PQF 2022
PQF 2022
PQF 2022
The principle of STATCOM opera on is as follows. The basic objec ve of a VSC is to produce a
sinusoidal ac voltage with minimal harmonic distor on from a dc voltage. The dc voltage
across the dc capacitor (CDC) of the STATCOM is controlled to be constant for normal
opera on of the PWM inverter. The dc capacitor has the func on of establishing an energy
balance between the input and output during the dynamic change of the var output. If the
compensator supplies only reac ve power, the ac ve power provided by the dc capacitor is
zero. Therefore, the capacitor does not change its voltage. If the voltage magnitudes are equal,
the reac ve power exchange is zero. The size of the capacitor is primarily determined by the
ripple input current encountered with the par cular converter design.
The charged capacitor CDC provides a dc voltage to the converter, which produces a set of
controllable three phase output voltages with the frequency of the ac power system . The
current on the dc side is mainly a ripple of magnitude much smaller than the ac line currents.
In this representa on, the series inductance LS accounts for the leakage of the transformer
and RS represents the ac ve losses of the inverter and transformer. The RDC represent the
sum of the switching losses of the inverter and power losses in the capacitor. In STATCOM the
maximum current is given by the difference in voltage between the converter terminal voltage
and the power system voltage, and by the phase reactance. Under steady state condi ons and
ignoring the losses the exchange of ac ve power and the dc current are zero.
V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF STATCOM
Ø The STATCOM can supply both the capaci ve and the induc ve compensa on and is able to
independently control its output current over the rated maximum capaci ve or induc ve
range irrespec ve of the amount of ac-system voltage.
Ø The STATCOM can provide full capaci ve-reac ve power at any system voltage—even as low
as 0.15 pu.
Ø The characteris c of a STATCOM reveals another strength of this technology: that it is
capable of yielding the full output of capaci ve genera on almost independently of the
system voltage (constant-current output at lower voltages). This capability is par cularly
useful for situa ons in which the STATCOM is needed to support the system voltage during
and a er faults where voltage collapse would otherwise be a limi ng factor.
Ø Figure illustrates that the STATCOM has an increased transient ra ng in both the capaci ve-
and the nduc ve-opera ng regions.
Ø The maximum a ainable transient overcurrent in the capaci ve region is determined by
the maximum current turn-off capability of the converter switches.
Ø In the induc ve region, the converter switches are naturally commutated; therefore, the
transient-current ra ng of the STATCOM is limited by the maximum allowable junc on
temperature of the converter switches.
V-I CHARACTERISTICS OF SVC
A sta c VAR compensator can be operated in two approaches:
As voltage controlling mode where there is regula on for voltage within the threshold
values
As var regula on mode which means susceptance value of the device is maintained at
a constant level
For the voltage controlling mode, the VI characteris cs are shown as below:
As far as the susceptance value stays at constant within the less and high threshold limits
levied by the en re reac ve power of the capacitors and reactors, then the voltage value is
controlled at the equilibrium point which is termed as a reference voltage.
Though voltage decrease generally takes place and this ranges in between the values of 1 and
4 % when there is extreme reac ve power at the output. The VI characteris c and the
equa ons for this condi on are shown below:
SVC VI Characteris cs
V = Vref + Xs.I ( When the susceptance lies in between high and low ranges of capacitor and
reactor banks)
V = -(I/Bcmax) at the condi on (B = Bcmax)
V = (I/Bcmax) at the condi on (B = Blmax)
(b) Derive the expression for ac ve as well as reac ve power flow in a lossless transmission
line and draw its necessary phasor diagram. Also discuss the ac ve as well as reac ve power
controlling by using FACTS controllers[2022/23]
Reac ve power compensa on has been very vital factor in designing and opera on of
transmission and distribu on system. The modern power system becomes very complex. In
the system, there are many sta c and dynamic devices are included. So, that automa c
reac ve power compensa on is necessary. Apart from that a transmission line always
produces VARs in propor on to the square of the voltage applied. At the same me, it also
consumes VARs in propor on to the square of the current carried by it. That means
consump on of VARs increases if load increases & decreases if load decreases. For be er
performance of the power system capaci es by introducing compensa on devices like Flexible
AC Transmission system [FACTS] device becomes very important. With the introduc on of
FACTS device, we can do real me control of the reac ve power. By using FACTS device with
controller, we can deal with variable reac ve power demands. Device like Fixed Capacitor
Thyristor Controlled Reactor (FC-TCR) can control variable reac ve power with the use of
controller. The controlling of reac ve power depends on the ra ng of the Capacitor, ra ng of
Reactor and ra ng of the Switches. By controlling firing angle and pulse width of the gate
pulses we can control the reac ve power.
3. (a) Illustrate the power swing damping in a single-machine infinite bus system using a
TCSC. [2022]
Step1:Understanding Power Swing Damping
Power swing damping refers to the ability of a power system to suppress oscilla ons that
occur a er a disturbance, such as a fault or sudden load change. These oscilla ons can lead
to instability if not properly damped.
Step 2: Single Machine Infinite Bus System
In a single machine infinite bus (SMIB) system, a synchronous generator is connected to an
infinite bus through transmission lines. The infinite bus represents a large power system with
a constant voltage and frequency, ac ng as an infinite source of power.
Step 3: Thyristor-Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC)
A TCSC is a FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission System) device that consists of a series capacitor
bank in parallel with a thyristor-controlled reactor. It can dynamically adjust the impedance
of the transmission line, thereby controlling the power flow and damping power swings.
Step 4: TCSC Opera on for Damping
During power swings, the TCSC can inject a series capaci ve reactance to reduce the
effec ve impedance of the transmission line. This helps in stabilizing the power flow and
damping the oscilla ons by providing addi onal damping torque to the generator.
Step 5: Power Quality Improvement
By damping power swings, the TCSC improves power quality by reducing voltage fluctua ons
and maintaining stable power flow. This ensures that the system operates within acceptable
limits and enhances overall reliability.
Final Answer
In a single machine infinite bus system, a TCSC can be used to damp power swings by
dynamically adjus ng the transmission line impedance. This improves power quality by
stabilizing power flow and reducing voltage fluctua ons, thereby enhancing system
reliability and stability.
Special Instruc ons:
Ensure that the TCSC is properly tuned to respond quickly to power swings.
Monitor and control the TCSC parameters in real- me to achieve op mal damping
performance.
Consider system constraints and interac ons with other FACTS devices for
comprehensive power quality improvement.
ANOTHER SOLUTION
SINGLE MACHINE INFINITE BUS (SMIB) SYSTEM: DEVELOPMENT OF
SWING EQUATION.
Consider a synchronous generator developing an electromagnetic torque Te (and a
corresponding electromagnetic power Pe) while operating at the synchronous
speed ωm. I the input torque provided by the prime mover at the generator shaft is Ti,
then under steady state conditions (with no disturbance).
Te = Ti …. (11.10)
Here we have neglected any retarding torque due to rotational losses. Therefore we
have
If there is a departure from steady state occurs, or example, a change in load or a fault,
then input power Pi is not equal to Pe if the armature resistance is neglected. Therefore
let-side of eqn. (11.12) is not zero and an accelerating torque comes into play. If Pa is
the corresponding accelerating (or decelerating) power, then
Where M has been defined in eqn. (11.8) or eqn. (11.9). D is a damping coefficient
and e is the electrical angular position o the rotor. It is more convenient to measure
the angular position o the rotor with respect to a synchronously rotating frame of
reference. Let
Where δ is the power angle of the synchronous machine. Neglecting damping (i.e.,
D=0) and substituting eqn. (11.15) in eqn. (11.13), we get,
Eqn. (11.20) is called swing equation. It describes the rotor dynamics for a synchronous
machine. Although damping is ignored but it helps to stabilizer the system. Damping
must be considered in dynamic stability study.
(b) Compare HVDC and FACTS in the context of bulk power transmission.
Illustrate the operation of a series FACTS controller by using a suitable example.
Is back-to-back VSC-HVDC is considered as a FACTS device? [2022/23]
Step 1: Define HVDC and FACTS
HVDC (High Voltage Direct Current): A technology used for transmitting large
amounts of power over long distances or undersea, using direct current.
FACTS (Flexible Alternating Current Transmission System): A set of devices
used to enhance the controllability and increase power transfer capability of
the AC transmission system.
Step 2: Key Features of HVDC
Power Transmission: Suitable for long-distance and submarine transmission.
Control: Provides fast and precise control of power flow.
Losses: Lower electrical losses compared to AC systems over long distances.
Cost: Generally higher initial investment but lower operational costs over long
distances.
Step 3: Key Features of FACTS
Power Transmission: Enhances existing AC transmission systems.
Control: Provides dynamic control of voltage, impedance, and phase angle.
Losses: Reduces losses and improves efficiency of existing AC networks.
Cost: Moderate investment, focused on upgrading existing AC infrastructure.
Step 4: Applications and Benefits
HVDC: Ideal for interconnecting asynchronous grids, long-distance
transmission, and undersea cables.
FACTS: Useful for congestion management, voltage control, and improving
stability in existing AC networks.
Step 5: Technological Considerations
HVDC: Requires conversion from AC to DC at the sending end and back to
AC at the receiving end.
FACTS: Integrates with existing AC systems without the need for conversion.
Final Answer
HVDC and FACTS are both critical technologies in bulk transmission systems,
each serving distinct purposes. HVDC is primarily used for long-distance and
undersea power transmission, offering lower losses and precise control, albeit
with a higher initial cost. FACTS, on the other hand, enhances the capabilities
of existing AC systems, providing dynamic control and improving overall
network efficiency with a more moderate investment. Both technologies play
crucial roles in modern power transmission, depending on specific system
requirements and objectives.
Where,
V1 = Sending end voltage
V2 = Receiving end voltage
XL = Induc ve reactance of transmission line
δ = Phase angle between V1 and V2
P = Power transferred per phase
Now, we connect a capacitor in series with the transmission line. The capaci ve
reactance of this capacitor is XC. So, the total reactance is XL-XC.
So, with a compensa on device, the power transfer capacity is given by;
The factor k is known as the compensa on factor or degree of compensa on.
Generally, the value of k is lies between 0.4 to 0.7. Let’s assume the value of k is 0.5.
Hence, it is clear that, if we use the series compensa on devices, approximately 50%
more power can be transfer.
By using the series capacitor, the angle between voltage and current (δ) is less
compared to the uncompensated line. The lower value of δ will give be er system
stability. Hence, for the same amount of power transfer and the same value of sending
end and receiving end, the compensated line will give be er stability compared to the
uncompensated line.
Yes, a back-to-back Voltage Source Converter-based High Voltage Direct Current (VSC-
HVDC) system can be considered a type of Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS)
device.
Explana on:
FACTS Devices: FACTS devices are used in power systems to improve the control and
stability of AC networks. They help in regula ng voltage, controlling power flows,
improving stability, and increasing the transmission capacity of exis ng lines.
Back-to-Back VSC-HVDC System:
o A back-to-back VSC-HVDC system consists of two voltage source converters
connected directly back-to-back, with no DC transmission line in between.
o It is typically used to connect two asynchronous AC networks or to provide
power flow control between two networks opera ng at the same frequency.
o The system can control both the magnitude and direc on of power flow, as
well as provide dynamic support to the AC network by regula ng voltage and
reac ve power.
Role as a FACTS Device:
Since the back-to-back VSC-HVDC system can control power flow and enhance stability
and voltage regula on, it performs many of the same func ons as FACTS devices like
STATCOM, SVC, and others.
Therefore, while it is primarily an HVDC technology, it is o en categorized as a FACTS
device when used in this context because it provides flexibility and control in AC
transmission networks.
4. (a)Discuss different power quality problems in the distribu on systems. Also
discuss the applica ons of suitable compensators to mi gate the respec ve power
quality problems.[2022/23]
In an electrical power system, there are various kinds of PQ disturbances. They are
classified into categories and their descrip ons are important in order to classify
measurement results and to describe electromagne c phenomena, which can cause
PQ problems. The categories can be classified below,
a. Short-dura on voltage varia ons
b. Long-dura on voltage varia ons
c. Transients
d. Voltage imbalance
e. Waveform distor on
f. Voltage fluctua on
g. Power frequency varia ons
The most common types of PQ problems are presented in Table I.
The most demanding processes in the modern digital economy need electrical energy
with 99.9999999% availability (9-nines reliability) to func on properly. Between 1992
and 1997, EPRI carried out a study in the US to characterize the average dura on of
disturbances. The result for a typical site, during the 6-year period is presented below.
Fig.2. Typical distribu on of PQ disturbances by its dura on
Table I – Most common Power Quality problems [ 1], [2]
.
.
It is clear that not all these disturbances cause equipment malfunc oning, but many
types of sensi ve equipment may be affected. Another study of EPRI was undertaken,
between 1993 and 1999, in order to characterize the PQ. This study concluded that
92% of disturbances in PQ were voltage sags with amplitude drops up to 50% and
dura on below 2 seconds.
(b) Differen ate between voltage sourced converters (VSCs) and current sourced
converters (CSCs) in FACTS applica ons. Illustrate the single-phase full-wave bridge
VSC converter opera on with the help of different opera ng waveforms.[2022/23]
single-phase full-wave bridge VSC converter opera on
This type of converter u lizes a bridge circuit made purely of thyristors to convert alterna ng
signal input to direct signal output. Due to the u liza on of the silicon-controlled rec fiers
only in its circuitry, the converter is wholly owned, and the advantage of this is that it offers a
more significant margin of control over the output signal levels.
Circuit Diagram of the Single-Phase Full-Converter connected to the RLE load
Figure 1:Circuit Diagram of the Single-Phase Full-Converter connected to the RLE load
The circuit u lizes T1, T2, T3, and T4 thyristors. The load connected to the converter is an RLE
load type where L stands for an inductor, R stands for a resistor, and E represents the emf load,
which might be from a connected ba ery source or maybe due to the DC motor back emf.
Single-Phase Full-Converter Opera on
The convert works following a principle of triggering two thyristors at once. In the circuit,
thyristors T1 and T2 are ac vated simultaneously, and a er a period that is π radian, the
thyristor par of T3 and T4 are also simultaneously triggered. The opera on is con nuous. Since
a load is connected to the converter circuit, the load is assumed to be in a constant mode.
Single-Phase Full-Converter Waveforms
Between ωt = 0 and ωt = α
In the period between ωt = 0 and ωt=α, thyristors T1 and T2 operate in the forward-biased
mode. At the same period, T3 and T4 are in the conduc ng method.
Between ωt = α and ωt = π + α
At the period ωt = α, the T1 and T2 SCRs are triggered and conducted. The two thyristors are
in conduc on mode. At the instant when thyristors T1 and T2 begin to work, there is an
appearance of Vm sin α voltage across thyristors T3 and T4. This voltage is in reverse bias
mode. The turning on of T3 and T4 is known as a line or natural commuta on. At this point,
the current of the load, i0, is transferred from thyristors T3 and T4 to thyristors T1 and T2.
Thyristors T1 and T2 can only be turned on when Vm sin α > E. At this mode of opera on,
thyristors T1 and T2 are in conduc on mode for a period of π radian that is at the range ωt=α
to ωt=π+α.
Between ωt = π + α to ωt = 2π + α
At ωt=π+α, thyristors T3 and T4 are forward-biased. At this point, the two thyristors get
triggered, as thyristors T1 and T2 are turned off by line or natural commuta on. The load
current is now transferred from thyristors T1 and T2 to thyristors T3 and T4, and this triggers
thyristors T3 and T4 to be in conduc on mode for a period of π radian that is at the range
ωt=π+α to ωt=2π+α.
Voltage, Power, and Current Flow
Across the thyristors occurs maximum reverse voltage labeled as Vm. During the interval of 0
to α, the voltage from the supply VS is posi ve, while the current from the collec on is
posi ve. This makes some energy from the load return to the power supply.
During the interval period α to π, the system’s supply current and voltage are posi ve. This
makes the power supplied posi ve and, thus, is the supply load source. From the discussion
above, we can note that some mes, power flows from the source towards the load start;
other mes, the power flows from the lower energy towards the load. We cannot forget to
state that the net power flows toward the point in the power supply as the posi ve power
dura on is greater than the nega ve power dura on, which is α to π more significant than 0
to α.
Average and RMS output DC Voltage
The average DC output voltage equa on can be discussed as follows;
In this type of converter, the RMS output voltage is equal to the source voltage.
The Voltage, power and Current Flow for the Inverter Mode
From the graph above, the source voltage (VS) is posi ve for 0 to α, and the source current(IS)
is nega ve. This tells us that power flows towards the AC source from the load emf, E. From
interval α to π, both the supply current and voltage are posi ve; hence, the power flows
towards the load circuit from the AC source.
Summary
In summary
Single-phase full converter u lizes four thyristors in its schema cs
It s ll converts AC to DC
It operates in full mode because of the four thyristors
The converter operates as an inverter when the firing angle is over 90 degrees.
5. (a) Explain the opera on of DVR and UPQC in distribu on systems. How can we use the
FACTS devices to maintain the power flow between a two-area with different frequency
between two generators? Explain with illustra on.[2022]
The UPQC is a highly efficient device used to address PQ issues related to voltage and current.
It effec vely resolves problems such as voltage sags and swells, harmonics in voltage and
current, voltage and current imbalances, flickers, and reac ve power demand. UPQC can be
used in several power circuit configura ons, each designed to address unique scenarios. It is
evident from a thorough examina on of several control theories that the UPQC's performance
is ed to its control techniques; yet, the complexity of the control approach poses a major
challenge. The integra on of DG with UPQC is the key focus a er a comprehensive review of
UPQC. By keeping PQ at manageable levels, renewable energy sources like as sun and wind
can be used. The op miza on approach must be used to select the op mal UPQC placement
for a distribu on network's bus, taking into account the UPQC ra ng, voltage stability, and the
loss of power of the whole system
FACTS devices have been popular as a PQ issue solu on in recent years . A new genera on of
compensa ng devices has been created as a consequence of the FACTS concepts being used
in distribu on systems . A UPQC's primary purpose is to compensate the PQ issues of source
voltage like sags, swells, imbalance, harmonics, and flickers, as well as load current PQ issues
like harmonics, reac ve current, unbalance and neutral current. The UPQC can enhance PQ at
the PCC in power distribu on and industrial power systems . Both series and shunt APFs make
up a UPQC. Thus, it can compensate for voltage and current in a synchronized manner. A
UPQC's series APF manages voltage-related problems across the load such as to the DVR,
while the UPQC's shunt APF compensates load-related current issues, like to the D-STATCOM.
The UPQC has many advantages for enhancing PQ. It can handle voltage and current-related
PQ issues and filter harmonics, reducing the need for mul ple devices in the distribu on
network. The UPQC offers ac ve compensa on for current distor on and correc on of power
factor, which decreases load supply-voltage fluctua ons. The voltage can be controlled by
UPQC for both grid and load sides. The UPQC mi gates voltage and current distor ons
simultaneously and independently, resul ng in sinusoidal source current and load voltage at
the desired voltage level . Figure 1 illustrates a simplified version of the UPQC system
configura on. The primary parts of UPQC are as follows :
1. Series and shunt voltage source inverters (VSIs). The VSI structure in the series acts as a
voltage source by connec ng in series with the line. The shunt VSI structure, on the other
hand, is used to act as a source current by connec ng it in parallel with the load.
2. Shunt coupling inductor Lsh serves as the network connec on for the shunt inverter.
3. A capacitor or an inductor could be used to create a common dc link. The two inverters are
connected by a capacitor, which also keeps the dc bus voltage across them steady and self-
suppor ng.
4. An LC filter, essen ally a low-pass passive filter, is employed to reduce ripples with the
output voltage of an inverter caused by high-frequency switching.
Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) is a power electronic based device that protects cri cal
loads from voltage unbalances it is connected in series with the sensi ve load and can absorb
or get P and Q from the grid. The working principle of DVR is such that it senses a voltage
unbalance in the grid and adds a voltage to grid to compensate it, so it needs an energy storage
source that can be a ba ery, capacitor, ultra capacitor, super conduc ve energy storage
(SMES) and flywheel . Nowadays in many applica ons RES plays the role of storage sources, in
this case not only it can improve the power ra ng of DVR but also it will decrease the storage
source cost. It is worth no ng that there is a slight different between these devices and the
mul -func onal DGs that can do both of the roles of power delivery source and PQI device.
An isolated transformer is inevitable in DVR structure to isolate the DC and AC side and to
protect the device over fault condi ons of the grid . While some researchers try to present
novel DVRs with different transformer topologies, others research on transformer fewer DVR
topologies . Researchers try to improve the performance and ra ng of DVR by using some kind
of novel mul level inverters and new control strategies in DVR topologies because of the
unique characteris cs that mul level inverters will bring to power systems .
Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) devices are essen al tools in modern power
systems, designed to enhance the controllability and increase the power transfer capability
of the network. They are par cularly useful in managing power flow, stabilizing voltage, and
ensuring system stability between different areas with varying frequencies. Here's how
FACTS devices can be used to maintain power flow between two areas with different
frequencies:
1. Understanding the Problem
Two-Area System: Consider two power systems (Area A and Area B) interconnected
by a transmission line. Each area has its own generator with different frequencies.
Objec ve: The goal is to control the power flow between these two areas, ensuring
stable and efficient energy transfer despite the frequency difference.
2. Role of FACTS Devices
FACTS devices can be deployed to manage power flow, maintain stability, and enhance the
flexibility of the interconnec on between these two areas. Here are the key devices and
their roles:
SSSC Control: The SSSC adjusts the line voltage to control the amount of ac ve power
flowing from Area A to Area B. It compensates for any fluctua ons in load demand
or genera on.
Outcome: The combina on of these FACTS devices ensures stable and controlled
power flow, despite the frequency difference.
(b) Discuss various causes for second harmonic distor on between the thyristor-controlled
reactor and the AC system.[2022]
The thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR) produces harmonic currents because thyristors only
allow conduc on in the reactor for a por on of the cycle. Harmonic current magnitudes vary
as the firing angle of the thyristors is varied. A comprehensive harmonic study includes
evalua on of possible harmonic concerns over the full range of firing angles and possible
system condi ons. Generally, harmonic filtering is accomplished with capacitors connected in
parallel with the TCRs. For transmission applica ons, the filters might include tuned filters at
the fi h and seventh harmonics along with a high pass filter for higher order components. Use
of a sta c compensator with a thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR) has been known to be an
effec ve and reliable means to ensure power system voltage stability. This device is essen ally
a variable reactor that can adjust its reac ve power consump on. The adjustment is realised
through the firing angles of thyristors that normally operate in par al conduc ng states, and
thereby produce harmonics . The generated harmonics depend cri cally on the control
characteris cs of a sta c VAR compensator (SVC) with a fixed-capacitor thyristor-controlled
reactor (FC-TCR). However, this makes the firing angles dependent on the network load flow
condi ons and harmonic voltage distribu ons . Poor selec on of firing angles can lead to
increase in the amount of effec ve harmonic produc on of the TCR. From the opera on point
of view of the system, we need to model the harmonics accurately
Harmonic distor ons are common voltage and current varia ons due to changes in
frequencies within the electrical distribu on systems. In par cular, there are devia ons from
the typical sinusoidal varia ons in voltages or currents. Harmonics are mainly caused by
nonlinear loads such as those associated with power electronic converters including variable
frequency drives (VFDs) installed for fans and pumps serving building air condi oning systems.
Specifically, these converters draw a nonsinusoidal current/voltage and introduce nonlinear
loads throughout the electrical distribu on systems. The problems due to harmonic
distor ons are nowadays common in buildings since computers and other power electronics
are heavily u lized. In par cular, harmonic distor ons can cause several disturbances and
damages including wire overhea ng and power loss. Fig. shows a typical voltage varia on due
to harmonic distor on.
6. (a) Describe the sub-synchronous resonance phenomenon and its impacts. Discuss the
possible solu on techniques for the same. Can we mi gate it by using variable impedance
type or VSC type FACTS controllers?[2022]
Synchronous Resonance (SSR) is a phenomenon in which electrical energy is exchanged
between generators and transmission systems below power frequency. It can be caused due
to interac on of a series compensated transmission line with a generator; in addi on, results
in oscilla on in the sha and power swing. SSR causes increasing the magnitudes of voltage
and current consequently occurrence of ferroresonance. It is obviously clear that protec ve
relays are affected in such condi ons. Although SSR is damped by FACTS devices protec ve
relays must be adap ve to prevent mal opera on independently. Ferro resonance occurs in
most SSR condi ons. Hence, in order to dis nguish protec on of hydro generator against sub
harmonics, which interact with natural frequencies of the rotor; in addi on, increasing
reliability and security of protec on a logical SSR detec on algorithm based on sub harmonic
measurement and ferroresonance analysis in me domain is proposed for overcurrent relay
and examined in the network.
IMPACTS OF SSR
1. Torsional Interac on
Mechanical Damage: SSR can cause torsional oscilla ons in the turbine-generator
sha . If the frequency of these oscilla ons matches a natural torsional mode of the
generator sha , it can lead to mechanical fa gue and even catastrophic failure of the
sha over me.
Sha Stress: Con nuous exposure to SSR can induce excessive stress on the sha ,
poten ally leading to cracking or breaking, which would require costly repairs and
extended down me.
2. Generator Instability
Electrical Instability: The interac on between the generator and the series-
compensated transmission line can create a nega ve damping effect. This can cause
the generator to become unstable, leading to oscilla ons that can grow uncontrollably
and result in generator trips.
Power System Oscilla ons: SSR can lead to power system oscilla ons that are difficult
to dampen. These oscilla ons can propagate through the power system, affec ng
other generators and poten ally leading to widespread instability.
3. Increased Maintenance Costs
Frequent Inspec ons: Power plants that experience SSR may require more frequent
inspec ons and maintenance to monitor and mi gate the effects on turbine-generator
sha s and other equipment.
Component Replacement: Parts subject to SSR-induced stress may need to be
replaced more o en, leading to higher opera onal costs and reduced plant availability.
4. Reduced Power Transmission Capability
Opera onal Limits: To avoid SSR, power u li es may need to limit the use of series
compensa on or operate the generator at reduced power levels, which can decrease
the overall power transfer capability of the transmission system.
Compensa on Restric ons: The use of series compensa on, which is employed to
improve transmission efficiency and stability, might be restricted or adjusted to avoid
SSR, poten ally reducing the benefits of such compensa on.
5. Risk of Forced Outages
System Protec on Tripping: If SSR is not detected and mi gated promptly, it can cause
the ac va on of system protec on schemes, leading to forced outages. This can
reduce system reliability and increase the risk of blackouts.
Generator Tripping: SSR can lead to tripping of generators, causing an unexpected loss
of genera on and poten al grid instability, especially in systems with a ght
genera on-demand balance.
6. Mi ga on Costs
Mi ga on Solu ons: To combat SSR, u li es may need to invest in mi ga on
techniques such as adding damping controls (e.g., Power System Stabilizers),
modifying the network configura on, or installing Flexible AC Transmission Systems
(FACTS) devices like Sta c VAR Compensators (SVCs) or Thyristor-Controlled Series
Capacitors (TCSCs).
Technology Investment: The implementa on of advanced control systems or FACTS
devices to mi gate SSR requires significant investment, which can impact the overall
cost of maintaining a stable and reliable power system.
7. Impact on Power Quality
Harmonics and Flicker: SSR can contribute to power quality issues, including the
genera on of sub-synchronous harmonics. These harmonics can cause flicker and
other disturbances in the electrical network, affec ng the opera on of sensi ve
equipment.
8. Impact on Renewable Energy Integra on
Wind Turbines and SSR: Wind farms, par cularly those connected to series-
compensated lines, can also be suscep ble to SSR. This adds complexity to the
integra on of renewable energy sources into the grid and may require addi onal
controls or protec ve measures.
9. Opera onal Challenges
Complexity in Control: SSR adds another layer of complexity to power system
opera on, requiring careful monitoring and control. Operators need to be trained to
recognize SSR and take appropriate ac on to mi gate its effects.
possible solu on techniques
Mi ga on of SSR in DFIG based Wind Farms using FACTS devices
The FACTS controllers play a major role in mi ga ng the SSR in power system to enhance the
stability. The literature review on FACTS controllers to mi gate SSR in DFIG based wind farm
connected to the series compensated transmission line. In , the effec veness of SVC with a
damping control loop for suppression of SSR in DFIG based wind farm connected to series
compensated transmission line is explored. In which, the line current is chosen as an input
feedback control signal for the damping controller. The reac ve power support, easy
implementa on and u lizing locally available input control signal are addi onal benefits of
this method; however the gain of controller is fixed.
Mi ga on of SSR Using DFIG Converter Controllers with SSRDC and other methods
The mi ga on of SSR using converter controllers of DFIG is a cost effec ve solu on rather
than using FACTS devices. This sec on explores the review on u lizing the converter
controllers of DFIG and other methods to damp SSR.
Mi ga on of SSR through other methods Series capacitor control method
The series capacitor is bypassed under SSR condi on and reinserted automa cally when the
risk of SSR is low. The control algorithm monitors line current (iline) and bus voltage (uline) at
the low voltage side of transmission line. From iSSR, the magnitude of SSR current (iSSR magn)
is sampled and compared for two successive peaks to observe its varia on. When the
magnitude of SSR current (iSSR magn) is greater than the pre-set threshold value and grows
with me, the system control detects SSR condi on. Subsequently, the bypass of series
capacitor automa cally takes place.
Yes, Sub-Synchronous Resonance (SSR) can be mi gated effec vely using Variable Impedance
Type or Voltage Source Converter (VSC) type Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS)
controllers. These controllers can provide dynamic control over the power system parameters
and help dampen the oscilla ons that lead to SSR..
(b) With neat sketches, explain the configura on and opera ng characteris cs of a fixed
capacitor- thyristor controlled reactor (FC-TCR) with a step down transformer.[2022]
A fixed capacitor-thyristor controlled reactor (FC-TCR) type of power factor compensator with
thyristor-controlled series R-L load is analysed using an approximate and also a more exact
circuit. The varia on of power and power factor before and a er compensa on is examined
for both cases. It is shown that considerable power factor improvement can be achieved in
the circuit for low values of load thyristor firing- angle. However, for higher values of firing-
angle, any improvement is obtained at the expense of addi onal. power losses.
• The circuit diagrams of a FC – TCR, with switched filtersare as shown in figure. This
arrangement provides discrete leadings VARs from the capacitors and con nuously lagging
VARs from thyristor controlled reactor.
• The capacitors are used as tuned filters, as considerable harmonics are generated by
thyristor control.
• The steady state characteris cs of a FC – TCR is shown in figure. The control range is AB with
a posi ve slope, determine by the firing angle control.
• Where bc is the susceptance of the capacitor, b1(α) isthe susceptance of the inductor at
firing angle α.
• As the inductance is varied, the susceptance varies overa large range. The voltage varies
within limits V ± ΔV. Outsidethe control interval AB, the FC – TCR acts like an inductor in
thehigh voltage range and like a capacitor in the low voltage range.
• The response me is of the order of one or two cycles. The compensator is designed to
provide emergency reac ve and capaci ve loading beyond its con nuous steady state ra ng.
7. (a) Describe detailed func onal control schemes of series and shunt converters in UPFC.
Illustrate the performance of STATCOM and UPFC in order to improve the transient stability
and power oscilla on damping by using a suitable example.[2022]
Both of shunt and series converters u lize Voltage Sourced Converter (VSC), which connected
to the secondary of the coupling transformer. VSC works to force the commutated power
electronic devices (GTO, IGBT or IGCT) to create a voltage from the D.C voltage source. The
shared capacitor, which connected to the D.C side of the VSC, operates as a D.C voltage source.
The shunt converter has two du es, namely, to control the voltage magnitude at the
sending-end bus by locally genera ng or absorbing reac ve power, and to supply or absorb
real power at the dc terminals as demanded by the series converter. It is possible to achieve
real power balance between the series and shunt converter by directly controlling the dc
voltage Vdc, as any excess or deficit of real power will tend to increase or decrease the dc
voltage,respec vely. By varying the magnitude and angle of the shunt converter output
voltage the real and reac ve power flow in and out of the shunt converter is controlled
Two different control schemes for the series converter were implemented. One scheme to
control real power flow through transmission line and voltage magnitude at the receiving-end
bus; another control scheme for controlling the real and the reac ve power flows through the
transmission line. From the basic principle of UPFC, series converter does main func on of
UPFC. The series converter ac ve and reac ve powers are controlled by using two separate PI
controllers, taking advantage of the UPFC ability to independently control reac ve and
real power. The basic principle of real power flow being directly affected by changes in phase
angles, while reac ve power flow is directly associated with voltage magnitudes, is used here
to design the UPFC control
Step1: Understanding UPFC Components
UPFC (Unified Power Flow Controller) consists of two converters: a series converter and a
shunt converter. The series converter controls the voltage and power flow in the
transmission line, while the shunt converter regulates the reac ve power and maintains the
voltage at the connec on point.
Step 2: Func onal Control of Series Converter
The series converter injects a voltage with controllable magnitude and phase angle in series
with the transmission line. This helps in controlling the ac ve and reac ve power flow
through the line, thereby managing the voltage profile and enhancing system stability.
Step 3: Func onal Control of Shunt Converter
The shunt converter provides reac ve power compensa on at the point of connec on. It
can either absorb or generate reac ve power, helping to maintain the voltage level and
support the system during disturbances.
Step 4: STATCOM Role in Stability
STATCOM (Sta c Synchronous Compensator), a component of UPFC, operates by injec ng
variable reac ve power into the grid. This helps in stabilizing the voltage during transient
condi ons and damping power oscilla ons by providing quick reac ve power support.
Step 5: UPFC Role in Stability
UPFC combines the func ons of the series and shunt converters to simultaneously control
the transmission voltage, impedance, and angle. This comprehensive control enhances
transient stability and power oscilla on damping by op mizing the power flow and voltage
profile across the network.
Step 6: Example Illustra on
Consider a scenario where a sudden increase in load occurs in a transmission line. The
UPFC’s series converter adjusts the injected voltage to maintain the power flow, while the
shunt converter stabilizes the voltage at the connec on point. This coordinated ac on
prevents voltage collapse and mi gates power oscilla ons, thereby improving system
stability.
(b) Describe the applica ons of STATCOM[2022]
Voltage stability is one of the biggest problems in power systems. Engineers and researchers
are trying to consolidate a defini on regarding to voltage stability, besides proposing
techniques and methodologies for their analysis. Most of these techniques are based on the
search of the point in which the system’s Jacobian becomes singular, this point is referred as
the point of voltage collapse or maximum load ability point. (we will discuss point of voltage
collapse in next post) The series and shunt compensa on are able to increase the maximum
transfer capabili es of power network .Concerning to voltage stability, such compensa on has
the purpose of injec ng reac ve power to maintain the voltage magnitude in the nodes close
to the nominal values, besides, to reduce line currents and therefore the total system losses.
Today due the development in the power electronics devices, the voltage magnitude in some
node of the system can be adjusted through sophis cated and versa le devices named FACTS.
One of them is the sta c synchronous compensator (STATCOM).
Usually a STATCOM is installed to support electrical networks that have a poor power factor
and o en poor voltage regula on. The most common use of STATCOM is for voltage stability.
A STATCOM is a voltage source converter (VSC) based device, with the voltage source behind
a reactor. The voltage source is created from a DC capacitor and therefore a STATCOM has very
li le ac ve power capability. However, its ac ve power capability can be increased if a suitable
energy storage device is connected across the DC capacitor. Here are the key applica ons of
STATCOM:
1. Voltage Regula on
8. (a) Explain power oscilla on damping and func onal requirements of thyristor switched
series capacitor (TSSC).[2022]
Power oscilla on damping refers to the process of reducing or elimina ng oscilla ons in the
power system that occur due to disturbances, such as sudden changes in load or faults. These
oscilla ons can cause fluctua ons in power flow, leading to instability in the power system.
Damping these oscilla ons is crucial for maintaining system stability and ensuring reliable
power delivery. Devices like STATCOM, UPFC, and other FACTS controllers are commonly used
to enhance power oscilla on damping by providing dynamic reac ve power support and
adjus ng power flows in real- me.
Thyristor Switched Series Capacitor (TSSC) is a type of FACTS device used to control power
flow in transmission lines. The func onal requirements of TSSC include the ability to rapidly
switch capaci ve reactance in and out of the circuit to regulate the line impedance. This
switching ac on allows the TSSC to control power flow, enhance voltage stability, and improve
the damping of power oscilla ons. TSSC operates by using thyristors to switch capacitor banks,
providing variable series compensa on. The main func ons of TSSC involve controlling the
power transfer in the transmission line, enhancing system stability, and mi ga ng the effects
of disturbances on power flow. The device is designed to respond quickly to changes in system
condi ons, ensuring that the power system remains stable and operates efficiently.
(b) Discuss the principle of opera on of sta c synchronous series compensator (SSSC) and
compare its performance with conven onal series compensators[2022]
Sta c Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) is a type of power electronic device that is
used to improve the stability and control of power systems. It is connected in series with a
transmission line and uses voltage source converter technology to inject a controllable voltage
into the line. This allows the SSSC to regulate the voltage and power flow in the line, which
can help to improve the stability and efficiency of the power system. The SSSC can also be
used to mi gate the effects of disturbances such as voltage dips and flicker, and to provide
dynamic voltage support during faults.
Sta c Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) is a type of flexible AC transmission
system which consists of a solid-state voltage source inverter coupled with a transformer that
is connected in series with a transmission line. This device can inject an almost
sinusoidal voltage in series with the line. This injected voltage could be considered as an
induc ve or capaci ve reactance, which is connected in series with the transmission line. This
feature can provide controllable voltage compensa on. In addi on, SSSC is able to reverse the
power flow by injec ng a sufficiently large series reac ve compensa ng voltage.
Sta c Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) is a power quality FACTS device that employs
a VSC connected in series to a transmission line through a transformer or mul level inverters.
The SSSC works like the STATCOM, except that it is serially connected instead of a shunt. Its
output is a series injected voltage, which leads or lags the line current by 90°, thus emula ng
a controllable induc ve or capaci ve reactance. The SSSC can be used to reduce or increase
the equivalent line impedance and enhance the ac ve power transfer capability of the line.
Moreover, the SSSCs are highly controllable devices and can provide further func onali es
and services to the energy system.
The primary difference between the performance of a conven onal series compensator and
a Sta c Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC) lies in their opera on, flexibility, and impact
on power system stability and control.
Conven onal Series Compensator:
1. Opera on: A conven onal series compensator typically consists of fixed or
mechanically switched capacitor banks or inductors placed in series with a
transmission line. These devices alter the line's impedance by adding capaci ve or
induc ve reactance, which helps control the power flow and reduce line losses.
2. Control: The control in conven onal series compensators is rela vely simple and less
dynamic. They operate based on the fixed or switched capacitance or inductance
values, providing sta c compensa on that cannot be adjusted in real- me.
3. Flexibility: Conven onal series compensators lack the flexibility to respond
dynamically to changing system condi ons. The compensa on provided is fixed or
stepwise, depending on the mechanical switching of capacitors or inductors.
4. Performance: While conven onal series compensators can effec vely reduce power
losses and improve voltage profiles in transmission lines, their inability to adapt
dynamically can limit their effec veness in enhancing system stability, par cularly
under transient condi ons.
5. Cost and Complexity: Conven onal series compensators are generally less expensive
and simpler in terms of technology, as they do not require complex control systems.
Sta c Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC):
1. Opera on: The SSSC is a type of Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) device that
uses voltage source converters (VSCs) to inject a controllable AC voltage in series with
the transmission line. This injected voltage can be varied in magnitude and phase,
allowing for precise control of the power flow.
2. Control: SSSC provides dynamic control of both ac ve and reac ve power flow by
adjus ng the magnitude and phase angle of the injected voltage. This capability allows
the SSSC to respond rapidly to changes in system condi ons, such as load varia ons or
disturbances, thereby enhancing the stability of the power system.
3. Flexibility: SSSC offers high flexibility due to its ability to provide con nuous and
dynamic compensa on. It can quickly adapt to changing system condi ons, providing
op mal power flow control and improving transient stability.
4. Performance: SSSC improves system stability and power oscilla on damping more
effec vely than conven onal series compensators. Its dynamic response and ability to
inject controlled voltage make it par cularly useful for mi ga ng issues like sub-
synchronous resonance (SSR) and enhancing power system reliability during
disturbances.
5. Cost and Complexity: The SSSC is more complex and costly than conven onal series
compensators due to its use of advanced power electronics, control systems, and the
need for con nuous power supply to the converters. However, its performance
benefits in terms of dynamic stability control o en jus fy the higher costs.
With all these ques ons, RXPE had carried out a solu on “Thyristor Controlled Braking
Resistors (TCBR)” together with our SVCs that can perfectly solve such problems exis ng in
island grids.
RXPE is capable to provide professional technical consultancy services and capable to provide
customer with an overall solu on to solve all these problems.
Principles
TCBR is a group of resistors that its ac ve power can be controlled and adjusted freely and
smoothly as required. It is comprised of one resistor bank (with designed MW power) and
one current limi ng reactor, as well as one thyristor valve to control the TCBR current, as
described in Fig-1. TCBR is controlled by a control & protec on system to operate at expected
power (0 ~ rated MW).