Traffic Management Techniques : A Survey

Naman Kapoor1*, Preeti Aggarwal1† and Akashdeep Sharma1†

1 University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Panjab University,
Chandigarh, 160014, India.

*Corresponding author(s). E-mail(s): namankapoor1903@gmail.com;

Contributing authors: pree agg@pu.ac.in; akashdeep@pu.ac.in;
† These authors contributed equally to this work.

Abstract
Efficient traffic signal control is very crucial for managing vehicular flow and
alleviating congestion in urban areas. This survey paper presents a thorough
examination of diverse techniques employed in traffic signal control. It begins
by exploring traditional methods like fixed-time control and actuated control,
progressing to advanced intelligent systems incorporating reinforcement learning,
support vector machine and neural network algorithms. The survey encompasses
a broad spectrum of approaches, spanning classical optimization techniques to
the most advanced machine learning and deep learning methods. Each method’s
principles, advantages, and limitations are discussed, alongside their practical
applications in real-world traffic management scenarios. Furthermore, the paper
investigates recent advancements and emerging trends in traffic signal control,
such as connected and autonomous vehicles, cooperative control systems, and
adaptive signal optimization strategies. By synthesizing insights from existing lit-
erature and highlighting current research directions, this survey paper will help in
transportation engineering and urban planning. It offers comprehensive insights
into the complexities and opportunities in traffic signal control, facilitating the
development of innovative and sustainable solutions to tackle urban mobility
challenges.

Keywords: Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Object Detection

1 Introduction
Urbanization has led to a proliferation of vehicular traffic on roads, encompassing
diverse categories such as two-wheelers, three-wheelers, and four-wheelers. This surge

1
in traffic has given rise to a pervasive issue: congestion[1][2]. It is a ubiquitous problem
in urban areas, impeding the smooth flow of daily activities for countless individ-
uals. The congestion caused by the multitude of vehicles on the road often brings
daily life to a standstill. Commuters find themselves trapped in long queues of vehi-
cles, their progress slowed to a crawl. This impediment not only wastes time but
also adds stress and frustration to people’s lives. Many techniques have been used to
detect traffic[3][4][5][6] and manage it but a lot of shortcomings have been noticed.[7]
Furthermore, the gridlock negatively impacts the environment, as engines idle and
emissions increase. This leads to air pollution[8], further exacerbating the health
concerns[9] already present in densely populated urban areas. Efforts to mitigate traf-
fic congestion[10] are ongoing, with various strategies being explored. These include
improvements in public transportation, the development of alternative transportation
modes such as cycling lanes[11][12],pedestrian lights[13] and the implementation of
smart traffic management systems. An effective traffic signal control system seeks to
minimize vehicle congestion at intersections, thereby reducing fuel consumption and
optimizing time utilization. By efficiently managing the flow of traffic, these systems
aim to mitigate delays and waiting times, enhancing overall road efficiency and safety.
Through the strategic coordination of traffic signals, the system endeavors to main-
tain a steady and balanced movement of vehicles, preventing gridlock and bottlenecks.
This not only alleviates frustration among drivers but also contributes to a reduc-
tion in carbon emissions and environmental pollution associated with idling vehicles.
Moreover, a well-designed traffic signal control system can enhance the overall func-
tionality of urban transportation networks. By synchronizing signals and adapting to
real-time traffic conditions, it enables smoother and more predictable travel routes for
commuters, businesses, and emergency services alike.
To achieve these objectives, modern traffic control systems often incorporate
advanced technologies such as real-time data analytics, adaptive signal control algo-
rithms, and communication networks. These innovations enable dynamic adjustments
to signal timings based on traffic volume, flow patterns, and priority demands, opti-
mizing the utilization of road infrastructure and enhancing the quality of urban life.
In essence, the implementation of an efficient traffic signal control system plays a vital
role in promoting sustainable and resilient urban mobility, fostering economic pro-
ductivity, and improving the overall well-being of communities. A prevalent approach
in modern traffic management is the implementation of static traffic light control
systems. These systems rely on historical traffic congestion data to regulate signal
timings. However, this method is inherently limited as it does not allow for real-time
adjustments. Consequently, the fixed signal timings may not effectively address the
dynamic nature of traffic congestion prevalent in contemporary urban environments.
As a result, there is a growing recognition of the need for more adaptive and respon-
sive traffic control solutions to better manage congestion and optimize traffic flow in
today’s bustling cities.
Numerous promising traffic signal control and traffic management techniques have
been proposed, showing potential for significant improvements upon implementation.
In the forthcoming sections of the paper, we will delve into some of the latest tech-
nologies that hold promise in revolutionizing traffic management. These innovations

2
 Table 1 Inclusion Exclusion Criterion

Attributes Inclusion Criterion Exclusion Criterion

T ime Range Papers Published from 2019 Papers Published before 2019
S creening Traffic Management, Traffic Traffic Signal Detection
Congestion
M odality Studies using Modern Tech- Studies using old techniques and
niques such as Deep Learning, algorithms
Machine Learning IoT only
S tudy Selection Studies having proper experi- Studies having no proper clas-
ments and results sifications, experimentation,
no results showcased,Review
Paper,Papers other than
English

offer the possibility of addressing the complexities of modern traffic challenges more
effectively, paving the way for more efficient and sustainable urban mobility solutions.

2 Materials and Methods

This systematic review adheres to guidelines provided by the PRISMA group regarding
the completion of the PRISMA for reporting the systematic review plays a part in the
comprehensive reporting and confirmation of the papers’ outcomes. These guidelines
serve the intention of authors to give some instructions on how to make the discourses
clear and coherent. Approach that presupposes the detailed procedure for the sources’
identification in the frame of review process. Studies Among IEEEXplore, Springerna-
ture, Sciencedirect and others carry out a search for the papers of interest. To select
the papers the papers with reasoning and understanding; Papers were selected based
on the ability of the authors to reason and make logical deductions. Keywords: traffic
signal control, traffic , traffic signal timings, signal control and such which make up
the derived phrases like traffic signal control. Of these terms, it was possible to define
”management,” ”traffic signal optimisation,” and both ”management” and ”traffic
signal optimisation” as related.
Initially, 1647 papers were identified, of which those published before 2019 and
duplicate papers were excluded, resulting in 108 unique papers. From these 108 papers,
screening was conducted based on the relevance of their abstracts, introductions, and
exact topics such as traffic management and congestion. Additionally, review papers
and those not in English were removed, leaving 54 papers. Subsequently, papers that
did not discuss techniques related to deep learning, machine learning, or IoT were
filtered out, resulting in a final selection of 30 relevant papers.

2.1 Quality Assessment

This section offers an insight into past research endeavors within the realm of traffic
signal control, shedding light on the array of techniques utilized. It delves into the
methodologies adopted in previous studies, encompassing a spectrum of approaches
aimed at optimizing traffic flow and reducing congestion.

3
 Fig. 1 Inclusion Exclusion Criteria

2.2 Algorithms used for Traffic Signal Control

This section explores a range of techniques employed in traffic signal control. These
investigations encompass various techniques such as Reinforcement Learning (RL) and
Support Vector Machine (SVM), Neural Networks(NN) etc. Through examining these
prior studies, a comprehensive understanding of the evolution and application of traffic
signal control techniques is elucidated.
In later chapters we will discuss the various methods used in order to implement
traffic signal management.

2.3 Fixed-timer traffic signal control

A fixed-timer traffic signal control system is one of the simplest and oldest methods
used for traffic signal management. In this system, the timing of traffic signals at inter-
sections remains constant and does not adjust based on real-time traffic conditions.
Instead, predetermined fixed time intervals are assigned to each phase of the signal
cycle, such as green, yellow, and red. Fixed-timer systems are easy to implement and
require minimal maintenance. They provide a predictable pattern of signal changes,
which can help drivers anticipate when they need to stop or proceed through an inter-
section. However, these systems do not adapt to changes in traffic flow throughout

4
 Fig. 2 Techniques used in Traffic Signal Controls

the day or in response to incidents such as accidents or road construction. One of the
main drawbacks of fixed-timer systems is their inability to optimize traffic flow effi-
ciently, especially during peak hours or in areas with fluctuating traffic patterns. This
can lead to congestion, delays, and increased fuel consumption for vehicles waiting
at red lights. Despite their limitations, fixed-timer traffic signal control systems are
still widely used in many regions, particularly in areas with relatively stable traffic
conditions or limited resources for more advanced signal management systems. Due
to these shortcomings the new techniques for more adaptive traffic signal controlling
were introduced.

2.4 Reinforcement Learning

Reinforcement Learning (RL)[14] [15][16]is a branch of machine learning where an
agent learns to make decisions by interacting with an environment to maximize
cumulative rewards. The fundamental components of RL include states, actions, and
rewards. States represent the current status of the environment, actions are the deci-
sions taken by the agent, and rewards provide feedback on the outcomes of those
actions. The objective of the RL agent is to develop a policy—a strategy for selecting
actions that maximizes the expected cumulative reward over time.

5
 [17][18]Key to this learning process are value functions, which estimate the poten-
tial long-term rewards of states or state-action pairs. This estimation helps the agent
make informed decisions by evaluating the future benefits of its current actions. RL
involves a crucial balance between exploration and exploitation: exploration involves
trying new actions to discover their effects, while exploitation leverages known actions
that have previously yielded high rewards.
Common RL algorithms include Q-learning, which focuses on learning the value of
action-reward pairs, and policy gradient methods, which directly optimize the policy.
More advanced techniques, like Deep Reinforcement Learning, combine neural net-
works with RL to handle more complex and high-dimensional environments. Overall,
RL is widely used in various applications, from game playing to autonomous driving,
where decision-making is critical.
Reinforcement Learning algorithms often rely on exploration-exploitation strate-
gies to balance between exploiting known information and exploring new actions.
Techniques like epsilon-greedy exploration and Boltzmann exploration are commonly
employed to address this trade-off.

[25] Li et al. introduced a novel Deep Reinforcement Learning Algorithm, incor-

porating advanced methodologies such as Trust Region Policy Optimization (TRPO)
and Proximal Policy Optimization (PPO), marks a significant step forward in traffic
management research. By integrating PPO with fairness criteria, a pioneering Deep
Reinforcement algorithm emerges, poised to revolutionize traffic control systems. This
approach harnesses the power of Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN) to extract
both global and detailed traffic information, enhancing decision-making capabilities.
For simulation purposes, SUMO[29] was used. This platform provides a real-time sim-
ulation environment, enabling the testing and validation of the proposed algorithm
under various scenarios. Three primary rules-based methods are adopted: fixed-time
control, self-organizing traffic light control, and short-sighted traffic light control. Each
method offers distinct advantages and challenges, contributing to a comprehensive
evaluation of the algorithm’s performance across diverse traffic conditions. The inte-
gration of TRPO and PPO algorithms not only enhances the learning process but
also facilitates the incorporation of fairness considerations, ensuring equitable traf-
fic management outcomes. By leveraging deep reinforcement learning techniques, the
proposed algorithm adapts dynamically to changing traffic patterns, optimizing signal
timings in real-time to minimize congestion and improve overall traffic flow efficiency.
The utilization of CNN enables the algorithm to process complex traffic data effi-
ciently, capturing both local and global traffic dynamics. This comprehensive approach
holds promise for addressing the multifaceted challenges of modern urban traffic man-
agement, paving the way for more responsive and sustainable transportation systems.
Through rigorous simulation and evaluation, the efficacy of the proposed algorithm
in enhancing traffic efficiency and fairness can be thoroughly assessed, potentially
informing future advancements in urban mobility strategies.
[30]Tan and Yang introduced an innovative strategy for orchestrating traffic signals
within a connected vehicle (CV) ecosystem, with a primary focus on preserving the

6
 Table 2 Reinforcement Learning Based work summary

Paper Dataset Model(s) Simulation Performance Performance

Used Method Metrics
[19]Essa and Anonymous Deep Rein- VISSIM Real Time 90% safety
Sayed forcement Safety and 50%
Learning Safety under
MPR of 50%
and 30% resp
[20]Guo et al. Anonymous Deep Rein- None Travel Time, upto 74%
forcement Fuel Con- reduction in
Learning sumption delay and
Reduction 30% reduction
in travel time
[21]Zhu et al. G-X Dataset, Deep Rein- Cityflow Sim- Avg. Travel upto 28%
Jinan forcement ulator Time reduction in
Dataset, Learning travel time
Hangzhou
Dataset
[22]Zhao et Anonymous Double Deep SUMO Avg. Waiting 35% improve-
al. Q Network Time / Avg. ment over
Queue Length previous algo-
rithms
[23]Kwok et Anonymous Deep Rein- Pygame[24] Avg. Vehi- 44-60% reduc-
al. forcement cle Waiting tion in wait-
Learning Time, Avg. ing time
Pedestrian
Waiting Time
[25]Li et al. Anonymous Deep Rein- SUMO Avg. Vehicle -
forcement Waiting Time
Learning
[26]Liu et al. D New-York Deep Rein- Cityflow Travel Time, 39% to
Dataset forcement Avg. Waiting 60.72%
Learning Time reduction in
waiting time
[27]Song et Anonymous Multi-agent Real life simu- Queue length, An average of
al. counter- lation Travel time 45% reduc-
factual delay tion in queue
actor–critic length
with sched-
uler
[28]Wang et Anonymous Cooperative SUMO Avg. Waiting Waiting time
al. Group-Based Time reduction by
Multi-Agent 64.02%
reinforcement
learning
[19]Essa and Anonymous Deep Rein- Pygame Avg. Vehi- Avg. of 20%
Sayed forcement cle Waiting reduction in
Learning Time, Avg. travel time
Pedestrian and 37%
Waiting Time reduction in
queue length

privacy of individual travelers. Their approach aims to shield sensitive traveler infor-
mation, such as habitual destinations and travel patterns, from potential exposure. To
accomplish this, they devised a comprehensive defense mechanism to counter various
types of attacks, including collusion among CVs, database breaches, and interference
attempts. Furthermore, they developed a refined traffic signal optimization method-
ology, complemented by an arrival rate estimator leveraging aggregated CV data.
This multifaceted approach exhibits adaptability to diverse traffic scenarios, ensur-
ing effective traffic management across different conditions. By amalgamating privacy
preservation measures with signal control optimization, Tan and Yang’s framework not

7
only enhances traffic flow efficiency but also underscores the significance of safeguard-
ing CV data confidentiality, thereby fostering a safer and more secure transportation
ecosystem.
[22] Zhao et al. present an innovative model named Traffic Signal Control based on Het-
erogeneous Graph Attention Mechanism combined with Deep Reinforcement Learning
(TSC-HGAM-DRL). This model fuses a DRL with GNN to improve traffic manage-
ment and decision-making. It features a dual attention-based GNN combined with
deep reinforcement learning methods, including DDQN and DuelingDQN, to address
and reduce overfitting problems during training. Simulation experiments were con-
ducted using the SUMO platform in conjunction with a deep learning development
framework. The algorithm’s performance was rigorously evaluated using these metrics:
Average Reward and Queue Length. During peak traffic flow scenarios, the algorithm
demonstrated significant improvements over existing methods. Specifically, it achieved
an average latency reduction of 8.76, representing a 50% enhancement. The average
queue length decreased by 31.01 meters, marking a notable 48% improvement. More-
over, the average waiting time decreased to 8.71 seconds, showcasing a remarkable
120% enhancement. Additionally, the algorithm yielded a cumulative reward of 59.34,
reflecting a substantial 35% improvement compared to alternative algorithms.
These findings underscore the effectiveness of the TSC-HGAM-DRL model in opti-
mizing traffic signal control and minimizing congestion during peak traffic periods. By
integrating advanced techniques from deep reinforcement learning and graph neural
networks, the model offers a robust framework for addressing the complex dynamics
of urban traffic management. The significant improvements observed across multiple
evaluation metrics highlight the potential of this approach to enhance overall traffic
efficiency and reduce travel delays, contributing to more sustainable and resilient urban
transportation systems. When compared to four other traffic control models, this
model shows performance advantages of over 13% across multiple performance indica-
tors. However, further evaluation and validation are necessary, particularly for traffic
scenarios with varying complexities and characteristics. Additionally, the study did
not account for various potential influencing factors such as environmental conditions,
system failures, and uncertainties.
[21] Zhu et al. introduced an Intelligent Traffic Light Control (ITLC) system
aimed at mitigating traffic congestion. The system leveraged Multi-Agent Deep Rein-
forcement Learning [31](DRL) algorithms, which utilize deep neural networks for
decision-making. To enhance versatility, the study incorporated three distinct datasets.
Experimentation was conducted using the Cityflow simulator, with the primary goal
of alleviating traffic congestion by reducing both average travel time and total training
duration.
Throughout the study, comparisons were drawn among various traffic control
systems and reinforcement learning approaches. These included the fixed traffic
light control system, self-organizing traffic control system, Single-Agent Deep Rein-
forcement Learning, and Single-Agent Broad Reinforcement Learning methods. The
findings revealed notable advantages of the Multi-Agent Deep Reinforcement Learning
algorithm over the others.

8
 Specifically, the training time for the ITLC system was found to be 35.03%, 27.51%,
and 18.22% faster compared to the fixed, self-organizing, and single-agent approaches,
respectively. Moreover, the stability of the Multi-Agent DRL algorithm significantly
surpassed that of its counterparts.
These results underscore the efficacy of the ITLC system in enhancing traffic man-
agement efficiency. By harnessing the capabilities of Multi-Agent DRL, the system
demonstrates promising potential for optimizing traffic flow and reducing congestion
in urban environments. Additionally, the utilization of diverse datasets enhances the
adaptability and robustness of the model, further contributing to its effectiveness in
addressing real-world traffic challenges.
[20] Guo and et al. proposed the CoTV (Cooperative Control for Traffic Light
Signals and Connected Autonomous Vehicles) system to effectively manage both traf-
fic light signals and various Connected Autonomous Vehicles (CAVs). This system
employs Deep Reinforcement Learning (DRL) to optimize the balance between reduc-
ing travel time, fuel consumption, and emissions. As a multi-agent DRL system, CoTV
demonstrates notable improvements over the Baseline approach. In comparative anal-
ysis, CoTV achieved remarkable savings of up to 28% in fuel consumption and reduced
travel time by up to 30%. These findings suggest that CoTV represents a significant
advancement in traffic control strategies for both traffic signals and CAVs. Its abil-
ity to efficiently coordinate between these elements highlights its potential to enhance
overall traffic management efficiency while promoting sustainability and reducing envi-
ronmental impact. The CoTV system stands as a noteworthy contribution to the
field, offering insights into the optimization of traffic flow in the context of emerging
autonomous vehicle technologies.
[23] Kwok et al. introduced an innovative intelligent traffic light system designed
to address traffic congestion issues in Hong Kong. This system combines object detec-
tion technology with an evolutionary algorithm to optimize traffic flow. The study
utilized live video footage from Hong Kong to develop traffic models, which were then
employed to simulate traffic scenarios. Both the existing Fixed Cycle Traffic Light
(FCTL) system and the proposed intelligent system were implemented at intersections.
The simulation, based on estimates of pedestrian and vehicle numbers obtained
through object detection, allowed for dynamic switching of traffic signals in response
to varying traffic conditions. Results showed significant improvements in traffic effi-
ciency with the proposed system. During non-peak hours, the throughput of the roads
increased from 44% to approximately 60%. Moreover, during peak hours, the overall
efficiency saw an increase from 54% to 57%, as measured by the reduction in total
waiting time.
Notably, the implementation of the evolutionary algorithm led to a substantial
average reduction of 65% in total waiting time. These findings highlight the effec-
tiveness of the intelligent traffic light system in enhancing traffic flow and reducing
congestion in urban areas. By dynamically adjusting signal timings based on real-time
traffic data, the system demonstrates potential for improving overall transportation
efficiency and reducing travel delays.

9
 [26] Liu et al. implemented traffic signal control using a teacher-student framework,
a reinforcement learning paradigm where a teacher guides a student in decision-
making. This framework is enhanced by incorporating a teaching policy, where the
teacher learns how to effectively guide the student, and a max update approach,
enabling the student to estimate the value function accurately. Initially, the teacher
is pre-trained in a specific traffic scenario and then applied to other traffic scenar-
ios. Meanwhile, the student, initialized with random parameters, is guided by the
pre-trained teacher. Notably, the policies of the student and teacher differ. The pro-
posed approach is compared with Double Deep Q-Learning, a traditional reinforcement
learning method, and demonstrates promising results. Across all four configurations
tested, the proposed approach achieved significant reductions in travel time ranging
from 15.73% to 27.91%. Moreover, the approach substantially decreased average wait-
ing time by 39.83% to 60.72% overall. By leveraging the teacher-student framework,
this approach offers a novel perspective on traffic signal control, showcasing improve-
ments in both travel time and waiting time. These findings underscore the potential
of reinforcement learning techniques in optimizing traffic flow and enhancing urban
mobility.
[27] Song et al. gave us an approach called the Multi-Agent Counterfactual
Actor-Critic with Scheduler framework, representing a modified reinforcement learn-
ing algorithm that facilitates information exchange among agents. This framework
surpassed traditional model-based methods and other existing reinforcement learn-
ing (RL) approaches. A central critic was employed to coordinate global information
using the global state, enhancing the model’s performance. The simulation study was
conducted on the actual road network of Shenzhen city, China, featuring nine intersec-
tions. The study focused on real-time traffic demand, categorized into low, medium,
and high demand periods based on actual traffic flow timing. Benchmark comparisons
were conducted against several algorithms, including Adaptive Signal Timer, MaxPres-
sure algorithm, classic RL-based Deep Q-Network (DQN) method, Multi-Agent Policy
Gradient method, Multi-Agent Actor-Critic method, and COMA-based method. This
innovative framework demonstrates significant advancements in traffic management
strategies, particularly in urban environments. By leveraging a multi-agent approach
and incorporating real-time traffic demand data, the model effectively optimizes traffic
signal control in complex urban road networks. The comparison against various bench-
marks showcases the superiority of the proposed framework, highlighting its potential
to enhance traffic flow efficiency and reduce congestion in urban areas. Additionally,
the utilization of real road network data from Shenzhen city adds credibility and rele-
vance to the findings, emphasizing the practical applicability of the proposed approach
in real-world scenarios.
[28]Wang et al. proposed a cooperative RL (MARL) algorithm designed to opti-
mize traffic signal control. Their approach leverages cooperative vehicle-infrastructure
systems to efficiently manage large-scale road networks. Through extensive simulation,
the researchers explored multiple reinforcement learning methods and found that Deep
Q-Network (DQN) in combination with MARL yielded promising results. The algo-
rithm was trained and evaluated on a 6x6 network using SUMO simulation software
to replicate real-world scenarios. In their study, real-time traffic control adjustments

10
were made every 20 seconds, with congestion levels determined by the number of
waiting vehicles. Three congestion thresholds were considered: less than 5 vehicles,
5-15 vehicles, and above 15 vehicles. The proposed algorithm outperformed alterna-
tive strategies significantly, achieving a 78.84% improvement over a fixed approach, a
95.69% improvement over the CGL-ILQ strategy, and an 86.64% improvement over
the CGB-MA2C strategy. This cooperative MARL approach demonstrates consider-
able potential in enhancing traffic signal control systems, particularly in large-scale
urban environments. By leveraging cooperative interactions between vehicles and
infrastructure, the algorithm effectively reduces congestion levels and improves traffic
flow efficiency. Moreover, the rigorous evaluation against various benchmarks under-
scores the robustness and effectiveness of the proposed approach. Overall, Wang et
al.’s research contributes valuable insights into the development of advanced traffic
management strategies aimed at addressing the challenges of modern urban mobility.
[19]Essa and Sayed introduced a reinforcement learning algorithm implemented
on the VISSIM simulation platform, which was subsequently tested using real-world
traffic data from Surrey, British Columbia. The VISSIM model, calibrated for each
intersection, underwent extensive testing over a 9-hour period from 9:00 am to 6:00 pm.
Through this testing, it was observed that the maximum safety benefit was achieved
when the Minimum Predicted Risk (MPR) of connected vehicles (CV) reached 50%,
resulting in a remarkable 90% safety benefit. This suggests that the summarized algo-
rithm could prove highly effective, particularly when the MPR of CVs is equal to or
greater than 30%. Additionally, the study highlights that higher MPR values corre-
spond to increased effectiveness of the safety algorithm. This research underscores the
potential of reinforcement learning techniques in optimizing traffic safety, particularly
in urban environments, and provides valuable insights into the importance of MPR in
enhancing the efficacy of such algorithms.

2.5 Neural Networks

Neural networks[32] Neural networks are mathematical models of network connec-
tions that imitate the human brain neural connections. These models include layers
of nodes, or neurons, in the computation process. Each neuron also performs the
subsequent computation on the data passed to it, and sends out the result to neurons
of the next layer.

Feedforward Neural Networks (FNN) : These neural networks are named

Feedforward Neural Networks because the information flows through the network in
one direction through the subsequent layers corresponding to the input layer, hidden
layer, and output layer. This architecture is made up of an input layer, hidden layer(s),
and output layer, but with no feedback or looping. FNNs are generally employed for
solving problems of a basic type such as classification and regression analysis.
Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN): Convolutional Neural Networks are
especially useful for data of a grid like nature i.e., images. They apply convolutional
layer that extracts certain features from the image and pooling layer that reduces the
dimensions of the feature map. CNNs are used in image recognition, object detection

11
and image segmentation since these models have a good capability of representing
spatial hierarchies.
Recurrent Neural Networks (RNN): RNNs[33][34] are specifically designed
to handle sequential inputs because it stores the earlier inputs as part of its memory.
They have edges that form directed cycles that help in getting temporal dependencies.
RNNs are commonly used in language modeling, in speech recognition, and in the
times series prediction domain.
Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM): LSTM Networks are a category of RNNs
that have been scientifically designed to overcome what is commonly called the van-
ishing gradient problem, when training simple RNNs for lengthy sequences. LSTMs
are built out of many cells with gates that enable the model to retain information for
a longer pass. This makes them particularly suitable for those tasks, which require the
long term management of dependencies.
These neural network algorithms form the backbone of many modern machine
learning and artificial intelligence applications and have been instrumental in advanc-
ing various fields, including computer vision, natural language processing, and
reinforcement learning.These are also the most used algorithms in the field of smart
city and traffic signal controlling.[35][36][37]
[38] Espinoza et al. proposed a novel method for traffic flow prediction, combining
both Machine Learning and Deep Learning techniques. It utilized two publicly avail-
able datasets for training, validation, and testing purposes. Recurrent Neural Networks
(RNNs), includingLong Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks, were developed, with
75% of the dataset allocated for training and the remaining 25% for testing.
The research explored the potential application of these models in smart traf-
fic light control systems. Among the models investigated, the Multilayer Perceptron
(MLP) demonstrated superior performance, achieving the highest accuracy while also
requiring the least processing time. This indicates its suitability for real-time traffic
flow prediction and integration into intelligent transportation systems.
By leveraging ML and DL technologies, this study contributes to the advance-
ment of traffic management strategies. The predictive capabilities of neural networks,
such as GRU, LSTM, and MLP, offer valuable insights for optimizing traffic con-
trol mechanisms and enhancing overall transportation efficiency. These findings drive
progress towards more adaptive and responsive traffic management solutions, essential
for mitigating congestion and improving urban mobility.
[39] Abdullah et al. presented a novel way of predicting traffic congestion using an
RNN model to enhance the traffic of smart cities. Their model employs deep learning
(DL), a technology reputed to improve the traffic flow control primarily through traffic
signals and the traffic flow prediction. The study firstly introduces an approach in
which the SpotLock application observes the network flow based on Ryu controller in
the context of SDN. The main objective is to use the method of network flow analysis
for the enhancement of the process of network traffic and the immediate information
on the usage of the network. The proposed model is based on three main elements:
In order to predict the road traffic, an edge-based vehicular environment is
employed where edge servers also maintain history and current data of social media,
weather conditions, and others including the number of vehicles on the road and the
condition of the road.

12
 Table 3 Neural Network Based work summary

Paper Dataset Model(s) Used Simulation Performance Met-

Method rics
[38]Espinoza et Huawei Munich Recurrent Neural - Traffic Flow Pre-
al. Research Center Network(RNN), diction
Dataset(Custom) Multilayer Per-
ceptron Neural
Network(MLP-
NN)
[39]Abdullah et INRIX Dataset Recurrent Neural SUMO,OMNeT Traffic Conges-
al. Networks(RNN) tion
[21]Zhu et al. G-X Dataset, Deep Reinforce- Cityflow Simula- Avg. Travel Time
Jinan Dataset, ment Learning tor
Hangzhou
Dataset
[43]Majumdar et Private Dataset Long Term Short None Traffic Conges-
al. Memory(LTSM) tion

Extracting multiple features using a DL architecture, specifically Bidirectional

RNN (BRNN) with Soft GRU, and classifying the data into two categories: either
localized or distributed traffic spatially.
Proposing a way of optimizing the DL architecture to obtain the best hyperparam-
eters with reference to the traffic generated in real-time traffic as well as the historical
traffic.
The model implementation involved sampling traffic flow at 3-minute intervals,
with the further enhancement of system capability and dependability through the
use of Vehicular Ad-Hoc Networks (VANET)[40][41][42]. Overall, the system demon-
strated promising results, with a gradual decrease in computation time during traffic
flow prediction, indicating its potential for real-world deployment in optimizing urban
traffic management.
[43] Majumdar et al. employed an innovative approach to forecast traffic conges-
tion in smart cities, utilizing a combination of Internet of Things (IoT) technology and
machine learning methodologies. Their model aimed to predict the spread of conges-
tion over a 5-minute interval within a bustling urban area. The dataset utilized in the
study was custom-made, gathered from Buxton, UK, by monitoring real-time traffic
scenarios. Vehicle speed data was sourced from Matlock County Hall, collected consis-
tently from 7 am to 7 pm over the course of a week. The study focused on employing
LSTM [44][45] , a type of RNN, known for their ability to handle long sequences of
data effectively. LSTM models were chosen over traditional RNNs due to their supe-
rior performance in processing data over extended time intervals. The data underwent
processing through a 100-layer stack of LSTM cells before transitioning to a hidden
layer for further analysis. The dataset was partitioned into a 75/25 split for training
and testing, respectively, ensuring robust model evaluation. Utilizing a time step of 5
minutes, the model predicted congestion levels for the subsequent 5-minute window
based on current observations. Impressively, the model achieved an accuracy rate of
94.6%, indicating its efficacy in forecasting traffic congestion in urban environments.
This study underscores the potential of IoT-enabled machine learning approaches in
enhancing traffic management and urban planning efforts, offering valuable insights
for addressing congestion-related challenges in smart cities.

13
 So after covering all the part about Neural Networks we move on to the next
category.

2.6 Support Vector Machine

Support Vector Machine (SVM)[46][47][48] is a method of choice in classification
as well as in regression analysis is Support Vector Machine, a kind of supervised
learning. SVM, proposed by Vapnik together with Cortes in the 1990s, has gained
much following because of the capability to deal with linear as well as non-linear
separable data sets. The most crucial characteristic of SVM is that it can manage
increased dimensions of information proficiently, which is suitable for working with
feature-oriented jobs. This is achieved by mapping the input data to a feature space
of higher dimensionality using a kernel function, which enables it to look for decision
planes that are nonlinear in the original space. In the case of SVM, the optimization
goal is to identify one of the hyperplanes that not only classifies the distinct classes
of data points but also try to maximize the margin in between. This is posed as a
convex optimization problem and there exist a various optimization methods such as
gradient descent or quadratic programming that can be applied to solve it. SVM can
also be generalized for non-parametric classification tasks by making use of different
kernels including the linear kernel, polynomial kernel, non-linear RBF and sigmoid
kernels. These kernels enable SVM to pick up intricate relations between the variables
in the data and therefore realize enhanced classification performance. SVM is known
to have several important benefits which put it in a position where it can be applied
across several problems of machine learning. Its one of the most valuable tools when
it comes to generalization, which reduces the levels of overfitting and increases the
model’s performance on the test sets. This further holds true for SVM, which is also
proved by sound mathematical theory that underpins its operation. Nevertheless,
SVM also has certain defects or limitations. There also exists one major disadvantage,
which is the computational complexity in large data sets or non-linear kernels to com-
pute over increases the training time and memory requirement. Like for NNs, SVM
also does not give outputs in terms of class probability, though there are ways such
as Platt scaling to approximate this. In summary, Support Vector Machine is a stable
and important machine learning algorithm, which has numerous applications in infor-
mation and pattern recognition, image, text classification, and bioinformatics. Since
it can work with linear and non-linear classification problems as well as demonstrate
its stability and the capacity to offer good target averages, SVM is a powerful tool in
the universe of machine learning.[49][50]. SVM can work for linear and nonlinear data
types because it uses kernel functions to transform the input data from one space to
another which can be linearly separated. Kernel functions can be of linear, polyno-
mial, radical basis function (RBF), sigmoid and others. A key advantage of SVM is
that it minimizes the risk of overfitting especially when operating in high dimensional
spaces and when handling large datasets. It has a vast application in different areas
including Image classification, Text classification, Bioinformatics, and Finance.

14
 Table 4 Support Vector Machine Summary

Paper Dataset Model(s) Simulation Performance Performance

Used Method Metrics
[51]Anjaneyulu Private Hybrid NGSIM Traffic Con- 97.16% Accu-
et al. Dataset Xception Sup- gestion racy
port Vector Prediction
Machine
[47]Devi et Private Support Vec- None Speed Arrival -
al. Dataset tor Machine, Timing,
Linear and Density of
Logistic individual
Regression vehicles
[50]Wang et Private Support Vec- Private Prediction of -
al. Dataset tor Machine Traffic Flow

[51] Anjaneyulu et al. proposed an approach using a XPSVM model to predict

short-term traffic congestion. This method aimed to forecast Short-Term Traffic Con-
gestion (STTC) every 5 minutes over a span of 1 hour, with the potential to decrease
travel time,costs and pollution. The Xception technique, an enhancement of the Incep-
tion technique utilized in Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN), was employed. This
model features a 71-layer deep CNN architecture inspired by Google. To construct the
dataset, traffic images were gathered from various locations in Bangalore, Karnataka.
Upon implementation, the model demonstrated remarkable performance, achieving
a high accuracy of 97.16% in predicting traffic congestion. This innovative approach
leverages advanced deep learning techniques to address critical transportation chal-
lenges. By accurately predicting short-term traffic congestion, it has the potential
to significantly improve traffic management efficiency, ultimately leading to reduced
travel times and environmental benefits.
[47] Devi et al. proposed an innovative strategy leveraging support vector machine
(SVM) alongside regression methodologies, including linear and logistic regression, to
assess peak traffic accuracy. Their dataset, tailored for smart city applications, encom-
passed a wide array of parameters such as traffic and weather conditions, parking
availability, accident-prone zones, and popular on-demand destinations. Additionally,
the dataset was organized into three-dimensional structures to facilitate comprehen-
sive analysis. Applying SVM to the traffic dataset entailed rigorous statistical analysis
aimed at uncovering patterns indicative of heavy traffic scenarios. This approach syner-
gized SVM’s robust classification capabilities with the predictive prowess of regression
analysis, enabling a nuanced comprehension of peak traffic dynamics. By harnessing
diverse data dimensions and sophisticated analytical techniques, Devi et al. made sig-
nificant strides in enhancing traffic management strategies in urban locales, thereby
paving the way for more responsive and efficient transportation systems in smart cities.

3 Conclusion
In summary, this survey paper offers a comprehensive exploration of diverse traf-
fic signal management techniques prevalent in contemporary transportation systems.
Throughout our analysis, we’ve delved into a spectrum of methodologies, encom-
passing traditional practices, heuristic algorithms, and cutting-edge technologies like

15
machine learning and deep reinforcement learning. Our findings underscore the con-
tinued relevance of conventional methods such as static-time control and dynamic
traffic signal control, alongside the burgeoning adoption of adaptive control and rein-
forcement learning-based approaches. These newer techniques exhibit promise in their
capacity to dynamically adjust signal timings, responding adeptly to fluctuating traffic
conditions in real-time.
Furthermore, our study also considers multifarious factors like traffic volume,
vehicular composition, pedestrian patterns, and environmental variables in devising
and implementing traffic signal control strategies. The integration of emerging tech-
nologies such as IoT and machine learning emerges as pivotal for enhancing system
efficiency and safety. In essence, this survey paper serves as an invaluable resource for
researchers, transportation planners, and policymakers alike, offering nuanced insights
into the evolving terrain of traffic signal management methodologies. By discerning
the strengths and limitations of diverse approaches, stakeholders are empowered to
make informed decisions aimed at optimizing traffic flow, alleviating congestion, and
augmenting overall transportation system efficacy in urban landscapes.

Declarations: On behalf of all authors, the corresponding author states that

there is no conflict of interest.

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