Collidal Lithography

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Advanced Colloidal Lithography Beyond Surface Patterning
Article in Advanced Materials Interfaces · June 2016

DOI: 10.1002/admi.201600271
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Advanced Colloidal Lithography Beyond Surface Patterning
PROGRESS REPORT
Bin Ai, Helmuth Möhwald, Dayang Wang, and Gang Zhang*
Photolithography is largely limited by its

This progress report presents an overview of recent development of colloidal low, diffraction-limited resolution, while
lithography (CL) and its applications in fabrication of various nanostructures electron beam lithography, focused ion
beam lithography, and atomic force micro-
consisted of orderly arranged, dots, holes, bowls, cones, pillars, rings, shells
scopic lithography are capable of precise
and triangles. These structures have been widely exploited in various fields, control over the size, shape, and spacing
including plasmonics, optics, wettability, sensors, solar cells, organic light- of metallic nanostructures but limited by
emitting diode (OLEDs), biology and many others. The recent successes in high-cost, low-throughput and require-
the technical applications of the nanostructures fabricated via CL will be sum- ment of sophisticated equipment.
marized. Hopefully, the present review will inspire more ingenious designs To promote the commercial success
of structure-based applications, it is
and execution of CL for advanced, smart applications.
highly demanded to development cost
effective for efficient patterning of large
areas. Many unconventional fabrication
1. Introduction techniques (soft lithography) have been developed, including
microcontact printing,[12] nanoimprinting,[13] and templating
The physicochemical properties of material are determined using either block copolymers[14] or polystyrene nanospheres.[15]
by the chemical nature of their constituent components and However, most non-conventional lithographic techniques
their interactions and the functional groups decorated on require the assistance of conventional lithographic techniques
their surfaces. Nowadays, it is increasingly realized that the such as photolithography to design and make masks or mas-
micro/nanostructural features of the materials have non-neg- ters. To address this challenge, an increasing amount of atten-
ligible effects on the material properties, and even overwhelm tion is paid to use of self-assembly of molecules and colloidal
the contributions of the individual components and show particles for development of ingenious, cheap, bottom-up ways
unprecedented properties. Micro-nanostructures result in new for masking. In particular, colloidal lithography (CL), as a fast
intriguing behaviors in wetting,[1] adhesion,[2] cell migration,[3] developing unconventional lithographic technique, is capable of
anti-reflection,[4] surface plasmon resonance,[5] field emission,[6] patterning large areas at relatively low operation cost. Monodis-
microfluidics,[7] which may be hardly expected from bulk mate- perse microspheres with sizes ranging from tens of microm-
rials. For example, micro/nanostructrued Ag exhibit a range of eters down to tens of nanometers can easily be synthesized by
peculiar color as a result of effective interaction with light at the conventional emulsion polymerization and sol–gel synthesis
micro/nanoscale. In this scenario, development of nanofabri- techniques. Owing to the size and shape monodispersity, they
cation methodologies to manufacture materials with controlled can self-assemble into two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimen-
structural features becomes crucial for structure-based applica- sional (3D) extended periodic arrays, referred to as colloidal
tions. The most widely used nanofabrication techniques rely on crystals (CCs). The colloidal crystals can be either etched or
conventional lithography (hard lithography), including photo- deformed to increase the structural complexity of the surface
lithography,[8] electron beam lithography,[9] focused ion beam patterns derived by them as templates. The interstitial arrays in
lithography,[10] atomic force microscopic lithography[11] and etc. colloidal crystals can be used as masks for etching or deposi-
tion to create 2D patterns on substrates. This CL process paves
a simple and low-cost route for patterning with a flexibility of
B. Ai, Prof. G. Zhang
scaling down the feature size below 100 nm. Figure 1 shows
State Key Lab of Supramolecular Structure and Materials
College of Chemistry some examples of typical fabrication processes.[16–19]
Jilin University Colloidal lithography (CL) has been developed for about
Changchun 130012, P.R. China thirty-five years. Numerous efforts have been put to develop-
E-mail: gang@jlu.edu.cn ment of the quality of colloidal crystals and patterning methods
Prof. H. Möhwald that use colloidal crystals as templates or masks.[20–27] Many
Max Planck Institute of Colloids and Interfaces
D-14424 Potsdam, Germany methods have been reported to fabricate various ordered micro/
Prof. D. Wang nanostructures of bowls, cones, disks, holes, pillars, rings,
Department of Civil shells and other special structures, which have significant impli-
Environmental and Chemical Engineering cations in broad applications. Although the study of CL has pro-
School of Engineering gressed rapidly, several technical challenges still exist for prac-
RMIT University
tical applications. We have summarized the work of colloidal
Melbourne, VIC 3001, Australia
lithography before in some reviews and book.[5,15,18] Different
DOI: 10.1002/admi.201600271 from previous reviews, the present review mostly invokes the
Adv. Mater. Interfaces 2016, 1600271 © 2016 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim wileyonlinelibrary.com (1 of 19) 1600271
www.advmatinterfaces.de www.MaterialsViews.com
PROGRESS REPORT
papers in recent six years, and focuses not only on the develop-
ment of CL but also on the practical application of the micro/ Bin Ai is currently a PhD
nanostructures fabricated by CL, which is aiming at inspiration student in the Chemistry
of ingenious combination of CL technique with practical appli- Department at Jilin University.
cations. Furthermore, the influence of the structural features of He received his BSc degree in
the resulting micro/nanostructures on their properties will be chemistry from Jilin University
reviewed. in 2011. After that he joined
Prof. Gang Zhang’s group.
His current scientific interests
are focused on fabrication of
2. New Development in Colloidal Crystal Masks
micro/nanostructurs based
and Applications on colloidal lithography and
The success of colloidal lithography is strongly determined their plasmonic properties.
by the quality of colloidal crystal templates, so it is crucial to
gain comprehensive control and manipulation of the struc-
tures of self-assembly of colloidal particles. Colloidal crystals Gang Zhang studied
can be disarranged by lateral capillary force in the drying chemistry at Jilin University,
stage of self-assembly process. To solve this problem, Jia and Changchun, China where
coworkers made brushes grafted on substrates to serve as an he received a PhD degree
adhesion promoter to lock the particles in a hexagonal lat- in polymer chemistry
tice against the lateral capillary force;[28] To solve the problem and physics in 2003. He
of particles aggregation in the self-assembly process, polyal- worked as a postdoctoral
lylamine (PAH) was decorated on the particles to increase fellow at fellow at Max
the repelling force.[29] Another process in CL attracting Planck Institute of Colloids
much attention is reactive ion etching (RIE) process. There and Interfaces, Potsdam,
are many parameters and details in the process, which can Germany from 2003 to 2006.
lead to various interesting results: Anisotropic deformation He is now a professor at
of polystyrene particles was observed by for radio frequency Jilin University and his research interests include ordered
(RF) plasma and inductively coupled plasma (ICP);[30] Nabe- micro- and nanostructures and applications, colloidal and
sawa et. al. evaluated the effects of the detailed etching condi- interface assembly, plasmonic films and nanoskiving.
tions on the shape and size of each pillar by changing etching
duration and size/material of the etching mask (Figure 2);[31]
Zhang and coworkers found, that the RIE process can make
traditional symmetric non-close-packed colloidal templates composition over a wide range of size and number ratios using
evolve into an elliptical profile (Figure 2).[32] The fundamental a Langmuir trough.[40] Cai and coworkers established the phase
works are also very important, because they make CL a more diagram of monolayer binary colloidal crystals, from which they
matured technique for fabricating structures. can design and fabricate monolayer or 2D binary colloidal crys-
There are a number of methods available to control the self- tals.[41] The colloidal crystals with more kinds of particles can
assembly of colloidal particles into highly ordered colloidal crys- be used for fabrication of complex and specific structures (or
tals over large area. Asher and coworkers reported on fast fab- patterns) according to need, including single or mixed patterns
rication of large 2D arrays of colloidal particles at the air/water with the given relative content. This greatly adds the flexibility of
interface by a needle tip flow method.[33] Xu and coworkers CL and leads to more diversity of structures.
reported to achieving large-area and high-quality colloidal crys- Colloidal particles normally self-assemble into closely packed
tals by combing slope self-assembly and thermal treatments colloidal crystals. For diversified structures, non-closely packed
with a proper slant angle and latex concentration.[34] Similarly, a colloidal crystals may be demanded. The RIE process is the
gravity-assisted convective self-assembly method was developed main treatment method to obtain non-closely packed colloidal
to fabricate centimeter-sized uniform 2D colloidal crystals.[35] A crystals, while it needs special equipment. Zhang and cow-
large-area self-assembly of nanospheres can also be obtained orkers combined the soft lithography technique with controlled
via ultrasonic annealing and barrier-sway process,[36] a low-cost deformation of polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) elastomers to
micropropulsive injection method[37] and capillary-modulated easily convert 2D hexagonal close-packed silica microsphere
self-assembly.[38] Besides, assembled monolayers of hydrophilic arrays into non-closely packed crystals with no need of sophisti-
particles on water surfaces was investigated.[39] Further efforts cated equipment.[42]
are still needed for methods for a larger-area colloidal crystals Conventionally, colloidal crystals are formed on smooth and
without defects and with simpler requirements. Moreover, it planar substrates, while template-assisted and non-planar self-
is expected the self-assembly of CCs can meet the request of assembly of colloidal particles has been developed. Liao and
industrial production. coworkers achieved fine control over the overall morphologies
Colloidal crystals with diverse particles can be prepared. Weiss and the locations of patterned nanoparticle arrays.[43] Fano-
and coworkers demonstrated the formation of binary colloidal resonant heptamers, linear chains, and rings of colloidal par-
monolayers at the air–water interface with precisely adjustable ticles were obtained using template-assisted self-assembly, of
1600271 (2 of 19) wileyonlinelibrary.com © 2016 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim Adv. Mater. Interfaces 2016, 1600271
PROGRESS REPORT
Figure 1. Schematic depiction of the fabrication process of (A) silicon nanowire arrays, Reproduced with permission.[16] B) ring patterns, Reproduced
with permission.[17] Copyright 2004, American Chemical Society. C) quasi-3D grids of multiplex zigzag nanowires, Reproduced with permission.[18]
And D) colloidal spheres with Au-patterned surfaces. Reproduced with permission.[19] Copyright 2005, American Chemical Society.
which the optical properties were investigated (Figure 3);[44] nique and adding an adhesive layer (Figure 3).[46] The patterned
A monolithic 3D porous silica microstructure with bimodal and non-planar colloidal crystals can contribute the structural
pore size distribution was fabricated by template-assisted self- complexity of colloidal masks.
assembly.[45] The patterned colloidal crystals are embedded Ding et. al. uses elliptical particles for the self-assembly of
in micro-channels for the formation of a microfluidic system CCs.[47] Zhang and coworkers deliberately induced the cracks
with built-in microstructures in the site- and shape-controlled by using hydrophilic/hydrophobic patterns as templates.[48]
manner; Colloidal crystals can also be formed onto nonplanar They also reported that the coffee ring effect and inward mass
surfaces by an electrostatic layer-by-layer (LBL) assembly tech- transport in the self-assembly process can be avoided on the
PROGRESS REPORT
Figure 2. Left panel: SEM photographs of arrays of structures of pillar, frustum, and cone formed on PMMA plates by using PS spheres with different
diameters as etching mask. The etching durations are shown on the upper left corner of each picture. Reproduced with permission.[31] Copyright 2013,
AIP Publishing LLC. Right panel: electron micrographs comparing four typical etching conditions and two different size-reductions. Reproduced with
permission.[32] Copyright 2015, IOP Publishing Ltd.
hydrophobic silicon pillar arrays in the Wenzel state.[49] Wang nanoantennae by combining CL and a metal-assisted chem-
and coworkers investigated the effect of substrate wettability on ical etching process. The metal-covered sphere arrays exhibit
the self-assembly process and demonstrated that 3D colloidal wavelength-selective photocurrent enhancement, which can be
PCs with narrow stopbands could be achieved on low-adhesive controlled by tuning the depth of immersion of Au nanocrystal
superhydrophobic substrates.[50] This is based on the contin- arrays in silicon. The advantages of Au films on a sphere sub-
uous recession of three-phase contact line of a latex suspension strate and Ag nanoparticles were combined to produce a new
during the evaporation process. high-performance SERS substrate.
Colloidal crystals per se can be used as good patterns in CCs also have other interactions with light. Antireflective
various fields thanks to the periodicity and curved surface. surfaces and can be achieved by CCs.[55,56] Kim and coworkers
One interesting example is the study of wettability of colloidal used photocurable colloidal suspensions to prepare colloidal
crystals. Inspired by the binary periodic structure found on the photonic crystals with high optical transparency and physical
superhydrophobic compound eyes of some insects, Jiang and rigidity.[57] Ding and coworkers used microimprint lithography
coworkers prepared superhydrophobic coatings with hierar- along with convective self-assembly to generate complex CC
chical colloidal arrays.[51,52] Dhinojwala and coworkers estab- patterns, that can be adjusted to show single- or dual-color
lished single layer roughness and dual levels of hierarchical patterns or composite CC patterns possessing two different
roughness with spherical particles using colloidal lithography, colors.[58] CCs can also be used in biology. By using 3D CCs
the wetting properties on which are controlled by the surface as templates, macroporous poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate)
roughness and surface chemistry.[53] (PHEMA) hydrogel micropatterns[59] and porous nanostruc-
Colloidal crystals coated with noble metals, obtained via tures of polypyrrole (Ppy)[60] were prepared for protein immobi-
thermal vapor deposition, can yield local surface plasmon lization and drug delivery, respectively.
resonance (LSPR), which can be used for sensors and nano- Also there are other special applications utilizing the unique
antennae as well as enhancement substrates for fluorescence features of colloidal crystals. A novel triboelectric nanogenerator
and surface enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SERS) studies. was made of a self-assembled polystyrene nanosphere array
Ordered arrays of Ag-capped colloidal crystals were fabri- and a poly (vinylidene fluoride) porous film.[61] Then an inte-
cated and modified with conjugated polymers to evaluate grated module of self-powered ferroelectric transistor memory
the excitation and emission enhancement due to LSPR.[54] was prepared based on the combination of a ferroelectric field
Chen and coworkers fabricated Au nanocrystal array/silicon effect transistor and a triboelectric nanogenerator (Figure 4A).
PROGRESS REPORT
Figure 3. Upper panel: Nanoshells are packed into the PDMS voids by sandwiching a water droplet with particles between the substrate and a
glass slide and then moving the droplet meniscus across the substrate. Reproduced with permission.[44] Copyright 2012, American Chemical Society.
Bottom panel: Top-view and inset magnified top-view SEM images of patterned 2D ordered arrays of colloidal crystals. Reproduced with permission.[46]
Copyright 2010, American Chemical Society.
Figure 4. A) Schematic 3D diagram depicting the structure and working mechanism of the arch-shaped triboelectric nanogenerator. Reproduced with
permission.[61] Copyright 2015, Royal Society of Chemistry. B) Illustration of the proposed mechanism of pattern deposition. Reproduced with permis-
sion.[62] Copyright 2013, American Chemical Society. C) SEM images of a bilayer crystal after RIE and the complementary metasurface. Reproduced
with permission.[63] Copyright 2015, American Chemical Society.
PROGRESS REPORT
Schwartz and coworkers used the col-

loidal assembly directly to produce sub-
micrometer topographic and chemical
surface patterns (Figure 4B).[62] Moiré
nanosphere lithography (Figure 4C),[63]
colloidal pen lithography,[64] and thin
asymmetric free-standing asymmetric
films[65] can be achieved by using CCs
as templates.
Up to date, a number of simple
and even complicated patterns can be
fabricated on colloidal spheres. Cai
and coworkers reported an innovative
surface nanopatterning technique for
realizing large-scale ordered arrays
of metallic spherical nanoshells with
well-defined structures.[66] Koshizaki
and coworkers fabricated a hexagonal
non-closely-packed amorphous alu-
mina nanocolumn array with unique
hierarchical micro/nanostructures
by plasma etching and deposition
using polystyrene sphere monolayers
as templates.[67] The hierarchical alu-
mina nanocolumn array demonstrates
excellent catalytic performance in
ethyl acetoacetate isomerization due
to its large surface area and special
microstructures. A unique approach
was developed to fabricate complex
hierarchical periodic arrays with ter-
nary stepwise architectures of mes-
oscale structures by combining the
use of novel double-layered binary col-
loidal crystals as templates and pulsed
laser deposition techniques.[68] These
special hierarchically structured arrays Figure 5. Upper panel: TEM images of right-handed helically stacked plasmonic layers on (a) 200 nm
and (b) 500 nm nanospheres. White and blue dashed lines are artificially added to outline different
demonstrate fine structure-enhanced Ag and SiO layers, respectively. Insets are 3D schematics of right-handed helically stacked plasmonic
2
performance, including superhydro- layers expected from the deposition sequence. Reproduced with permission.[71] Copyright 2014, Amer-
philicity without UV irradiation and ican Chemical Society. Bottom panel: Schematic Sketch of the fabrication of hybrid particles and SEM
SERS, which is highly valuable for images. Reproduced with permission.[73] Copyright 2012, American Chemical Society.
designing micro/nanodevices, such as
biosensors or microfluidic devices.
Zhao and coworkers have done impressive work on fabri- magnetically powered nanomotors for acceleration of tissue
cating patterned spheres. Chiral patchy particle films were pre- plasminogen activator-mediated thrombolysis.[72]
pared by glancing angle deposition (GLAD) on self-assembled Zhang and coworkers reported a versatile CL strategy
nanosphere monolayers.[69] The racemic symmetry of the poly- for engineering binary and ternary hybrid particles (HPs)
crystalline colloidal template is broken by the substrate rota- through combination of etching and deposition processes
tion direction, producing films with strong optical chirality and (Figure 5).[73] Non-closely-packed polymer colloidal crystals
even stronger local chiralities. The morphological and chirop- were used as both microparticle seeds and templates for gen-
tical properties of these Ag nanostructures in different colloid erating hybrid patches. After chemical or plasmonic etching,
monolayer domains are investigated both experimentally and the hybrid patches were generated underneath the colloidal
theoretically, and their relationship has been revealed.[70] Fur- templates and were successfully attached on the microspheres
thermore, Ag and SiO2 layers can be helically stacked in left- through thermal treatment. The dispersed patterned spheres
handed and right-handed fashions to form continuous helices are expected to show great potential in self-assembly and appli-
by controlling the azimuthal rotation of substrates (Figure 5).[71] cations in in vivo experiment. Wang and coworkers grafted
The helical chiral plasmonic nanostructures exhibit strong chi- thermo-responsive poly(Nisopropylacrylamide) (PNIPAM)
roptical responses in the visible to near-IR region. They also brushes on a SiO2 nanosphere array to construct a responsive
fabricated nickel rod on spheres by GLAD and used them as etalon.[74] The etalon possesses one single interference peak
in the visible region, and the interference peak changes sensi- Zhang et al. fabricated elevated Ag nanohole arrays for high
PROGRESS REPORT
tively against the concentration of the external stimulant (water performance plasmonic sensors.[81] The elevated Ag nanohole
vapor) or the temperature of the system, owing to the respon- arrays then were changed to embedded Ag nanohole arrays. In
siveness of the PNIPAM brush. this process, the structures showed panchromatic plasmonic
In summary, the new development in controlled self- color patterns.[82] They also fabricated high-performance plas-
assembly of colloidal particles into colloidal crystals enables fab- monic sensors based on 2D Ag nanowell arrays.[83] Astilean and
rication of masks with more diverse structures. However, the coworkers prepared uniaxial colloidal crystal arrays by convec-
self-assembly process for high-quality colloidal crystals always tive self-assembly on digital versatile disk (DVD) surfaces.[84]
requests deliberately optimized conditions, which is difficult to Angle-resolved optical transmittance measurements reveal the
be controlled and reproduced. Monocrystalline colloidal crys- presence of several surface plasmon resonances, while polar-
tals with large areas are still hardly obtained. Self-assembly of ized light transmission demonstrates the anisotropic plasmonic
colloidal crystals definitely needs further significant study to response.
simply fabricate high-quality colloidal crystals in order to be Dahlin and coworkers reported the fabrication and optical
used as templates or masks in industrial micro/nanofabrication characterization of plasmonic nanostructures consisting of
processes. Moreover, thanks to their excellent long-range perio- nanohole arrays in two thin films, a metal and a dielectric
dicity and the curved surface morphology, colloidal crystals can (Figure 6).[85] They suggested that these nanohole structures
be used excellent micro/nanostructures in various applications could be used for study of molecular transport through nano-
in surface wetting, plasmonics, optics, biological, especially pores and the behavior of molecules confined in volumes of
when their surfaces are coated or decorated with metals or approximately one attoliter.
functional polymers or other functional materials. In this sce- Choi and coworkers used nanohole arrays to build organic
nario, we anticipate more studies focusing on exploitation of light-emitting diodes (OLEDs).[86] They successfully fabricated
colloidal crystals in solar cells especially by smart integration and utilized 2D Ag nanomeshes (AgNMs) as large-area, very
with graphene. low-resistive transparent electrodes for Indium tin oxides (ITO)-
free OLEDs. They demonstrated that the optimized AgNM elec-
trodes could have high transmittance and low sheet resistance
3. New Development in
Colloidal Lithography
3.1. Holes
Colloidal lithography (CL) has successfully

generated holes on different substrates. Tour
and coworkers introduced periodic graphene
nanohole arrays, which exhibit promising
electronic properties, including high conduc-
tivity and ON-OFF ratio of up to 10.[75] Niwa
and coworkers developed the plasmonic
devices based on polymer nanohole array
film, the optical properties of which were
tuned for biological assays.[76] Strong room-
temperature ferromagnetism was obtained
on pure ZnO nanohole arrays obtained via
CL.[77]
Besides, nanohole arrays have been widely
used for plasmonic sensors. Sutherland and
coworkers investigated the optical properties
of short range ordered arrays of nanocap-hole
coupled structures and interpreted them in
terms of hybridization of their more elemen-
tary components.[78] Höök and coworkers
endeavored the fabrication and positioning of
nanoplasmonic sensor elements within nano-
fluidic pores.[79] Nanopatterned submicron Figure 6. A) Sensing of protein adsorption inside the nanoholes with the surface functional-
pores were fabricated as shields for nonspe- ized as described in the schematic. Thiol chemistry is used to selectively block Au so that
cific binding in surface plasmon resonance- NeutrAvidin adsorbs only inside the holes on the Nb2O5 or glass regions. B) Changes in the full
spectrum after saturated adsorption. The insets highlight the changes in the peak and the dip.
based sensing. Li et al. reported the physical
C) Redshift of the extinction minimum in real-time (protein added after 8 min); D) the same
deposition improved SERS stability of mor- adsorption event but in terms of extinction changes. The monitored parameter is the extinction
phology controlled periodic micro/nanostruc- at 700 nm minus the extinction at 900 nm. Reproduced with permission.[85] Copyright 2012,
tured arrays based on colloidal templates.[80] American Chemical Society.
PROGRESS REPORT
simultaneously. By using an index-matching concept to further the controllable fabrication of large-area Ag2S–Ag heterostruc-
improve the optical performance, highly transparent AgNM tured nanobowl arrays consisting of Ag2S nanonets lying on
electrodes were achieved at very low sheet resistance (3.5 X/ Ag nanobowl arrays (Figure 7A).[96] The unique Ag2S–Ag het-
sq). Reimhult and coworkers presented a method to selectively erostructured nanobowl arrays exhibited effective resistance
(bio)- functionalize nanoscale features with the same materials switching and enhanced photoresponse, showing the poten-
chemistry.[87] It successfully applied CL to fabricate and func- tial applications in both electric devices and photocatalysis.
tionalize solid-state nanopores with polyethylene glycol (PEG)- Moreover, bowls show great potential in solar cells, cell cul-
brushes, supported lipid membranes, and functional proteins ture and OLEDs. Snaith and coworkers presented a scalable
over large areas. technique for fabrication of highly ordered patterned metal
Nanohole arrays can be fabricated by only two or steps, fol- oxide scaffolds that can be used to pattern perovskite thin films
lowed by adjustment of the structural features by the RIE and on a photonic length scale (Figure 7B).[97] They have applied
deposition process. Nanohole arrays has been widely investi- these films to semi-transparent perovskite solar cells, which
gated for extraordinary optical transmission (EOT), sensing exhibit very respectable measured efficiencies of over 9% with
and structural colors. Furthermore, single-modular detection a relatively high photoactive layer average with visible trans-
and optical capturing through the holes will become of great mission of 37%. Wang and coworkers fabricated bowls-like
interest, which can be well investigated for nanohole arrays. transparent electrode, such as ITO, for light extraction from
OLEDs.[98] Lin and coworkers described a method of fabri-
cating rounded bottom microwell arrays in PDMS by molding a
3.2. Bowls monolayer of ordered polystyrene (PS) microspheres.[99] Single
cell enzyme kinetic analysis was also carried out on trapped
Bowls can be easily fabricated by using colloidal crystals as tem- single cells. Furthermore, the behavior of primary human
plate. Their shape and size can be adjusted by controlling the adipose-derived stem cells was studied on highly ordered bowl
deposition and growth process. The bowls have single cavities, arrays (Figure 7C).[100] The results showed that ordered nano-
which are useful for many applications especially those built on topographies inhibited cell spreading, focal adhesion formation
SPR. The enhanced electric field in cavities makes bowls a good and filopodia extension, when the surface roughness and fea-
plasmonic sensor for refractive index changes and the detec- ture height increased. It was also demonstrated that alteration
tion of both small molecules and biological macromolecules. of the feature size of ordered nanotopographies could change
Honeycomb-patterned thin films of amorphous calciumcar- stem cell adhesion and differentiation. This expands the knowl-
bonate (ACC) and mosaic calcite were fabricated via CL at the edge of cell-surface interactions, which is of great interest in
solution surfaces.[88] Dye molecules were incorporated into the biomaterials, tissue engineering, and cell therapy applications.
honeycomb-patterned ACC thin films, rendering the patterned Use of bowls as micro-reactors and for cell cultures should
thin film with fluorescence function. Importantly, the highly deserved further investigations.
ordered honeycomb-patterned ACC thin films showed brilliant
structural colors and typical photonic properties.
Bowls can be used as excellent SERS substrates. Jiang 3.3. Cones
and coworkers reported a simple and scalable colloidal tem-
plating technology for fabrication of wafer-scale periodic plas- Cones with well controlled parameters can be fabricated by
monic nanodimple arrays with tunable nanostructures.[89] The colloidal-assisted etching and deposition. The structural
resulting plasmonic arrays can sense a small dielectric refrac- feature of cones is the sharp tip, which always induces
tive index change of ∼0.008, and exhibit high SPR sensitivity enhanced electric fields. This has been widely used in SPR-
of up to ∼520 nm per refractive index unit. Gold nanodimple related applications. Corn and coworkers used nanocone
arrays with tunable nanostructures can be used for SERS. arrays for flexible broadband antireflection and light-absorp-
Keyes and coworkers fabricated regio-selective decoration of tion (Figure 8A).[101] Fleischer and coworkers reported that
nanocavity metal arrays and investigated the contributions of near the tips of metallic nanocones the enhancement of an
localized and delocalized SPR to SERS.[90] Zhou and coworkers external electromagnetic field is particularly strong.[102] Such
investigated SERS of molecules related to highly ordered gold localized strong fields can be utilized for high-resolution,
cavities.[91] Yang and coworkers reported shape control of Ag high-sensitivity spectroscopy and sensing of molecules near
bowls for practical SERS Substrates.[92] Farcau and coworkers the tip. Close-packed Ag pyramidal arrays have been fabri-
reported multiscale electromagnetic SERS enhancement on cated by using inverted pyramidal pits on Si as a template
self-assembled micropatterned gold nanoparticle films.[93] and used to generate plentiful and homogeneous SERS hot
Bowls also has been widely used in optics. Yu and cow- sites.[103] Such plasmonic nanostructures may constitute con-
orkers presented a novel design of surface nanostructures trollable SERS platforms.
to suppress the reflectivity and provide forward diffraction Hollow nanocones were fabricated by colloidal lithography,
for light trapping.[94] Li and coworkers fabricated large-area which have sharp top tips and bottom nanoholes, leading
aligned Au nanobowl arrays by the combination of template- to effective coupling between the surface plasmon around
assisted self-assembly and CL.[95] This structure with a high the holes and that around the cone tips (Figure 8B).[104] This
aspect ratio configuration and symmetry-reducing units is introduces a resonant optical transmission that is much
anisotropic in optical response. Qi and coworkers reported a affected by the thickness and height of the hollow nanocones.
facile, two-step interfacial nanosphere lithography strategy for The topologically continuous films are highly sensitive to the
PROGRESS REPORT
Figure 7. A) Schematic structure (a) and I–V curve (b) of a FTO/Ag/Ag2S/FTO device made of heterostructured nanobowl arrays. (c,d) Schematic
illustration of the operating mechanism. Reproduced with permission.[96] B) Schematic illustration of the device architecture with oxide honeycomb
scaffold. Reproduced with permission.[97] Copyright 2015, Royal Society of Chemistry. C) Fabrication of ordered Ta nanotopographies and adhesion of
cells, and the SEM images. Reproduced with permission.[100] Copyright 2015, American Chemical Society.
surrounding environment, indicating great potential for plas- and simulation studies of antireflection sub-micron conical
monic sensors. Moreover, the hollow nanocone array films structures on a GaAs substrate.[109] Lu and coworkers fabri-
can be invisible in air and become visible upon being contact cated corrugated silicon nanocone arrays to create high-per-
with a solvent, enabling a smart method to hide information formance antireflective coatings[110] and used the biomimetic
that can be recovered by a change of the environment.[105] Half- antireflective silicon nanocone arrays for analysis of small
cone/nanohole arrays were fabricated by shadow deposition molecules by mass spectrometry.[111] Quasi-ordered moth-
based on the fabrication process of hollow nanocone arrays.[106] eye arrays were fabricated in Si using a colloidal lithography
The designed films showed strong polarization dependence method to achieve highly efficient, omni-directional transmis-
in optical transmission. With the height of half-cone shells sion of mid and IR radiation.
decreasing the peak shifts and this shift varies strongly for The cones can also be used for wettability and cell culture.
different orthogonal polarizations. The 3D asymmetric arrays Zhang and coworkers reported that half-cone nanoshell arrays
exhibited a pronounced increase in the transmission intensity enabled uni-directional liquid spreading on their hydrophilic
by changing the direction of the incident light from the half- asymmetric nanostructured surface (Figure 9).[112] Poly(N-iso-
cone shell (shelter) sides to the empty sides (Figure 8). These propyl-acrylamide) is polymerized onto the surface for in-situ
results clearly demonstrate the significant influence of struc- controlling the transition of liquid spreading direction via its
ture on changing the material properties. temperature dependent hydrophobicity. Yang and coworkers
Cone arrays are similar to moth eye structures. Many fabricated bioinspired polyethylene terephthalate (PET) nano-
research groups have investigated the optical properties of cone arrays via colloidal lithography (Figure 9).[113] The aspect
biomimetic moth eye structures, which are optimized for ratio (AR) of the nanocones were finely modulated ranging
maximum transmission, i.e. minimum reflection. Chen and from 1 to 6 by regulating the etching time. The samples with
coworkers reported that the biomimetic moth eye structures the AR value of 6 could present underwater superoleophobicity
exhibit inverse polarization phenomena at the Brewster with the underwater oil contact angle (OCA) of 171.8°. The
angle.[107] Lim and coworkers investigated optimal moth eye as-prepared PET nanocone arrays provided anti-bioadhesion
nanostructure arrays on transparent glass towards broadband behavior, which inhibited the formation of the actin cytoskel-
antireflection.[108] Lee and coworkers reported experimental eton when used as substrate for cell cultures.
PROGRESS REPORT
Figure 8. A) Photographs showing the laser beam path reflected by (a) a silver mirror and (b) a gold nanocone array. (c) Reflectivity spectra from gold
nanocone arrays at different angles of incidence. Reproduced with permission.[101] Copyright 2013, American Chemical Society. B) a) Measured (red
curve) and simulated (blue dash curve) transmission spectra of a hollow nanocone array film (HNAF) and a 100 nm Ag film with the same thickness
(black curve). b) Optical image of an HNAF sample with a small part of a smooth Ag film at the bottom. c) Optical image of a HNAF island surrounded
by a 100 nm smooth Ag film. The scale bar corresponds to 10 μm. d) Description of one single unit of the hollow nanocone array and the predicted
mechanism generating the greatly enhanced optical transmission. Reproduced with permission.[104] Copyright 2014, American Chemical Society. Right
panel: (A) A schematic of the characteristic details in (B) and (C). The sample supported by the two transparent pillars is illuminated by a red laser
(650 nm) with an incident angle of 70. This procedure is carried out in the dark. A white paper is placed below the sample. The inset image is an optical
image of the sample. Optical images of the sample illuminated from the (B) shelter (half-cone) side and (C) empty side. The brightest light spot is the
domain illuminated by the laser on the sample. Reproduced with permission.[106] Copyright 2014, Royal Society of Chemistry.
Cone is an important structure for plasmonics, wettability materials. This work was developed by combining CL, selec-
and antireflection due to the structural feature of sharp tips. tive ion-exchange, and the in situ reduction of Ag ions (Ag+)
This has been widely investigated for various applications. It is for the fabrication of multi-segmented barcode nanorods
expected that functional materials, e.g. graphene, can be fabri- (Figure 10).[115] This method can easily realize the density
cated on cones, which will lead to enhanced performances and tuning of Ag NPs in different segments of single nanorods by
novel behaviors. Besides, the sharp tip can show significant varying the composition of the PAA segments. This method
effect on cell culture and adhesion, which will be a promising offers opportunities for the fabrication of novel fluores-
applied prospect. cent barcodes, which can be used for detecting and tracking
applications.
Yang and coworkers reported a simple and time-efficient
3.4. Pillars CL method to prepare large area fused silica cone arrays on
planar fused silica substrate and convex lens for high-perfor-
Pillars fabricated by colloidal lithography (CL) have been widely mance visible light ARS and antifogging surfaces.[116] This is a
used in plasmonics, optics and cell cultures. Zhang and cow- kind of bioinspired, high-performance, near-infrared improved
orkers reported a novel technique for generating polymeric transmittance silica surfaces with superhydrophobic proper-
fluorescent barcode nanorods by RIE of polymer multilayer ties, with transmittance about 99% from 1300 to 2000 nm.
films using nonclose-packed colloidal microsphere arrays as They further demonstrated a facile etching method to fabricate
masks.[114] The shape-encoded characters of the nanorods were silicon elliptical pillar arrays (Si-EPAs) with unique anisotropic
implemented due to the different etching speeds of various optical and wetting characters using polystyrene elliptical
PROGRESS REPORT
Figure 9. Upper panel: Water spreading on a hydrophobic half-cone nanoshell array. (A) SEM image of the half-cone nanoshell array. Side views of a
sessile droplet on the surface taken from (B) X-Z plane and (C) Y-Z plane. The nanoshells slant to –X. In-situ photographs of the water droplet taken
at different time after the water droplet contacted (D) the substrate along the horizontal plane and (E) the substrate inclined with 50° and (F) 90° from
the horizontal plane. The nanoshells slant to–X in (D–F). Reproduced with permission.[112] Copyright 2014, Nature Publishing Group. Bottom panel:
Optical microscopy images (a,e) and confocal fluorescence microscopy images (b–d, f–h) of cells cultured on the flat PET film (a–d) and PET nanocone
arrays (e–h): blue-the nucleus; red-the actin cytoskeleton. Reproduced with permission.[113] Copyright 2014, Royal Society of Chemistry.
hemisphere arrays (EHAs) as mask (Figure 10).[117] Moreover, wetting and isotropic wetting at different temperatures, which
a novel technique is reported for fabrication of silicon/polymer gives the possibility of coupling the well-designed surface with
composite nanopost arrays by combining colloidal lithography a microfluidic channel to manipulate fluid motion. Further-
and surface-initiated atom-transfer radical polymerization.[118] more, photothermally controlled microfluidics was also estab-
The composite nanopost arrays possess core/shell nanoarchi- lished based on the thermal-responsive Janus MPA through
tectures with shells of poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate) and introducing infrared light to adjust the temperature of the
cores of silicon nanoposts. The composite nanopost arrays microfluidic system.[119]
exhibit vivid colors. Importantly, the colors of the composite Dense and uniform arrays of InP-based nanopillars were fab-
nanopost arrays can be tuned from green to red by changing ricated by dry etching using self-assembly of colloidal silica par-
the film thickness. The composite nanopost arrays can be used ticles for masking.[120] Both single pillars and their arrays, fabri-
as sensors to rapidly detect water vapor with high stability and cated via epitaxially grown InP and InP/GaInAsP/InP quantum
reproducibility. Micropillar arrays (MPA) with controllable wet- well structures, show excellent photoluminescence (PL) even at
tability difference was developed. With a two-step modification room temperature.
process, they were successfully decorated the Janus pillar skel- Kim and coworkers developed a novel method to extend the
etons with wettability-switchable polymer brushes on one side antireflection spectral range to shorter wavelengths by the lat-
and hydrophilic self-assembled monolayer on the other.[119] tice constant of the nanostructure by combining AR coatings
Owing to the switchable wettability of the polymer brushes, and the moth’s eye structure without complicated process to
the patterned surfaces could switch between anisotropic fabricate a feature size of sub-300 nm.[121] Novel graded-index
PROGRESS REPORT
Figure 10. Left panel: SEM images of multi-segmented nanorod arrays ((a) and (b)) and the corresponding TEM images ((c) and (d)). Reproduced
with permission.[115] Copyright 2015, Springer. Right panel: a) Schematic illustration of the PNIPAM/MHA Janus pillar surface wettability at different
temperatures. b,c) The photographs of the water drop taken at different time after the water drop contacted the surface of PNIPAM/MHA Janus array
at a temperature below and above the LCST of the PNIPAM brush. The red dotted line is the center axis of the syringe needle. Reproduced with permis-
sion.[117] Copyright 2010, American Chemical Society.
(GRIN) nanostructures were developed by integrating AR dimethylamino group of poly(2- (dimethylamino)ethyl meth-
nanoisland coating arrays on top of silicon nano-conical- acrylate) (PDMAEMA).
frustum (NCF) arrays. The NCF introduces the RI gradient Ogaki and coworkers have developed a novel bottom-
in the visible wavelength longer than the lattice constant. The up protein patterning method using combination of self-
quarter-wavelength (λ/4) single layer AR nanoisland coatings assembly processes on the mesoscopic scale to the molecular
on top of the frustum arrays are designed to suppress the scale to allow hierarchical protein patterns to be straightfor-
reflectance at a specific NUV wavelength shorter than the lat- wardly fabricated with low cost over large areas.[126] As a proof
tice constant. Finally, the antireflection property is significantly of principle, they patterned vitronectin in various dimen-
enhanced compared to that of sharp-tipped nanocone struc- sional hierarchies using meso- to nanoscale self-assembled
tures, so that the average reflectance in the NUV spectral range monolayers. Arrays of protein nanodots with dot-size tuned
(300 to 400 nm) decreased from 9.2% to 3.8%. independently of spacing (e.g., ≈100 to 600 nm diameter for
900 nm spacing) were fabricated. The ability to influence cell
architecture and local membrane organization was demon-
3.5. Disks
strated for T-lymphocytes.
There are many methods to fabricate disks by CL. They Disks can also be used in plasmonics and serve as perfect
can be used in protein patterning and cell cultures. Suther- absorber and SERS substrate. Velegol and coworkers fabricated
land and coworkers patterned proteins on disks with two types of nanostructures with large electric field: nanodisk
100 nm–1000 nm diameter over large areas (tens of cm2 per dimers and cusp nanostructures.[127] Both of these structures
process) and studied the interaction of cells with extracel- had a well-defined geometry for the localization of large electric
lular matrix components laterally organized at the nanometer fields. Käll and coworkers reported on the monolayers of chiral
scale (Figure 11).[122] They studied the adhesion, morphology, heterotrimers and heterotetramers composed of closely spaced
and spreading of a model cell line on fibronectin nanopat- silver and/or gold nanodisks of different heights fabricated
terns targeting specifically the weaker adhesive interactions through facile hole-mask colloidal lithography.[128] These quasi-
expected for cells at these interfaces, utilizing a defined and 3D oligomers were promising in technical applications, because
soft cell rinsing protocol based on density lift-off. Yang and they exhibited “hot” gaps and crevices of nanometric dimen-
coworkers reported a novel technique to prepare wafer-scale sions, a pronounced circular dichroism, and optical chirality in
polymer brush nanopatterns by combining CL with SI- the visible to near-infrared wavelength range, and they could
ATRP.[123] Complex protein patterns were prepared by con- be produced in large ensembles (>109) of identical orientation.
jugating proteins on the polymer brush nanopatterns. Cells Dao and coworkers proposed a combined fabrication method of
can adhere quickly to the fibronectin patterns and elongate RIE and large-scale colloidal mask to fabricate midinfrared met-
along the stripes of the protein patterns. Yang et al. also amaterial perfect absorbers using aluminum−aluminum oxide-
reported a versatile way to prepare multiscale and gradient aluminum trilayers.[129] The absorptivity of the prepared sam-
patterns of proteins.[124] The protein patterns were fabricated ples reached as high as 98% (Figure 11). Höök and coworkers
by conjugating proteins covalently on patterns of polymer evaluated and compared the sensitivity of gold nanodisks on
brushes, which were prepared by techniques combining silica substrates and nanoholes made in silica supported gold
photolithography and two-step CL. The as-prepared pat- films.[130] Giessen and coworkers reported a large-area low-cost
terns of fibronectin could promote the cell adhesion and cell tunable plasmonic perfect absorber in the near infrared by col-
location. Fabrication of versatile gold nanoparticle (Au NP) loidal etching lithography.[131] A simple and universal method,
arrays with optical properties tunable by a novel host−guest based on a Ppy through-pore template induced by the colloidal
interaction were reported.[125] The Au NPs were incorporated monolayer, was developed to fabricate the gold and silver hier-
into polymer brushes by host−guest interaction between a archically micro/nanostructured arrays.[132] These hierarchically
β-cyclodextrin (β-CD) ligand of gold nanoparticles and the micro/nanostructured arrays were used as SERS substrates.
PROGRESS REPORT
Figure 11. Upper panel: (a) Zoom of part of a cell adhering to 1000 nm fibronectin patches stained green for vinculin overlayed on the DIC image,
where the nanostructures are visible. Green fluorescent vinculin spots can be seen in the retraction fibre, and at closer inspection in panel (b) the cor-
relation of the focal contacts to the fibronectin patches is indicated. Positions of fibronectin nanopatches are indicated by solid circles outside the cell
extension and dotted circles underneath. An SEM image of similar magnification is displayed in (c) for comparison of the pattern geometry. Reproduced
with permission.[122] Copyright 2010, American Chemical Society. Bottom panel: Schematic design of the Al-PA, and reflectance and emission spectra
of the samples. Reproduced with permission.[129] Copyright 2015, American Chemical Society.
Drug delivery can be realized by disks. Voelcker and cow- thus-prepared nanocarriers are found to selectively attach to
orkers demonstrated a novel fabrication method for size- and and kill cancer cells. The study opens new vistas for the field of
shape-controlled porous silicon (pSi) nanoparticles utilizing cancer nanovectors.
simple CL coupled with metal-assisted chemical etching The disks with functional materials showed novel proper-
(MACE).[133] The pSi nanodiscs (NDs) were highly porous, ties and applications. Nagao and coworkers reported facile
degradable and could be loaded with a large payload of the anti- and controllable synthesis of ZnO nanowires and nanosheets
cancer drug camptothecin CPT (up to 2 mg mg–1). The ability with hydrothermal synthesis on patterned aluminum sub-
of MLR2 antibody displaying pSi NDs loaded with CPT for strates prepared by colloidal lithography (Figure 12).[134] The
targeted drug delivery was confirmed by the selective attach- nanowire areas and nanosheet areas were well-defined on
ment to and killing of SH-SY5Y neuroblastoma cells. The the micron scale and they displayed dramatically different
PROGRESS REPORT
Figure 12. Upper panel: Schematic of ZnO nanowire/nanosheet synthesis. a) ZnO seeds were formed on the substrate. b) A monolayer of PS spheres
was deposited on top of the ZnO seeds. The size of the spheres can be adjusted with dry etching. c) Al nanohole arrays were fabricated using the PS
spheres as masks. d) Patterned ZnO nanowires/nanosheets were grown from the same growth solution. Bottom panel: SEM image of ZnO nanowire/
nanosheet pattern (a) and the corresponding Zn (b) and O (c) distribution map obtained with EDS. The scale bars in all panels are 4 μm. Reproduced
with permission.[134] Copyright 2015, Optical Society of America.
photoluminescence properties: while nanowires showed strong activating protein patches by total internal reflection fluores-
band-edge emission at 382 nm with a moderate orange emis- cence microscopy.
sion at 600 nm, nanosheets only showed broad and intense Zhang and coworkers demonstrated a facile approach to
green emission in the 547 nm range. The method enables fab- fabricate the multifunctional asymmetric microparticles and
rication of periodic ZnO nanowire/nanosheet patterning with heterogeneous overlapped microshells with the aid of stepwise
well-controlled morphology and luminescence property, which angled colloidal lithography (ACL).[140] A steric hindrance col-
provided the flexibility to tailor the substrate’s optical properties loidal microsphere approach (SHCMA) has been developed for
by using ZnO as the only constituent oxide component. the fabrication of ordered Pt or Pt/Ag nanoparticle composite
interconnected hollow hemispheres via colloidal lithography
and physical vapor deposition.[141] Large-area arrays of dispersed
3.6. Rings, Shells, Triangles and Others multilayer gold−dielectric nanocups were fabricated by colloidal
lithography.[142] Hybridization of the elemental plasmons of the
Tailored-Fe2O3 ring arrays,[135] gold elliptical rings,[136] double- individual nanocups gave rise to new resonance peaks in the
ring-like structural array[137] and elliptical polymer brush ring visible and near-infrared regions of the extinction spectrum.
arrays[138] have been obtained by colloidal lithography (CL). FeGa hemi-shell (HS) films with ultra-broad light harvesting
These structures show great potential in using magnetic prop- ability were fabricated by facile colloidal lithography.[143] Under
erties, plasmonics, wettability and cell cultures. Sengupta and perpendicular incidence of a light beam, the absorption peak
coworkers reported a simple, cost-effective benchtop protocol of single hexagonal periodicity arrays has its own features and
to functionalize glass and PDMS with nanometric protein rules, which provides a method to estimate absorption peak
patches for cell adhesion studies.[139] Evaporation masks, cov- position and intensity, when the size and thickness of HS is
ering macroscopic areas on glass, were made using improved known.
strategies for self-assembly of colloidal microbeads, which Giessen and coworkers introduced angle-controlled colloidal
then served as templates for creating protein patch arrays via nanolithography as a fast and low-cost fabrication technique for
intermediate steps of organoaminosilane deposition and poly large-area periodic plasmonic oligomers with complex shapes
ethylene-glycol grafting. The glass substrates were used for and tunable geometry parameters.[144] They investigated the
advanced optical imaging of T-lymphocytes to explore adhe- optical properties and find highly modulated plasmon modes
sion by reflection interference contrast microscopy and the in oligomers with triangular building blocks. Fundamental
possible colocalization of T-cell receptor microclusters and the modes, higher-order modes, as well as Fano resonances due
to coupling between bright and dark modes within the same those in previous reports, resulting in many unique features
PROGRESS REPORT
complex structure were found to depend on polarization and and a high improvement in optical properties.
structure geometry. Lohmüller and coworkers demonstrated a Whitesides and coworkers demonstrated a technique –
strategy for SERS of supported lipid membranes with arrays shadow sphere lithography (SSL) that used sequential deposi-
of plasmonic nanoantennae.[145] CL combined with plasma tion from multiple angles through plasma-etched microspheres
etching was used to synthesize arrays of triangular shaped Au to expand the variety and complexity of structures accessible
NPs.[146] Reducing the separation distance between the triangle by colloidal masks (Figure 13C).[161] SSL harnessed the entire,
tips led to plasmonic coupling and to a strong enhancement of relatively unexplored, space of shadow-derived shapes and
the electromagnetic field in the nanotriangle gap. As a result, with custom software to guide multiangled deposition and
the Raman scattering intensity of molecules, that are located offered sufficient degrees of freedom to (i) design and fabri-
at this plasmonic “hot-spot”, increased by several orders of cate a wide variety of metasurfaces that incorporate complex
magnitude. structures with small feature sizes and multiple materials and
Besides the above typical structures, a number of noncon- (ii) generate, in parallel, thousands of variations of structures
ventional structures can be obtained via CL. Periodic hexag- for high throughput screening of new patterns that may yield
onal spherical nanoparticle arrays with 10 nm gaps as a stable unexpected optical spectra. This generalized approach to engi-
and sensitive SERS substrate were fabricated by sputtering neering shadows of spheres provides a new strategy for effi-
deposition due to multiple direction deposition and shadow cient prototyping and discovery of periodic metasurfaces.
effect between adjacent nanoparticles.[147] Isa and coworkers
employed colloidal self-assembly at liquid-liquid interfaces to
fabricate regular, open particle lithography masks, which can be 4. Conclusion and Outlook
employed to produce diverse biosensing structures.[148] Magni
and coworkers reported that ordered arrays of PS spheres New development in colloidal lithography (CL), especially a
(465 nm) are successfully modified by selectively removing a diversity of micro/nanostructures derived by CL and their cor-
single sphere focused-ion beam (FIB) patterning.[149] Complex responding applications are reviewed in this paper. The deeper
3D nanostructures can be fabricated by harnessing the Talbot understanding of the fundamental details in self-assembly of
field distribution generated by a 2D nanosphere array. colloidal particles and colloidal lithography is a base of fabri-
Moon and coworkers introduced dual templates for the fab- cation and diversification of micro/nanostructures obtained
rication of h-TiO2 electrodes for dye-sensitized solar cells.[150] via colloidal lithography, which also determines the fabrication
Novel dimer nanostructure architectures with two symmetri- flexibility and quality. The micro/nanostructures can be further
cally arranged crescents were fabricated to exhibit a strong and diversified by etching treatment of the colloidal crystal masks.
highly localized electrical near-field in the gap region between As such, the investigation of the etching process is important
the tips.[151] Kingshott demonstrated the use of binary col- for the colloidal lithography development. Vast literature was
loidal assemblies as lithographic masks to generate tunable listed to present an overview of the applications of the typical
Au patterns on SiO2 substrates.[152] Sutherland and coworkers structures fabricated by colloidal lithography. In summary, the
combined a colloidal template and angled evaporation for the typical structures with noble metals, including holes, cones, pil-
fabrication of concentric and nonconcentric gold rings and lars, bowls, rings, shells and triangles, all play significant roles
crescents.[153] Kim and coworkers described the development in plasmonics. They are well investigated to be used as nanoan-
of a practical method for creating multicolored inverse opal tenna, color displays, plasmonic sensors, SERS substrates et al.
micropatterns by hybridizing convective self-assembly of col- Holes can be used for single-modular detection and optical
loidal particles with photolithographic techniques.[154] capturing through the holes. Cones and pillars were well inves-
Stacked nanocrescent,[155] dimer pairs of Pt and Ru nano- tigated in wettability. Moreover, all the structures can be inves-
disks[156] and split-ring metamaterials[157] were fabricated via tigated for the interaction with cell, which is an interesting and
CL. Novel nanohole arrays with volcano-shaped holes (truncated promising applied direction. There are some pioneering works
cones) were fabricated to obtain structural colors with excellent using the structures in solar cell, OLED and graphene and
purity without using index-matching layers (Figure 13A).[158] showing greatly enhanced properties. It is expected that there
They also showed efficient sensitive environment responses. will be more studies focusing on exploitation of colloidal crys-
By carrying out another deposition process on the nanovol- tals and the structures in the hot research areas.
cano arrays, disk-in-volcano arrays were fabricated and showed Although investigations have progressed rapidly, challenges
greatly enhanced sensing performances due to strong coupling in this field still exist. Most important for the colloidal litho
in the nanogaps between the nanovolcanos and nanodisks.[159] graphy process is the quality of the colloidal crystal mask.
Moreover, through mastering the fabrication process, biological Many impressive strategies have been developed to control the
sensing can be easily confined to the cavities of the nanovol- self-assembly of colloidal particles. However, monocrystalline
canos (Figure 13B). The local responsivity has the advantages colloidal crystals with a large area are still hardly obtained. The
of maximum surface plasmon energy density in the nanogaps, self-assembly process to grow high-quality colloidal crystals
reducing the sensing background and saving expensive rea- always requests precisely controlled conditions, which are diffi-
gents. In addition, 3D Au nanohole arrays with controlled hole cult executed and reproduced. This is a noticeable weakness of
sizes were fabricated based on well-developed colloidal lithog- colloidal lithography compared with conventional lithography
raphy and investigated for optical performance.[160] The 3D techniques. So the structures, fabricated by colloidal litho
nanohole arrays have a brand new 3D structure compared to graphy, may not be ideal for fundamental theoretical studies
PROGRESS REPORT
Figure 13. A) SEM images and transmission spectra of Ag nanovolcano arrays with periods of 700 nm, 580 nm and 500 nm. The scale bar corresponds
to 200 nm and applies to all the SEM images. Reproduced with permission.[158] B) Schematics of the confined sensing process. Reproduced with
permission.[159] Copyright 2015, Royal Society of Chemistry. C) Schematic for single- and multiangled deposition. a) Generation of a single bar or an
array of bars by a single angle of deposition. b) Definition of free parameters relative to the crystal axis. Here we show an example composed of three
different types of features: (1) an interconnected line, (2) an asymmetric bar, and (3) a symmetric bar. c–e) Composition of six angles of projection
demonstrating the duplication of feature types 1–3 at intervals of ϕ = 60° due to the C6 symmetry of the lattice. (f–h) SEM images of the fabricated
versions of these patterns (20 nm of Ag on Si). Inset: The six angles by which the features are reproduced. Reproduced with permission.[161] Copyright
2014, American Chemical Society.
in which long-range, perfect monocrystalline structures are nanostructures. Nowadays colloidal lithography enables fab-
requested. On the other hand, the investigation of the effect rication of novel or complex structures for many technical
of the nanoscale defects on the properties of micro/nanostruc- applications in surface wetting, optics, magnetics, plasmonics,
tures will be a very interesting research topic, which, however, biology and many others. In most cases, however, the current
is little touched so far. Many advanced colloidal lithography exploitation of the micro/nanostructures in technical appli-
-based methods have been developed to fabricate many micro/ cations still remains superficial. In order to unravel the full
power of colloidal lithography, the close collaboration between [27] A. Willets, R. P. Van Duyne, Annu. Rev. Phys. Chem. 2007, 58, 267.
PROGRESS REPORT
the researchers from different disciplines is crucial. Only [28] J. Qian, S. P. Bhawalkar, Y. S. Xu, L. Jia, ACS Appl. Mater. Interfaces
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Advanced Colloidal Lithography Beyond Surface Patterning

Article in Advanced Materials Interfaces · June 2016

Bin Ai Helmuth Moehwald

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