Solanum incanumTraditional uses and it Phytoconstituents A Review

Sonu, Dinesh kumar

Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Central University of Haryana, Mahendergarh-123031,
INDIA
Abstract:
In the traditional medicine system plants have been used to treat various human and animal
diseases related to skin, liver, heart etc. Solanum incanum belongs to the family Solanaceae. S.
incanum has rough leaves, spines on the stem, stalks and calyces and with velvet hairs on the
leaves. Phytochemicals including terpenes, flavonoids, bioflavonoid, xanthenes, and multiple
metabolites like tannins, saponins, cyanates, oxalate, and anthraquinones as well as steroid
glycosides in the form of glycoalkaloids such as solanine and solasonine are obtained from this
plant. Fruit and leaves are rich in minerals such as K and Ca. The review of the literature reveals
that the plant possesses a few well-known pharmacological properties, including antibacterial
activity, antinociceptive effects, antioxidative property, and antipyretic impact. Therefore, the
work was reviewed and some of the most recent scientific research done on this essential
traditional medicinal herb were incorporated.

1. Introduction:
In the traditional medicine system plants have been used to treat various human and animal
diseases related to skin, liver, heart etc.(Prasad et al. 2015.). More than 800 plant species are
used to treat nearly 300 physical and mental disorders such as cerebral palsy, birth defects and
mental disorders in Ethiopia such as depression, anxiety disorders and schizophrenia (D. Abebe
& Ayehu, 1993).
Both ecologically and commercially steroidal glycoalkaloids are an important group found in the
genus Solanum (Manske & Holmes, 2014). Solanum incanum belongs to the family Solanaceae
(D. Abebe & Ayehu, 1993). It is a perennial, wild shrub and its species has wide traditional
applications (J. K. Mwonjoria et al., 2014). S. incanum is one of the nearly 1500 species of
Solanum observed globally (Knapp et al., 2004). It is used in Sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle
East, eastwards to India as folklore remedy. (H. Abebe et al., 2014). S. incanum has rough
leaves, spines on the stem, stalks and calyces and with velvet hairs on the leaves (S. Sambo et al.,
2012). The seeds of S. incanum are utilized to make new plants. It grows commonly as a weed
around houses, in overgrazed grassland and in road sides and it is also found at forest edges, in
bush land and grassland (Yrjönen et al., 2004). Several groups of phytochemicals, such as
terpenes, xanthenes, flavonoids, bioflavonoids, and multiple metabolites like tannins, cyanates,
saponins, and oxalate, as well as anthraquinones, have been found in S. incanum. Steroid
glycosides are also found in the form of glycoalkaloids, such as solanine and solasonine.
Fruit and leaves are rich in minerals such as K and Ca (Esiegwu et al., 2014). Chewing and
ingesting root sap, as well as drinking decoctions made from leaves, roots, and fruits, are used to
treat illness and injury of several diseases (Y. L. Lin et al., 2000).
S. incanum is also known as thorn apple, bitterball, bitter apple, and bitter tomato. (Kipngeno et
al., 2014). The local name of Solanum incanum is Ban bhanta. The fruit consist of small berries
which in diameter of 2-3 cm and when they ripe are changed into yellow to brown color (J. K.
Mwonjoria et al., 2014). The herb is used as a traditional for sore throat, angina, stomach-ache,
colic, headache, and in wounds (S. Sambo 2012). It is also used to relieve painful menstruation,
liver problems and pain caused by onchocerciasis, pleurisy, pneumonia and rheumatism (J. K.
Mwonjoria et al., 2014). In West Africa, leaves and fruits of certain cultivars are edible (K et al.,
2014). The Solanaceae family belongs to the plant kingdom and the order of this family is
Solanales in the division Magnoliophyta, the angiosperms or flowering plant division (Bremer et
al., 1999). It consists of 91 genera and an approximately 2450 species with great extent in habit,
morphology and ecology (Mabberley, 2008).

Methodology:
The materials used in this study were obtained from the following databases: Science Direct
((https://www.sciencedirect.com/), PubMed (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/), and PubChem.
The Key search terms or words were Solanum incanum alone or in combination with any of the
following keywords; botanical description, ethnopharmacological uses, geographical
distribution, taxonomy, phytochemicals, biologically active constituents, and pharmacological
activities. The biologically active constituents are identified by PubChem and drawn by
ChemDraw (version 16.0).
2. NATIVE PLACE AND TAXONOMY
2.1 Distribution and Habitat:
Solanum incanum is a perennial, wild shrub and this plant occurs throughout South and
Southeast Asia. The species of S. incanum is distributed throughout western Pakistan,
Afghanistan, and Iran across the Middle East and Northern Africa. This plant extends to the
Indian Ocean islands of Madagascar and Mauritius (where it may have been taken by people)
and eastwards to the Philippines (Ranil et al., 2017). The geographical distribution of this plant
is tropical and equatorial Africa, Subtropical southern Africa, Subtropical N Africa & SW Africa
(Lester et al.,1990).
In India, it is found in Maharashtra, Pune, Karnataka, and Mysore (Singh et al., 2019). S.
incanum is mainly grown in open fields or where the impacted areas of humans (Ranil et al.,
2017). It is common as a weed, around houses, in overgrazed grassland, and in roadsides and it is
also found at forest edges and in bushland and grassland (Sbhatu & Abraha, 2020). The
flowering of S. incanum starts in 28 weeks (Eltayeb et al., 1997).
.
2.2 Taxonomy:
Taxonomic classification of Solanum incanum Linn (Dakone & Guadie, 2016)
Current name Solanum incanum Linn
Family Solanaceae
Order Solanales
Genus Solanum L
Subgenus Leptostemonum
Species Solanum incanum
Class Magnoliopsida
Subclass Asteridae
Kingdom Plantae
Subkingdom Tracheobionta
Division Magnoliophyta
Synonyms Solanum melongena var. incanum

2.3 Synonyms of the Solanum incanum

Solanum incanum L. Synonyms: S. panduriforme E. Mey. S. bojeri Dunal. Some common names
of Solanum incanum L. in different languages are Amharic (Inboye), English (Apple of Sodom),
Arabian (Ainalbaqar), Omar (mazi), Yemen (nuquum), Ndebele (Umdulukwa), Swahili
(Tungujamito), Shona (Djinsa) (Hedberg, 1996).
2.4 Macroscopic characteristics:
Solanum incanum is densely covered by soft stellate hairs and branched thorny shrubs with stout
prickles (Sbhatu & Abraha, 2020). The size of leaves is 4.5-11 x 4-7.5 cm, and ovate-elliptic,
sinuate or lobed, subacute, midrib, and lateral nerves with scattered prickles. The color of the
flower is blue or pale purple and the petioles are up to 6 mm long. The size of the berry is 2 cm
in diameter and subglobose, yellow at maturity. The young stem of S. incanum is tapering or
cylindrical. The color of the stem is brownish and is angular in shape. The mature stems are
glabrate to densely stellate-pubescent. The shape of the fruit is spherical ovoid and sub-globose
berry measuring 2–2.5cm long. Size of seed is 2-2.5cm and is smooth surface and dull yellow to
orange-brown in color. The shape of seed is flattened-renform in shape (Singh et al., 2019).
 Fig show: Plant of Solanum incanum
The TS of the young stem has a single layer of epidermis covered in thick cuticle; the
cortex, that makes up one-third of the section, is comprised of up of collenchymatous cells, thin-
walled parenchyma, a few cells fully loaded with the microsphenoidal crystals of calcium
oxalate, and a discontinuous group of pericyclic fibers underneath it. The xylem is made up of
grouped and isolated vessels, xylem rays uniseriate, a group of fibers intercepted by inner
phloem, and a central round to oval parenchymatous pith that is embedded with microsphenoidal
crystals of calcium oxalate.

2.5 Histological characteristics:

Stem: The epidermis of the plant S. incanum is layered with a thick cuticle. The hypodermis is
absent in this plant. The cortex of S. incanum is composed of collenchymatous cells, thin-walled
parenchyma, a few cells fully loaded with the microsphenoidal crystals of calcium oxalate, and a
discontinuous group of pericyclic fibers underneath it. The endodermis layer is absent in this
plant. Pericycle i.e, primary tissue located at the periphery of the root vascular cylinder.
Medullary rays are uniseriate, arranged in a single row, layer, and series (parts, cell, etc). Pith of
S. incanum is Parenchymatous with micro-sphenoidal crystals (Kannan et al., 2023).
Leaf: The leaf of S. incanum consists of three parts- petiole, lamina and midrib. The shape of
the petiole is irregularly circular. In lamina a few stellate trichomes are present and there are 2-3
layers of spongy parenchyma. Midribs are absent in the leaf of S. incanum showing a centrally
placed placenta, which is covered by a thick endocarp.
Fruit: Tenacious calyx is shown in the longitudinal section of the fruit of S. incanum and long
pedicle with few thorns. Outer dark yellowish layers of epicarp are present in the transverse
section (TS) of this fruit, followed by mesocarp made up of mucilaginous pulp. A numerous seed
interposes in a centrally located bicarpellary placenta (Kannan et al., 2023).

3. TRADITIONAL USE
Medicinal plants play a crucial role in the treatment and cure of several diseases. It is estimated
that around 80% of the world population use some form of herbal medicine to treat the illness
and disease according to the WHO, where natural products are a preferable option then synthetic
ones (Sahle et al., 2017). The secondary metabolites in the medicinal plants are of great
importance in human care in terms of acting as antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory,
and being involved in the modulation of detoxification of enzymes. (Sahle et al., 2017).
S. incanum is used as a traditional medicine to treat human and animal ailment (Badugu, 2012).
The plant parts of leaves, fruits (berries) and roots of S. incanum are used traditionally to treat
bruised fingers, dyspepsia, earache and haemorrhoids (Al Sinani & Eltayeb, 2017). There are
many use of S. incanum such as in treatment of angina, colic or indigestion, dandruff, fever,
general infection, headache, liver pain, painful menstruation, skin diseases, snake bites, sore
throat, stomach ache or abdominal pain (Sbhatu & Abraha, 2020). This plant is also used in
wound treatment as a folklore remedy in Africa (Chidambaram et al., 2022). The fruits and
seeds of this plant are commonly used in curdling milk and making cheese (H. Abebe et al.,
2014). In animals, this plant is used to control the cattle ticks and make compost (Sbhatu &
Abraha, 2020). Leaf paste and pounded fruits are used for scarifications. Leaf sap is used for the
washing of the painful area. Various parts of the plant have been used in warts, rashes and
carbuncles (Qureshi et al., 2019). In Oromia region the fruit of S. incanum is the main medicinal
plant used for the treatment of cowdriosis, dermatophilosis skin lesion, foot rot and pasteurellosis
and also the root decoction of S. incanum is used to treat black legs, fasciolosis and snake bite
(Abdisa, 2019). The plant is also used as antimicrobial, antiprotozoal, analgesic, antipyretic,
antinociceptive, anorexic, hypoglycemic, antihyperlipidemic, spasmolytic properties, and insect-
repellent activities (Kannan et al., 2024). Other uses include; relief of painful menstruation, liver
problems and pain caused by onchocerciasis, pleurisy, pneumonia and rheumatism (J. K.
Mwonjoria et al., 2014).

4. Pharmacological activity:
Here are some reported pharmacological activities associated with certain Solanum species:
4.1 Antipyretic effect:
Methanol root extract of S. incanum at doses of 50 and 100 mg/kg through i.p. route or body
cavity showed significant antipyretic effect on endotoxin induced fever in rats and compared
with aspirin (100 mg/kg) taken as standard (J. Mwonjoria et al., 2011).
4.2 Antinociceptive effect:
In a study, methanol extract of S. incanum root when administered orally at dose level of 100
and 200 mg/kg in mice, exhibited analgesic effect. This study showed significant effects of
antinociceptiveness in tail flick test (M. Mwonjoria et al., 2011).
4.3 Antimalarial effect:
Chiamah, OC et al., (2024) reported the antimalarial activity of S. incanum L. leaf ethyl acetate
extract by downregulating delta aminolevulinate dehydratase when administered at a dose of 250
mg/kg to Plasmodium berghei-infected mice. The activity of the extract might be due to the
presence of high percentages of 2-methyloctacosane, tetracosane, and decane.
Chiamah, O. C., Atieno, D., Karani, L., Chepng'etich, J., Osano, M., Gachie, B., Kipkoech, G.,
Jepkorir, M., Ndungu, J. W., Kuria, J., Kimani, F., Njeru, S. N., & Gathirwa, J. W. (2024).
Evaluation of the antimalarial properties of Solanum incanum L. leaf extract fractions and its
ability to downregulate delta aminolevulinate dehydratase to prevent the establishment of
malaria infection. Journal of ethnopharmacology, 323, 117613.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jep.2023.117613
4.4 Anti-inflammatory effect:
To evaluate the anti-inflammatory effects of S. incanum, the Swiss Albino mice were injected
with doses 6.5 mg/kg, 12.5 mg/kg, and 25 mg/kg of flavonoids rich fraction of S. incanum roots
extract, diclofenac (standard), and normal saline (vehicle) half an hour before pain and
inflammation were induced. The 0.05 milliliter of 5% formaldehyde solution is used to induce
inflammation. S. incanum may have impeded phosphodiesterases involved in cell activation,
influenced the function of enzyme systems involved in the inflammatory process, or blocked the
biosynthesis of mediators of inflammation, that serve as powerful signaling molecules
influencing leukocyte migration and therefore restricting chemotaxis. Thus shows potent anti-
inflammatory effects.
Mwonjoria, Maina. (2018). Antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects of flavonoids rich
fraction of Solanum incanum (Lin) root extracts in mice. 7. 399-403.
4.5 Anticancer activity:
S. incanum extract (SR-T100) prepared by using different ratios of ethanol/water exhibited
anticancer activity by inducing apoptosis, DNA damage, and G0/G1 cell cycle arrest in murine
B16 melanoma cells in vitro. Further, intraperitoneal injection of this extract (5 mg/mL)
inhibited the growth and the number of established melanoma metastases in the lungs in mice.
This study concludes that SR-T100 can be developed as a potential and novel agent for treating
established tumors linked to regional and metastatic melanoma (Yu S et al., 2017).
Yu, S., Sheu, H. M., & Lee, C. H. (2017). Oncotarget, 8(61), 103509–103517.
https://doi.org/10.18632/oncotarget.21508
4.6 Anti hepatotoxic activity:
In a study by Lin, CN et al., (1988), compounds (solasodine, solasonine, solamargine,
carpesterol, ursolic acid, and sitosterol) isolated from S. incanum were screened for
antihepatotoxic effects using a carbon tetrachloride induced cytotoxicity model in mice. All the
compounds showed strong hepatoprotective activity in the mice.
Lin, C.-N., Chung, M.-I., & Gan, K.-H. (1988). Novel Antihepatotoxic Principles of Solanum
incanum1. Planta Medica, 54(03), 222–222. doi:10.1055/s-2006-962409

4.7 Antioxidant activity:

Akanmu AO et al., (2021) performed antioxidant study on S. incanum fruits in DPPH assay and
reported that aqueous fruit extract of this plant possesses better antioxidant activity (EC50:
0.02488 mg/ml) than ethanolic extract (EC50: 0.1000 mg/ml). The findings concluded that the S.
incanum aqueous extract may have more potential antioxidant components than the ethanol
extract.

(Almoulah, NF et al., 2017)

4.8 Antidiabetic activity:

Andargie et al., (2022) performed the antidiabetic activity of S. incanum and reported that the
methanolic extract (80%) of S. incanum L. root possesses remarkable antidiabetic activity in
STZ-induced diabetic mice in a time- and dose-dependent manner. The highest reduction in the
blood glucose level was observed on the 14th day at 400 mg/kg of the crude extract in STZ -
induced diabetic mice .The percentage reduction (19.7%) was comparable to the standard drug
(33.7%).

Andargie, Y., Sisay, W., Molla, M., & Tessema, G. (2022). Evaluation of antidiabetic and
antihyperlipidemic activity of 80% methanolic extract of the root of solanum incanum linnaeus
(solanaceae) in mice. Evidence‐Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2022(1), 4454881.

4.9 Antimicrobial activity:

Sbhatu and Abraha (2020) screened different extracts of S. incanum for antimicrobial potential
using Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial strains and reported that the ethanol extracts of
the fruit, leaf, and stem showed significant inhibition (>16.0 mm) against E. coli and S. aureus.
The ethanol leaf extracts resulted in the lowest Minimum Inhibition Concentration (MIC) of
1.56 mg/mL in E. coli and S. aureus.
Musyimi DM et al., (2021) evaluated the antimicrobial screening of ethanol and aqueous extracts
of S. incanum Leaves, roots and seeds using agar-well diffusion method and reported that these
extracts possess dose dependant significant (p < 0.05) antibacterial activity against Escherichia
coli and Staphylococcus aureus at 25, 50, 75 and 100 mg/ml and compared with amoxicillin (25
mg/ml) taken as standard. The ethanol extract showed better activity than aqueous extract.
Musyimi, D. M., Ashioya, T. A., Opande, G., & Emitaro, W. O.. Antibacterial Activity of Crude
Extracts of Solanum incanum against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. Bacterial
Empire 2021, 4 (2), e183. doi:10.36547/be.183

4.10 Antihyperlipidemic activity:

In antihyperlipidemic study, the investigators evaluated the effect of aqueous fruit extract of S.
incanum on serum lipid profile of alloxan induced diabetic Wistar albino rats. The aqueous
extract, when administered at a dose of 500 mg/kg, p.o. showed antihyperlipidemic effect.
Tsenum, J. (2018). Antihyperlipidemic effect of solanum incanum on alloxan induced
diabetic wistar albino rats. Cardiovasc Pharm Open Access, 7(239), 18-20.

4.11 Antiulcerogenic effect:

A study was performed by Belayneh YM et al. (2021) to assess the antiulcer activity of
hydromethanol extracts from S. incanum leaves and roots in antiulcerogenic activity including
Pylorus ligation and ethanol-induced gastric ulcers in fasted mice. Results indicate that a single
dose (400 mg/kg) of both leaf and root extracts significantly reduces ulcer score and ulcer index,
thereby highlighting the role of the plant in significant reduction in ulcers.

Belayneh, Y. M., Amare, G. G., Meharie, B. G., & Kifle, Z. D. (2021). Evaluation of the
antiulcerogenic activity of hydromethanol extracts of Solanum incanum L. (Solanaceae) leaves
and roots in mice; single and repeated dose study. Metabolism open, 11, 100119.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.metop.2021.100119

4.12 Antianalgesic effect:

To test the analgesic effects mice were treated with 80% methanol leaf extract of S. incanum.
100, 200, and 400 mg/kg dosages of the extract were given to the various groups, while 2%
tween 80 served as the negative control and reference control groups received 150 mg/kg of
aspirin and 5 mg/kg of morphine. As demonstrated by a rise in latency in hot plate tests and
defending against acetic acid-induced writhing tests with 55.6, 38.2, and 44.8% inhibition in the
number of writhing at 100, 200, and 400 mg/kg dose levels, respectively, the results obtained
 disclosed that the extract produced has evident central and peripheral analgesic activity (Abera &
Hailu 2019).

Abera, B., & Hailu, A. E. (2019). Evaluation of analgesic activities of 80% methanol leaf extract
of solanum incanum L.(Solanaceae) in mice. Journal of Drug Delivery and Therapeutics, 9(5), 9-
14.

4.13 Anti-tick effect:

Anti-tick effect of S. incanum fruit extracts was studied by Obed M. (2023) on Rhipicephalus
appendiculatus ticks at 100, 50 and 25 mg/ml concentrations. Results obtained using the larval
packet test (LPT), revealed remarkable larval mortality.

Obed, M. (2023). In-vitro efficacy of solanum incanum on Rhipicephalus appendiculatus, 15(4),

43-51. doi: 10.5897/JVMAH2020.0900

4.14 Spasmolytic effect:

The aqueous root extract of S. incanum was evaluated for its spasmolytic activity using
acetylcholine-induced contractions in isolated guinea pig ileum, and its results were compared
with those of atropine (standard drug). Similar to atropine, the aqueous root extract of S.
incanum decreased the response to acetylcholine in a concentration-dependent manner (EC=
0.215 mg/ml), suggesting that the extract shows potent spasmolytic effect. (Assefa et al., 2008).

5. PHYTOCONSTITUENTS OF PLANT:
Table 3. Show some phytochemicals isolated from Solanum incanum.
Sr. Phytoconstit Structure Pubche Lipins Absorbance Bioavailability Ref.
No. uents m Id ki Ro5

1. Solasodine 442985 Yes 1 High 0.55 Lin

et
al.,
1990
2. Stigmasterol 5280794 Yes 1 Low 0.55

3. Solasonine 119247 No Low 0.17

4. Solamargine 73611 Yes 0 High 0.55

5. Carpesterol 211559 No Low 0.17

18

5. Ursolic Acid 64945 Yes 1 Low 0.85

6. Solaverine I 274035
868

7. Sisymbrifoli 274361
n 028
8. Sisymbrifoli No Low 0.17
n 4-O-
glucopyrano
side

9. Benzyl- 110764 Yes 0 High 0.55

glucopyrano 92
side

10. Syringin 531686 Yes 0 Low 0.55

0

11. Citroside B 143125 Yes 0 Low 0.55

62

12. Flexinol-6-
β–D-
galactopyra
nose
13. Adenosine 60961 Yes 0 Low 0.55 Yun-
lian
et
al.,
2000

14. Kaempferol 5280863 Yes 0 High 0.55

15. Chlorogenic 1794427 Yes 1 Low 0.11

acid

16. Quercetin 5280343 Yes 0 High 0.55

17. Protocatech 72 Yes 0 High 0.56

uic acid

18. trans-p- 637542 Yes 0 High 0.85

coumaric
acid

19. Caffeic acid 689043 Yes 0 High 0.56

20. Diosgenin 99474 Yes 1 High 0.55 Mat
u
2008

21. Yamogenin 441900 Yes 1 High 0.55

22. Dimethyl- 6124 Yes 0 High 0.55

nitrosamine

23. Vitamin B2 493570 Yes 0 Low 0.55 Auta

&Ali
2011

24. Vitamin C 5467006 Yes 0 Low 0.55

7

Incanumine:
It is a new steroidal alkaloids compound (Vijayan et al., 2004). This compound is responsible
for cytotoxic activity (C. N. Lin et al., 1990). The molecular formula of Incanumine is
C49H79N019 (J. K. Mwonjoria et al., 2014).
Solasodine:
The aglycone parts of glycosides are Solasodine which are nitrogen analogues of sapogenins.
Solasodine are convert to 16-dehydropregnenolone is a compound derived from Solasodine, a
steroidal alkaloid found in certain plants which act as a progesterone and cortisone is key
intermediate in the synthesis (Kautikrao Pawar et al., 2008). Pharmacological activities of
Solasodine are antimicrobial (LiDa et al., 2000), anticancer (Trouillas et al., 2005), anti-
inflammatory (Pandurangan et al., 2011) and antiandrogenic (Gupta & Dixit, 2002).
Carpesterol:
It is the first compound that is isolated from the plant of lipid fraction (Pandey et al., 2016).
Carpesterol is a compound with the chemical formula (22R)-22-hydroxy-6-oxo-4-methyl-5-
stigmast-7-en-3β-yl benzoate (Kakkar & Bais, 2014). The isolated compound Solasodine in
Methanol showed absorbance peaks at 210 nm. It is used as Anti-seizure, Anti-poison, Anti-
inflammatory, Antipyretic, Antiproliferative, Phytoremediation, Wound healer, Hepatoprotective
and Antioxidant. (Dictionary of Indian Medicinal Plants by Akhtar Husain, O.P. Virmani, S.P.
Popli, L.N. Misra, M.M. Gupta, G.N. Srivastava, Z. Abraham, A.K. Singh: Good | Wonder Book,
1997)
β-Sitosterol:
β-sitosterol (SIT) is indeed a bioactive phytosterol that is naturally present in plant cell
membranes in which chemical structure bears resemblance to that of cholesterol, which is
synthesized in mammalian cells (Weihrauch & Gardner, 1978). It show the pharmacological
activities such as anti-inflammatory (Paniagua-Pérez et al., 2017), antinociceptive (Santos et al.,
1995), and antioxidant Effects (López-Rubalcava et al., 2006).
Stigmasterol:
Stigmasterol is also called as the Wulzen anti-stiffness factor or Stigmasterinm (Weihrauch &
Gardner, 1978). It acts as an intermediate in the synthesis of vitamin D3 (Kametani & Furuyama,
1987). It used as pharmacologically in anti-osteoarthritis (Gabay et al., 2010), anti-
hypercholesterolemic (Chandler et al., 1979), cytotoxicity (Huang et al., 2009.), and CNS
effects (Pal et al., 2005).
Salasoline:
Solamargine:
solaverine:
Ursolic Acid:
Solaverine:
Sisymbrifolin:
Sisymbrifolin4-O-glucopyranoside:
Benzyl-glucopyranoside:
Syringin:
Citroside B:
Fraxinol-6-beta-D-galactopyranoside:
Kaempferol:
Kaempferol is a class of flavonoids which is present in many edible fruits such as tomato, bean,
strawberries and grapes (Yang et al., 2008). The IUPAC name of kaempferol is (3,5,7-
trihydroxy-2-(4- hydroxyphenyl)-4H-1-benzopyran-4-one). It is a yellow compound with a
molecular weight of 286.2 g/mol (Calderón-Montaño et al., 2011). Kaempferol is a
tetrahydroxyflavone with four hydroxy groups at positions 3, 5, 7, and 4 (H. Li et al., 2015).
Kaempferol may be associated with a reduced risk of different types of cancer, including those
affecting the skin, liver, colon, ovary, pancreas, stomach, and bladder (cancer & 2004, 2009).
With the help of passive and facilitated diffusion or active transport, Kaempferol’s lipophilicity
allowed its absorption in the small intestine (Crespy et al., 2003). It is metabolized in the form
of methyl, sulfate or glucuronide and its poor oral bioavailability (Barve et al., 2009).
Kaempferol has low molecular wt. with polyphenolic compound (Panche et al., 2016). Pure
kaempferol can be isolated from different plant species in the Divisions Pteridophyta,
Coniferophyta, and Angiosperms of the Kingdom Plantae (CAVALIER-SMITH, 1998).
Chlorogenic acid:
It is used in the treatment of antimicrobial (Karunanidhi et al., 2013.), antihypertensive (Zha et
al., 2012.), antioxidant (Yun et al., 2012), and other biological activity. Chlorogenic acid is a
group of phenolic acid which is present in many the human diet with coffee, apples, pears,
berries, artichoke and aubergines (Agriculture & 1999, 1999). The leaves of budrock contain the
chlorogenic acid in a rich quantity (Lou et al., 2010). CGAs are phenolic acids with vicinal
hydroxyl groups on aromatic residues that are derived from esterification of cinnamic acids,
including caffeic, ferulic and p-coumaric acids with quinic acid.
Quercetin:
Quercetin is a special class of flavonoid. It acts as physiological activity in plants such as
germination, pollen growth, antioxidant machinery, and photosynthesis (Singh et al., 2021). It is
found in vegetables like tea and onion. It is used in antioxidants (Hepato-gastroenterology &
1994). The name quercetin comes from the Latin word quercetum which means Oak Forest
(Lakhanpal & Rai, 2007). Quercetin is yellow-colored, a crystal-like insoluble solid ingredient
having an unpleasant taste. In spite of its general insolubility, it is to some extent soluble in
alcohol, aqueous alkaline solutions, and glacial acetic acid (Becker et al.,, 2014).
Phenylpropanoid metabolic pathway is involved in the biosynthesis of quercetin (Nabavi et
al.,2020). It is used to adjust polar auxin transports, even in small quantities (Peer et al., 2007.).
The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) nomenclature for quercetin is
3, 31, 41, 5, 7-pentahydroxyflvanone (or its synonym 3, 31, 41, 5, 7-pentahydroxy-2-
phenylchromen-4-one). Quercetin's molecular formula is C 15H10O7 and it is an aglycone,
lacking an attached sugar (Ross & Kasum, 2002).
Protocatechuic acid:
It is a subclass of phenolic acid and widely distributed in edible plants and many fruits such as
plum, gooseberries and nuts (Kakkar et al., 2014.). It is used as antioxidant, antibacterial (Chao
et al., 2009), anticancer (Tanaka et al., 2011), antidiabetic (Scazzocchio et al., 2011), anti-
inflammatory (Lende et al., 2011). Protocatechuic acid (PCA) is indeed a naturally occurring
phenolic acid found in a variety of plants. PCA has structural similarities with gallic acid, caffeic
acid, vanillic acid, and syringic acid. It is an active compound of some traditional Chinese
herbal medicines such as Cibotium barometz (L.(X. Li et al., 2011)).
Trans-p-coumaric acid:
Trans-p-coumaric acid is the derivative of cinnamic acid and it is found in plant e:g Bamboo
(Zhang et al., 2007). Cinnamic acid is a good antioxidant property. It is used to treat serum
cholesterol level and lipid lipid peroxidation (Zang et al., 2000).
Caffeic acid:
Caffeic acid is a class of polyphenol compounds. It is produced in vegetables including olives,
coffee beans, fruits, potatoes, carrots and propolis (Verma & Hansch, 2004). The
pharmacological activity of caffeic acid is antioxidant (Genaro-Mattos et al., 2015) and
Hepatocarcinoma or Hepatocellular Carcinoma (Monteiro Espíndola et al., 2019). Caffeic acid is
widely distributed in plant tissues and is one of the most common hydroxycinnamate and
phenylpropanoid metabolites found in nature (Agriculture & 2000). Caffeic acid is not limited to
just fruit and vegetables but actually found in the groats and sinapic acid only in the hulls (Xing
& White, 1997). Alpha-tocopherol protective has been shown to the caffeic acid in low density
lipoprotein (Laranjinhas et al.,1996). Caffeic acid often works synergistically with other phenolic
compounds, such as chlorogenic acid and caftaric acid, to enhance antioxidant activity
(Fukumoto & Mazza, 2000). Caffeic acid has been demonstrated to exhibit effective antioxidant
activity in various in vitro activity such as method of inhibition of ABTS and DPPH, the
superoxide anion radical and metal chelating activity when compared with conventional
antioxidants such as BHA, BHT, α-tocopherol, a natural antioxidant and Trolox, which is a water
resolvable correspondent of tocopherol (Toxicology & 2006). Studies have shown that caffeic
acid and chlorogenic acid are capable of permeating through the all skin layers using pig ear
modal, which have a systemic activity, whereas oraposide stayed in the superior of the skin
surface layer (Marti-Mestres et al 2007.). Caffeic acid and its derivatives, including caffeic acid
phenethyl ester (CAPE), have demonstrated promising anticancer properties against colon and
oral cancer (Weyant et al., 2000) and also inhibiting cyclooxygenase II (COX-2) in preclinical
studies (Michaluart et al., 1999). Caffeic acid and its derivatives, including caffeic acid
phenethyl ester (CAPE) inhibited growth and secretion of interleukin-6 (Koru et al., 2009.).
Diosgenin:
Diosgenin is a steroidal sapogenin which is found in Solanum incanum. The seed, leaves, fruit
and root consist of diosgenin. The pharmacological activity of diosgenin are cancer, diabetes,
hyperlipidaemia and neurological disorders. Molecular Weight of diosgenin is 414.6 g/mol (Patel
et al., 2012).
Yamogenin:
Yamogenin is a compound that is responsible for the antihyperlipidemic effect that is the
diastereomer of diosgenin. The molecular formula of yamogenin is C27H4203 and molecular
weight is 414.6 g/mol (Moriwaki et al., 2014). This is used to treat antitumor, fungicidal,
insecticidal, antifeedant, and molluscicidal activity (Stefanowicz-Hajduk et al., 2022).
Dimethylnitrosamine:
Dimethylnitrosamine (DMN) is a nitrosamine class of compound that is known for its potent
hepatotoxin, carcinogen and mutagen (Haggerty et al., 1990). Barnes and Magee reported the
hepatotoxicity in 1954. The dimethylnitrosamine is used in some pharmacological activity and
also used in the automobile industry (Barnes et al., 1954). DMN is not mediated by the parent
compound and it is facilitated by reactive metabolites. In rodents its metabolic half life is less
than 10 min and and 20 min in non-human primates (Anderson NCI-Frederick et al., 1992).
DMN primarily targets the liver because it contains the necessary enzymes for its metabolic
activation. In the liver, enzymes such as cytochrome P450 enzymes, by a microsomal membrane-
bound enzyme can metabolize DMN (Yoo et al., 1988).
Vitamin B2:
Vitamin B2 is also known as riboflavin and it is soluble in water. The Recommended Dietary
Allowance (RDA) for vitamin B2 is 1.8mg. One molecule of GTP and two molecules of ribulose
5-phosphate are required for the production of riboflavin. It is mainly biosynthesis in plant and
many bacteria (Kraut, 1960). The riboflavin is used as cataract (Cumming et al., 2000), night
blindness (Graham et al., 2007.), some cancers (oesophageal, cervical and colorectal) (Liu et al.,
1993). The discovery of riboflavin was given by Blyth in 1972 as a yellow fluorescent pigment
in milk. Riboflavin is synthesize by the plant and some microorganism and hence it is essential
nutrient for the human health (Northrop-Clewes et al., 2012). The requirement of daily intake of
riboflavin is different according to their age of the human. Daily intake of 0·3–0·4 mg
riboflavin/d for infants, 0·5–0·9 mg riboflavin/d for children, 1·3 mg riboflavin/d for
adolescents, and 1·4 mg riboflavin/d during pregnancy and 1·6 mg riboflavin/d during lactation
for adult according to food and nutrition board (Gallagher, 2012). Riboflavin is also called
lactoflavin or Vitamin G. The structural formula of riboflavin is (7, 8-dimethyl-10-(2R, 3R, 4S)-
2, 3, 4, 5–tetrahydroxypentyl) benzo [g] pteridine-2, 4 (3H, 10H)-dione). Riboflavin is store only
in kidney and liver in a very small quantity, and it is not store in human body (Elson, 2006). The
maximum absorption of riboflavin at 220, 265, 375, and 446 nm in water (Ball, 2005). Vitamin
B2 are used in the treatment of migraine, cardiovascular diseases and a prevention against cancer
(Podorozhnyĭ et al., 1990).
Vitamin C:
Vitamin C is also known as ascorbic acid which is soluble in water or plays a crucial role in
physiological activity in humans. The deficiency of vitamin C can cause scurvy (Dresen et al.,
2023). It is also used in the immune system cell, neuroendocrine system, antiviral activity,
antioxidant and wound healing properties. The molecular weight of vitamin C is 176.12g/mol
(May & Harrison, 2013). Vitamin C is a constituent of fruit and vegetable and its role in the cure
and prevention of scurvy. The recommended quantity of vitamin C in diet is 30mg to 10g per
day. In mammals the biochemistry of L- ascorbic acid is poorly understood. The simplest form
of vitamin is vitamin C for this reason it is first isolated, purified and structurally determined
(Davies et al., 2007). It is present in the cytosolic compartment of the cell (reviews & 1995).
Vitamin C cannot be synthesized in the human cell due to loss of the key enzyme in the
biosynthesis pathway and act as essential nutrients (Nature & 1957). Weakening of collagenous
structures, resulting in poor wound healing, and impaired immunity is characterized by scurvy
(Hemilä, 2017). Daily recommended diet of Vitamin C is 100–200 mg/day (Levine et al., 1996).
Vitamin C serves as a cofactor for a variety of enzymes, including those in the family of
biosynthetic and gene regulatory monooxygenases and dioxygenases. It act as cofactor for
hydroxylase enzyme involved in the synthesis of catecholamine such as norepinephrine, and
amidated peptides hormones such as vasopressin, which are central to the cardiovascular
responses to severe infection (Englard & Seifter, 1986). Chemically, vitamin C is an electron
donor, or reducing agent (Parrow et al., 2013). Absorption of Vitamin C is from the small
intestine in humans approximately 120–180 min after ingestion of vitamin C achieving peak
plasma protein concentration (Corpe et al., 2013). Vitamin C is mainly found in liver, brain and
skeletal muscles (Janssen et al., 2000).

Name of ions Concentration per parts millions

Sodium 147.00±0.42
Potassium 215.45±0.63
Phosphorus 1082.50±3.35
Copper 256.05±1.23
Manganese 147.00±0.01
Calcium 15.00±0.03
The respective concentration of minerals present in S. incanum can be found in its ashes.
There are many minerals such as Na, K and Mg that are found in Solanum incanum fruit and
their high concentration are essential for proper growth and normal functioning of the plant.
5.1 Fruit parts:
Table 5 shows the phytochemical present in S. incanum fruit. Alkaloids, steroids, cardiac
glycosides, saponins, flavonoids, tannins, oxalates and cyanogenic glycosides are found in fruit
of S. incanum where anthraquinone is absent in fruit.
Qualitative Phytochemical Screening of S. incanum Fruit.
 Phytochemical S. incanum fruit
Alkaloids Present
Anthraquinones Absent
Cardiac glycosides Present
Cyanogenic glycosides Present
Steroids Present
Flavonoids Present
Tannin Present
Oxalate Present
Saponins Present

Most of the plants of the family of Solanaceae contain alkaloids, tannins, steroids, saponins, as
well as reducing sugars. Alkaloids, flavonoids, steroids, phenols, resins, tannins, saponins,
cardiac glycosides and carbohydrates as shown in table 3 are present in fruit of S. incanum.
Phytochemicals play a crucial role in pharmacological activity. Phytochemicals which are
responsible for pain killer medication are alkaloids which are one of the largest groups of
phytochemicals. Diseases such as wounds, varicose ulcers, hemorrhoids, frost-bite and burns are
treated by plants with tannin. Plants with flavonoids are used in treatment of allergies,
inflammation, platelets aggregation, microbes, ulcer and tumor.
Antimicrobial properties have been shown by phenolic compounds. Cardiac glycosides are
responsible for contraction of the heart muscle, improves cardiac output and reduces distention
of the heart. Biological functions of saponin are beneficial (cholesterol-lowering) and deleterious
(cytotoxic permeabilization of the intestine) properties and also exhibit structure dependent
biological activities and also useful for the treatment of hyperglycemia (H. Sambo et al., 2016).
S. incanum is considered a powerful source of bioactive phenolics, mainly chlorogenic acid (5-
O-caffeoylquinic acid) and to lesser extent N-(E)-caffeoylputrescine, 3-O-malonyl-5-O-(E)-
caffeoylquinic acid and 5-O-malonyl4-O-(E)-caffeoylquinic acid (Gramazio et al., 2016).
Some Phytochemicals isolated from S. incanum L (Dakone & Guadie, 2016).

Type of phytocompounds Solvents Parts tested Techniques used

used
Saponin, alkaloid, - Fruit Gravimetric method of AOAC
flavonoid, oxalate and
cyanogenic glycoside

Alkaloid, Solasodine and Aqueous Fruit Chromatographic method

flavonoid
Alkaloid, amino acid, Methanol Fruit Various method
steroid, resin, glycoside,
flavonoid, saponin, tannin,
reducing sugar,
triterpenoid and cardiac
glycosides
Flavonoid, saponin, steroid Methanol, Leaf Chromatographic method
and tannin ethanol and
aqueous
Saponin, Oxalate and - Fruit Gravimetric method of AOAC
flavonoid

5.2 Proximate compositions of the fruits:

Fruit of S. incanum consists of proximate compositions as shown in table 4. Dry matter,
carbohydrate, crude fiber, crude proteins, moisture and ash contents are present in fruit.
Proximate composition of S. incanum Linn.
Parameter Composition (mean±SEM)
Ash content 4.00 ± 0.34
Carbohydrate 52.50 ± 0.14
Crude fiber 28.00 ± 1.00
Crude protein 10.89 ± 0.42
Dry matter 95.40 ± 0.31
Ether extract/fat 6.00 ± 0.35
Moisture content 4.60 ± 0.24
The protein, fiber, ash, moisture, fat and carbohydrate that are found in this plant are revealed
therapeutic properties. The carbohydrates in the fruit work as an energy source for a body and
supplies energy to cells such as the brain, muscle and blood. The presence of low and high dry
matter in fruit are useful in preventing disease such as constipation, carcinoma of the colon and
rectum, diverticulitis and atherosclerosis (D. Abebe & Ayehu, 1993).
Conclusion:
It is believed that the natural compounds, especially plant origin, received much attention as they
are well tested for their efficacy and safe for human use. Solanum incanum L is widely used in
the treatment of sore throat, stomach-ache, head-ache, painful menstruation, liver pain, malaria,
hypertension, stomach problem, asthma, diabetes, common cold and pain caused by
onchocerciasis, pneumonia and rheumatism and this plant is rich source of Phytoconstituents,
minerals and vitamin that might be nutritionally valuable. The phytochemical analyses of these
plants and controlled anthelmintic trials along with contemporary knowledge of parasite control
strategies may offer new opportunities for effective and economical control of parasitic diseases .

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