Color -enhancing foods for aquarium fish

SIVARAMAKRIS HNAN.T, IV B.F.SC.,

PRIYADHARSHINI.B, II B.F.SC

The color of a fish is primarily due to two factors, pigmentation and light reflection. Fish skin contains pigment cells called chromatophores and light reflecting cells called iridocytes. Unlike most other animals, many species of fish have the ability to change their colors, often over a very short time period. Fish can make this quick change because their pigment cells contain different types of pigments ranging from black or brown to reds, yellows and oranges. When these pigments move from the central core of a cell to its surface in response to a message from the fishs nervous system, the animal will appear to change colors. Many species will take advantage of this ability to blend into their backgrounds. Fish lack the ability to synthesize their own pigments, so they must obtain pigment compounds from their diet in order to maintain their coloration. This presents no problem in nature, where fish can graze freely to obtain a

variety

of pigment-rich plant, algae and bacteria. In the

aquarium environment, however, it is up to hobbyists to ensure that their fish are receiving a diet that has the ingredients needed to maintain their beautiful natural coloration. Some artificial foods have natural and synthetic pigment compounds that can be safely absorbed by aquarium fish. It is usually possible to see a change in the coloration of fish within six to ten weeks of putting them on a color-enhancing diet.

Color enhancing compounds for fish feeds

The color enhancers are of two types Natural and Artificial. natural color enhancers 1. Spirulina This has an above average carotenoid content that is easily assimilated, being found in very simple algae cells 2. Paprika, Red Pepper Meal More potent than spirulina, and contains red pigments ready to be absorbed and assimilated immediately. 3. Marigold Flower Meal Probably one of the most potent natural sources of carotenoids available. The pigments require manipulation by koi to convert them to reds. 4. A Yeast - Phaffia rhodozyma This is easily digested and is a recognised source of carotene and astaxanthin.

ARTIFICIAL COLOR ENHANCERS

Astaxanthin and Canthaxanthin are guaranteed, potent sources of

colour in the form that will be exhibited immediately in the skin.

The coloration obtained from various pigments is as follows: Melanin for black and brown Pure astaxanthin or canthaxanthin, Carotenoids for reds and oranges Xanthophyll for yellow Phycocyanin for blues

Color enhancing diets:These diets may contain additional natural pigments to enhance colors of ornamental fishes. The carotenoid pigment found in most marine and a few freshwater invertebrates is astaxanthin. This pigment gives the characteristic color to the flesh of salmon and is available in the diet of aquarium fish in shrimp and krill meals and salmon (fish) meal used as sources of protein in some feeds. These carotenoid pigments are often added to feeds for farm raised salmon and trout to give fillets a desirable red color. Xanthophylls (yellow pigments) are found in corn gluten meal and dried egg that may be added to the diet to enhance yellows. The ground petals of marigold flowers have also been used as a source of xanthophylls. The blue-green algae spirulina is a rich source of phycocyanin and may be added to a diet to enhance blue coloration. The expense of supplementary pigments often limits the amount used in tropical fish feeds, so the emphasis is placed on increasing the quantity or efficiency of natural color enhancing sources in feeds.

Colorations in Koi:-

There are many factors that conspire against koi (and koi keepers) when endeavouring to enhance their colour. Rather than exploring the factors that can negate our colour enhancing activities, it is more productive to concentrate on the most significant factors that will control a Koi's colour - and they are: a) The Koi's genetic makeup (which has coded for the koi's current (and future) skin, colour and pattern characteristics. b) The colour enhancers that are stored and expressed in the skin.

Skin

pigmentation

in

koi

is

caused

by

dots

(colour

cells

called

chromatophores) the intensity of which is determined by how densely the dots are packed and how intensely each dot is coloured. A koi's genetic code will determine both factors, with the role of colour enhancement through feeding only being able to improve the colour of each colour cell, rather than increase their density in the skin. However, there is always hope as that same genetic code will also code for colour development where pattern and the appearance of other chromatophores may develop in the future. The role of colour enhancers in Koi is only to be able to exhibit pigments if they receive them (or their precursors) in their diet. Feed a Koi a completely colour deficient diet, and over time, colours will fade to form a very 'unornamental' off-white skin colour. What causes colour to fade?

Carotenoids are the massive group of colour enhancing compounds that are stored and exhibited in koi skin. They are a group of chemicals that impart colour by the way they absorb and reflect light. Those that refract higher wavelengths of light (reds)are more desirable than those that refract the lower end of the spectrum (yellow). They are organic in nature, and are very closely related to Vitamin A, and similar in structure to vitamin E. Due to their similarity in chemical structure to these two vitamins, they behave in a similar way in living tissue, being very reactive and unstable, easily degraded in oxygen heat and light. As carotenoids do degenerate over time, Koi require a constant supply of carotenoids to keep the chromatophores packed with carotenoids. Keeping the bucket of colour topped up, relying on us completely for their nutrition, the colouration of koi in artificial koi ponds also depends on them receiving carotenoids of the correct quality and quantity. As mentioned earlier, carotenoids are a group of closely related organic chemicals, where through a number of subtle molecular changes, specific carotenoid pigments can be converted into others in the carotenoid family. Many different organisms (including shrimp, krill and koi) have the ability to convert certain pigments into others. Shrimp and krill are marine crustacea that are largely harvested off Norway and the Antarctic, and are renowned for their red pigmentation caused by the carotenoid astaxanthin. However, these filter feeding organisms feed on marine algae that is suspended in the water (and definitely not pink!), converting a range of pigments (carotene, lutein, and zeaxanthin) into the red pigment astaxanthin. Koi can perform a similar trick with carotenoids, but to varying degrees depending on the tissues involved. For example, if red pigments commonly found in algae, such as spirulina, (carotene and lutein), upon digestion and assimilation, koi choose to deposit these yellow carotenoids unchanged in their flesh. Fortunately however, they do convert such pigments into the more desirable red pigment astaxanthin, enhancing and improving their red colouration.

Salmon and trout also have an interest in astaxanthin, making their flesh look natural and appetising. But unlike carp, they are unable to convert other pigments (such as lutein and carotene) into the desirable astaxanthin which must be fed directly in their diet. Koi absorb and convert carotenes very efficiently into astaxanthin, and is the secret behind the apparent anomaly of enhancing the red skin in koi by feeding them on green algae. Types of approaches to enhancing colorations in koi:

The scatter-gun approach - using natural sources of carotenoids. The precise approach - using synthetic colour enhancers.

Natural sources: There are several recognised natural sources of carotenoids suitable for colour enhancement. Like any natural commodity, qualities and pigment content can vary from source to source, and being organic, can be liable to degradation during food manufacture. However, natural sources are also renowned for offering a superb range of carotenoids giving koi (who have the ability to convert carotenoids) excellent colour potential. For example, marigold petals have more than 20 different caroteds, which koi can work with and manipulate. They also have a high concentration of these compounds (approximately 9000mg per kilo), whereas shrimp or krill meal will only have about 200mg per kilo, with the added issue of the exoskeletal material have exceedingly high ash content. Furthermore, there is a price to pay for koi using natural carotenoid sources as the process of converting them into more desirable astaxanthin requires energy. Good natural sources of red pigmentation include shrimp, prawn and krill, with similar red pigments found in high quantities in red peppers. Artificial sources:

These will provide Koi with a precise amount of pigment in the form in which it will be deposited in the skin. So rather than feeding a natural source of unknown quantity or quality of carotenoid which Koi will convert into red, they can be offered a metered dose of pigments which they can be offered for direct uptake towards enhancement of the Kois colour.

Overdosing: There is always a risk of overdosing, when feeding koi with whole foods selected for their high carotenoid content. If carotenoids are fed in excessive amounts, area of white tissue can turn muddy brown or yellow. This is caused by the effects carotenoids have of light. While white areas of skin will not deposit red pigmentation because they do not possess red chromatophores, high levels of carotenoids circulating in the tissue will inevitably interact with the light and cause whites to suffer. Premium koi diets will contain 'safe' levels of colour enhancers, giving koi the benefits of a precise and effective formulation.

Shrimp farming in groups, a future step to suitability of the Indian shrimp farming industry
In India shrimp farming is being practiced along the brackish water creeks, canals and along the coastal area. It has been estimated that about 1.2 million ha of potential brackish water area is available and suitable for farming practices. In addition to this around 8.5 million ha of salt affected areas are also available of which about 2.6 million ha could be exclusively utilized for aquaculture due to the unsuitability of these resources for other

agriculture based activities. In India there are around 1,00,000 small scale shrimp farmers occupying about 1,40,000 ha with an annual production of about 1,40,000 tones. Shrimp farming was started from the late eighties in India. Till 1995 shrimp farming was in a raising phase and there prevailed competitiveness among the farmers to produce more shrimp and to make huge profits in just about four months of grow out. From 1995-2001 shrimp farming was badly affected by the influence of white spot syndrome virus (WSSV), which reduced the shrimp aquaculture industry to chaos, mainly due to greed for high production. From 2002 with interventions of research and development institutions encouraged farmers to succeed in shrimp farming by opting scientific shrimp farming methods and with good management practices. Still there are So many small and corporate farms which are being lost due to white spot syndrome virus ( WSSV). As far as shrimp farming is concerned it is not dependent on individuals good management practice, but it depends on the good management practice followed by the cluster of farmers involved in shrimp farming in a concerned area. In India shrimp farming is being practiced in clusters drawing and draining water from the same source. So these clusters based farmers should form groups to enforce certain code of practices, which should be collectively adopted by all the farmers in group for sustainable shrimp farming. Group Operation Management All the farmers in the cluster will be members of the group. This group can have by laws but not a registered body. This group can have a president, secretary and a treasurer. All the activities related to a group can be carried out by these authority persons. Frequent meetings of the members can be conducted to discuss regarding dos and donts during culture period. Mutual trust and commitment among members is essential to avoid any conflicts in the group.

Standard code of practices for a shrimp farming group The primary advantage in formation of the group is that it enables group of farmers to organize the schedule to farm operation. Quality seed Water preparation Simultaneous stocking Water Exchange Harvesting regimes

(a) Quality seed From the group, president can identify some farmers to be engaged in selection of good hatchery with proper good management practices and with a capacity to supply WSSV free seed for total cluster. These shrimp seeds will be stocked in all the ponds to avoid contamination through seed. (b) Water preparation A group located in a particular area can involve selected technical persons to check proper water preparation schedule such as filtration of intake water and chlorination of water for shrimp culture in all the farms in the group. (c) Simultaneous stocking Good quality seed will be selected and finalized by the engaged farmers from the group, after which within duration of 10-15 days all the ponds in a particular group will be stocked and farming activity will be started. All ponds in a cluster will be monitored daily by the approved technicians by the group of farmers. These technicians will be involved themselves in the farming practices till harvesting of the crop. (d) Water exchange

Water is the main source of contamination for white spot syndrome virus (WSSV), so based on the conditions prevailing water has to be used for exchange only after treatment with 40ppm - 60ppm chlorine. If any outbreak of WSSV occurs, then the affected pond has to be bleached with heavy dose of chlorine (100ppm) to kill the shrimps in the pond instead of harvesting to avoid contamination among the cluster. (e) Harvesting regimes Harvesting could be done after negotiation of price from the buyers. After fixing price with the buyer the total material produced by a group of farmers will be supplied on a fixed price. As a group there is more opportunity to get a better price then as individual. The total area will be harvested within duration of 10-20 days. In 1995 white spot syndrome virus drastically reduced shrimp farming activity, but by adoption of moderate stocking density and good management practices has helped in revival of shrimp farming, but in the present scenario only by adoption of group shrimp practices along with good management practices will be a step for sustainable shrimp farming in India.

USE OF MICROALGAE FOR THE BIOCONTROL OF LUMINOUS VIBRIOSIS IN TROPICAL SHRIMP AQUACULTURE
T. SIVARAMAKRISHNAN, IV B.F.Sc Outbreaks of luminous Vibriosis in commercial shrimp ponds have been the major cause in the decline of shrimp production in most tropical countries. The causative agent of this disease is Vibrio harveyi, and is one of the many Vibrio species that affect Asian aquaculture. Heavy mortality in shrimp has been observed during the early stages of the culture phase, with massive bacterial infiltration in the digestive organ and hepatopancreas of

the infected organism. In most cases, excessive mortalities resulted in the premature termination of the rearing activities and the eventual collapse of the shrimp culture industry. Efforts to prevent the occurrence of luminous Vibriosis in shrimp ponds were largely based on the application of antibiotics in the culture ponds or incorporation in the diets of the shrimp. However, indiscriminate use of the antimicrobial compounds brought about more virulent and drugresistant strains of the pathogen. The search for alternative strategies to control luminous Vibriosis in the culture facilities led to the development of the so-called green water technology. Green water technology is an innovative technique in which the shrimp stock is cultured in water where microalgae such as Chlorella sp. grow abundantly. When this species of phytoplankton has abundant growth in the pond, the water assumes a green coloration, hence the term green water. In this type of method, a reservoir is stocked with fish such as tilapia, Oreochromis spp. that will stimulate the production green-water and this water is subsequently pumped into the shrimp rearing ponds. Another alternative is to simultaneously culture shrimp with tilapia to ensure steady production of green water in the ponds.

THE

IMPORTANCE

OF

BIOSECURITY

IN

AQUACULTURE

The worlds demands for high quality aquaculture products make control of diseases increasingly important. Good Biosecurity measures are vital to maintaining healthy animals, to reducing the risk of acquiring diseases in aquaculture facilities and to harvest high quality good yield.

BIOSECURITY Biosecurity can be defined as the measures and methods adopted to secure a disease free environment in all phases of aquaculture practices (i.e. hatcheries, nurseries, growout farms) for improved profitability. Biosecurity protocols are intended to maintain the security of a facility with respect to certain disease-causing organisms (parasites, bacteria, viruses and fungi) that may not be present in a particular system. In short, food producers have consumer safety as their primary target. If the food they produce is not safe, no economic model works. The second and equally important target is economic prosperity. Part of this process is biosecurity. It touches all the bases; environmental integrity, animal welfare, food safety and economic gain. Biosecurity measures are the management practices that prevent noninfected, healthy animal populations from being exposed to infectious or parasitic agents. Common biosecurity measures are, Proper egg disinfection, Control of vertical diseases transmission, strict sanitation measures, Traffic control, Water treatments, Effluent treatment, clean feed, Disposal of mortalities etc. an aquaculture, critical control points are areas in the production process that may present or permit biological hazards. Spotting these areas often requires a little foresight and common sense. One of the challenges faced by aquaculturists is to offer all the life stages of their animals proper sanitary conditions and Biosecurity. A comprehensive biosecurity programmer should be in place and this is essential in combating and preventing disease. Biosecurity involves following strict management protocols to prevent specific pathogens from entering a system or reducing the numbers. A good

understanding

of

pathogen

reservoirs

is

important.

Quarantine,

sanitations and disinfection are all important components of biosecurity. Quarantine, defined as the isolation of an organism or group of organisms to prevent the introduction or spread of infectious disease, is a standard procedure that is extremely important in aquaculture. In practical terms, quarantine is a standard set of procedures that should be observed to prevent the introduction of pathogens or diseases into a population of fish, prawn and shrimp in aquaculture. The quarantine protocols should be strictly adhered and should follow as many of the following protocols as are practical: Testing of a sample of shrimp, prawn and fish prior to bringing them on to the facility. All-in, all-out stocking procedures. Isolation or separation from other populations for a period of time (depending upon species, diseases of concern, the system) Feeding observation and diet adjustment. Sampling and proper treatment. Reduction or elimination of infectious pathogens. Disease prevention strategies. Sanitation and Disinfection, Good sanitation and disinfection procedures reduce the numbers of disease causing organisms present within a given system and prevent or reduce the spread of disease causing organisms from one system to another. Biosecurity Programme for shrimp production sector:

The major implementation of any biosecurity measures is always going to be in the hatcheries and in the growing ponds. However, besides good management practices and treatments in hatcheries and ponds there are biosecurity measures which should be put into place: Identify all vectors that can transmit disease from one place to another. Man is a major source of contamination. Anybody working with shrimp in several ponds should wash his/her hands, legs, and feet with proper disinfection solutions, after handling equipment or animals and before moving to work on the next pond. Other vectors of disease transmission include crabs, rodents wild birds etc. whichcan contaminate the water in ponds. These vectors should be kept in control completely in the vicinity of aquaculture practices. Do not share equipment between ponds unless necessary. In these cases, disinfect all equipment prior to being re-used. Ensure that the site is limited to one combined entrance and exit to establish a secure Biosecurity perimeter. Restrict access to the hatcheries and farms to authorized persons only. Ensure that all vehicles have been cleaned and disinfected prior to arrival at site. Keep clean all surronding areas of the hatchery or farm. After cleansing disinfect all surronding areas of the hatchery or farm. Thoroughly clean all equipment such as sampling tubs, trays, nets etc., rinse with clean water and then disinfect. Biosecurity is the management practices that prevent non-infected, healthy animal populations from being exposed to infectious or parasitic agents. Common biosecurity measures include:

Sanitation- Sanitation includes the cleaning and disinfecting of hatcheries, holding facilities, tanks, ponds, handling and vaccination equipment, etc. Cleaning must be done before disnifecting. Disinfectants include chlorine, heat, steam, formalin, and other chemical compounds. All of the chemical disinfectants are toxic, so all equipment shoul be rinsed well after disinfecting.

Vertical disease transmission- Vertically transmitted diseases (from parent to offspring) can be prevented by using healthy, disease-free brood stock.

Egg disinfection- Egg disinfection with iodine or other solutions at the time of the water hardening of eggs can reduce the incidence of disease problems of eggs and larvae.

Traffic- Restricting people and equipment traffic can reduce the chance of disease transmission from one facility to another.

Water treatments- Water treatments of incoming or recirculating water decreases the chance of pathogenic organisms entering the culture system. Treatments include mechanical filtration, UV light, and ozone.

Effluent treatment- Treatment of wastewater from aquaculture facilities and processing plants reduces the release of microorganisms into the environment. Infected water from the plant was released, and then this water taken into the aquaculture system.

ESSENTIAL MINERALS - AN ANSWER FOR BETTER PRODUCTION AND HEALTHY SHRIMP

Shrimp normally lives under the water column and needs suitable environment for their growth performance. Table 1 describes the optimum water quality parameters that play an important role for their growth and daily body maintenance. It is recommended that these various parameters have to be regularly monitored and examined routinely to reduce the problem that may happen during the culture. Table.1. Optimum value of water quality parameters for shrimp culture Ph 7.5 8.3 Total Ammonia <1.0 ppm Nitrite(NO2-N) < 0.5 ppm Dissolved >4 ppm (AM) oxygen Alkalinity 80 120 ppm Hardness >1500 ppm Recent study found that apart from the above water quality parameters shrimp also require essential minerals for their growth and maintenance. In India shrimp culture carried out in seawater, brackish water and even freshwater in some areas. The mineral content of such systems vary to a greater extent. Table 2 describes the major minerals in freshwater and marine water. Table 2. Major minerals in freshwater and marine water Major Freshwater Marine water minerals (ppm) (ppm) Chloride 7.8 19,000 Sodium 6.3 10,050 Calcium 20 422 Magnesium 4.1 1,350 Potassium 2.3 380 Sulphate 11.2 2,700 The mineral profile comparison between freshwater (0ppt) and marine water (30ppt) in Table 2. There is a huge difference of mineral concentration especially Calcium (Ca2+) and Magnesium (Mg2+) profile. For example Calcium concentration in marine water is around 422 ppm or 20 times much more than calcium concentration in freshwater (20 ppm). On the other hand Magnesium concentration in marine water is around

1,350 ppm or 300times much more in freshwater (4.1ppm). Because of this huge difference in the mineral composition between freshwater and marine water the shrimp grown in freshwater will never have the same performance or reap a better production as compared to shrimp cultured in marine water. Mineral concentration in the water plays an important role for shrimp culture. It is also responsible for the composition of shrimp tissues that is essential for their growth and molting. The table 3. Shows the percentage of different mineral composition analyzed from the tissues of shrimp. Table.3. Percentage(%)of major minerals in shrimp Sodium 0.132 Potassium 0.248 Calcium 0.142 Magnesium 0.054 Phosphorus 0.239 The shrimps grown in culture systems can get the minerals from the water and also from the feed. Minerals delivered from water Crustacean and fish always have special mechanism to absorb mineral especially Macro mineral (Ca2+,Mg2+,Na+,K+, CL--,SO42-,) directly from water and this is called Calcification mechanism. Hence, with this method we can directly apply those kind of Macro mineral into the water if we found out that the mineral level in the water is not sufficient for their requirement. So it is highly essential to assess the mineral concentration in the culture water and we can supplement the Macro mineral nutrient in limitation to augment the growth. Minerals delivered from feed Trace minerals such as (Cu, I2, Fe, Zn, Mn, Co, F) can be absorbed via the digestive tract of the animal. These minerals can be directly mixed with the feed especially during the period when shrimp has the problem of imbalance of trace minerals which could be due to dietary or physical problems. This method can drastically improve their health during the sick period when shrimp tend to consume less feed. So, the growth rates of shrimp reared in water can be more pronounced when mineral supplements are being administered without

compromising the shrimps survival, FCR and ultimately, a better production.