyone involved in computer networking. It provides a
foundational knowledge of how data flows across networks and how different work together to enable
seamless communication protocols.

Mobile Application Environment:

 Concept: Similar to a traditional application environment, a mobile application environment
refers to the software and hardware setup that supports running mobile applications on a
device like a smartphone or tablet.
 Components: The environment can include:
o Operating System (OS): The core software platform that provides a foundation for
running applications, managing hardware resources, and providing security. Examples
include Android, iOS, and iPadOS.
o Software Development Kit (SDK): A set of tools and libraries that developers use to
create mobile applications for a specific operating system. These tools provide access to
device features, functionalities, and APIs (Application Programming Interfaces) to
interact with the hardware and software.
o Runtime Environment: The execution environment within the OS that allows mobile
applications to run. This may include a virtual machine or interpreter depending on the
platform.
o Hardware Resources: The processing power, memory, storage, and sensors available
on the mobile device all contribute to the application environment's capabilities.

Impact on Mobile Applications:

 Development: The specific mobile application environment (OS, SDK) a developer targets
influences the programming languages, tools, and APIs used to create the application.
 Functionality: The capabilities of the environment (hardware resources, available APIs)
determine the functionalities and features a mobile application can access and leverage.
 Performance: The processing power, memory, and storage available within the environment
impact the performance and resource consumption of mobile applications.

Mobile Applications:
  Definition: Mobile applications (apps) are software programs specifically designed to run on
mobile devices like smartphones and tablets. They are typically downloaded and installed from
app stores associated with the mobile operating system (e.g., Google Play Store for Android,
App Store for iOS).
 Types: Mobile applications encompass a wide range of functionalities, including:
o Productivity: Calendar apps, task management tools, note-taking apps, document
viewers and editors.
o Communication: Messaging apps, social media platforms, video conferencing tools.
o Entertainment: Games, music streaming services, video streaming apps, e-readers.
o Business and Utilities: Mobile banking apps, shopping apps, travel booking apps,
navigation apps, fitness trackers.
o Industry-Specific Apps: Apps designed for specific industries or tasks, like healthcare
apps, educational apps, enterprise resource planning (ERP) mobile tools.

Mobile Application Development:

 Focus: Mobile application development involves creating these software programs specifically
for mobile devices, considering the unique characteristics and limitations of the mobile
environment (smaller screens, touch input, battery life constraints).
 Considerations: Developers need to factor in:
o Target Operating System: Developing for a specific mobile OS (Android, iOS) or
potentially creating cross-platform applications.
o User Interface (UI) Design: Creating intuitive and user-friendly interfaces optimized
for touch interaction on small screens.
o Performance Optimization: Ensuring applications run efficiently and utilize device
resources effectively to avoid battery drain or slow performance.