Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) Program

Section 38 of the law provides for the Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC)
which makes mandatory military training for students enrolled in colleges, universities,
and similar institutions of learning to produce enlisted and officer reservists (Legal Basis,
2023). The foundational ROTC program will last one year or two semesters and need at
least 120 training hours to be credited towards six (6) units (Reserve Command,
Philippine Army, 2023).
College students are to be trained in the fundamentals of military service by the
Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) to provide competent reservists for the Armed
Forces of the Philippines. The ROTC's specific objectives are to: prepare university
students to serve in the defense establishment in case of emergency; and prepare enlistees
and officers for the Armed Forces of the Philippines' reserve components (De La Salle
University, 2023).
The Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) program has been present on college
campuses for more than a century and is currently offered at more than 1,700 colleges
and universities. While some programs are larger or better known than others, each
institution offers its opportunities, in addition to the common advantages of being part of
the program (Today’s Military, 2023).
Data collected was sorted into themes that illuminated the importance of
leadership experience, character, and mentorship in the leader development process.
Insights from the ROTC student participant perceptions provided evidence of the
uniqueness of leader identity and the importance of gaining a leader psyche as a
component of an effective leader development program. This study helps to inform
education administrators, faculty, and fellow students about the importance of leadership
experience, character, and personal leader identification throughout the leadership
development process. On a broader scale, the study provides insightful information to
leader developers in all fields about formal and informal cultural transmission aspects
within leader development (Campbell, 2017).
Based on the study results, it is concluded that being an advanced officer can
bring financial or economic burdens. It shows that most of the participants have greater
needs than not joining at all. Being an officer, with lots of responsibilities at hand and
activities to attend to, puts strain to both their physical and mental health. It also indicates
that a lot of students struggle with maintaining their physical and mental health due to the
rapid change of schedule and the rigorous training they underwent during training. There
are also general qualifications for joining the advanced ROTC officers which most of the
applicants struggle to get. To succeed as an officer, one must also competently manage
their time and be able to do all things efficiently. Self-discipline is also a part of their
training that should be instilled in the advanced ROTC officers to be able to overcome
any challenges. Self-discipline is also part of the countermeasures for overcoming
different challenges that could come by to an officer (Tactacon, Madtaib, Ricardel,
Jalalon, Gupit, & Cuevas, (2023).
Key results included evidence that current policy is misaligned with gender
enfranchisement, effective social change requires the inclusion of both genders in
registration, and a standards-based approach to equality is important to both men and
women. This group of future military leaders wants the repeal of male-only registration
and the inclusion of female citizens as an expression of full citizenship and increased
social equity (Peavie, 2018).
Mandatory ROTC for Criminology Students
The Reserve Officers' Training Corps (ROTC) is an educational program that
combines practical and unmatched leadership training. Military science courses are
designed to prepare college students to develop their leadership, discipline, and
community awareness in response to the disaster risk reduction program of the
community. ROTC program also helps the students to succeed in their chosen field in
college and be one of the aspiring officers of the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP).
Other country offers Junior ROTC in high school and ROTC in college as prerequisite
requirements in finishing their degree program, which is typically a requirement of all
college students, especially military-related courses both in private and public Higher
Education Institutions (Tullao, 2019). The findings revealed in the study (Brecio, Bravo,
Delina, & De Vera, 2023) that both students and parents agreed that the MBROTC
program would effectively contribute to social development, disaster preparedness, and
national security. However, they expressed uncertainty regarding its effectiveness in
instilling patriotism and potential risks to overall well-being. Additionally, parents agreed
that the program would enhance the country's ability to respond to natural disasters and
internal and external threats but were unsure about its impact on a student's mental well-
being.
The field of criminology is the study of crime and the various agencies of justice
as they operate and react to crime, criminals, and victims. It is therefore the mission of
the Criminology program to provide the community with professionally competent and
morally upright graduates who can deliver efficient and effective services in crime
prevention, crime detection and investigation, law enforcement, public safety, custody
and rehabilitation of offenders, and criminological research, among others. Higher
Education Institutions (HEIs) offering the Criminology program are envisioned as
significant educational institutions actively and continually involved in producing
graduates who have the knowledge, skills, attitude, and values to address the problem of
criminality in the country and the character and competence to meet the challenges of
globalization in the field of criminology (Batangas State University, 2019).
Skills Development
The ROTC program is designed to promote a sense of values, leadership, and
education among the youth. It enables uplifting the sense of social and patriotic
responsibility among students involving physical, mental, social, intellectual, and
spiritual (Pacatang & Montallana, 2022). Furthermore, ROTC also had influences along
the community involvement of the students because they were able to conduct
community services wherein, they were able to recognize that they have made impacts or
changes after they have conducted community services. It is their experiences in the
ROTC program that made them more involved in the community where they belong. The
ROTC program also influenced the demonstration of competencies by the students even
after completing the said courses. Given the results of the study regarding the effects of
ROTC on the University of Cagayan Valley students, the researcher recommends that
further studies be conducted regarding the effects or benefits of NSTP to the students as
well as to the community and on the perceptions of the students towards ROTC
(Montilla, 2021).
However, a problem is encountered in one of the schools in Korea regarding
ROTC. Thus, such is considered for improvement. Accordingly, the reasons for the
decrease in the application rate for ROTC cadets are as follows: First, difficulty in
recruiting troops due to a decrease in the school-age population due to a low birth rate
and aging society; Second, difficulty in obtaining manpower due to the shortening of the
military service period; Third, insufficient economic compensation for ROTC cadets;
Fourth, difficulty in managing cadets' academic performance while attending the college.
These factors have led the military to face an environment in which it has to make much
more effort to recruit and select excellent ROTC cadets in the future than in the past.
Therefore, it can be said that the military must identify, analyze, and come up with
improvement measures for what factors college students decide to apply for ROTC cadets
and for what reason they avoid the application (Kim & Sa, 2022).
Several studies demonstrate the beneficial effects of ROTC on the development of
leadership abilities. ROTC cadets practice effective communication, delegation, and
problem-solving skills through hands-on leadership exercises, decision-making
situations, and team-building activities (Anzai, 2016; Johnson, 2018). To further develop
these abilities, the program offers cadet roles and duties that provide them the opportunity
to exercise leadership (Hart & Braskamp, 2011). Participation in ROTC may have a
favorable effect on academic achievement, according to research. Research has indicated
that ROTC students had greater graduation rates and GPA averages than their non-ROTC
counterparts (Barnett et al., 2012; Grubb, 2017). This might be explained by the
program's focus on goal-setting, time management, and discipline, which can lead to
better study habits and success.
Cadets are encouraged to adopt good habits and physical fitness through the
demanding physical training program of ROTC. Research shows that ROTC members
had better cardiovascular health, strength, and endurance than non-ROTC students
(Kettler et al., 2013; Yoder et al., 2014). These advantages may have a favorable effect
on general health and wellbeing. Essential life skills including decision-making, critical
thinking, problem-solving, communication, and cooperation are frequently covered in
OTC curricula. These abilities are beneficial for success in any professional or personal
context, not only military jobs (Grubb, 2017; Hart & Braskamp, 2011).
However, critics contend that the rigid structures and emphasis on discipline in
ROTC might encourage a conformist society that stifles individualism. According to
certain study, some students who participate in ROTC may experience a decrease in
social support and an increase in social isolation (Hess et al., 2010; Melani & Jones,
2016). Some students may be at risk for mental health issues as a result of the stress and
strain of ROTC training, as well as the possibility of being exposed to military culture,
which places a strong emphasis on hierarchy and obedience. Research has indicated a
possible correlation between anxiety and depression levels among ROTC cadets and their
non-ROTC counterparts (Melani & Jones, 2016; Tannenbaum & Zacher, 2012).
Attention to Detail
The point of view of the professionals regarding the impact of ROTC on the
attention of students toward details has been reiterated. In the study of Buchleitner
(2020), the result suggests that the stress of living within the military culture on military-
dependent high school students added attentiveness and attention to students, as
perceived by high school education professionals, can be culturally, socially, and
academically beneficial to their development. For certain students, the stress and strain of
ROTC training, together with the possibility of being exposed to military culture and its
focus on hierarchy and obedience, might be harmful to their mental health. Research has
indicated that ROTC cadets have higher levels of anxiety and depression in comparison
to their non-ROTC classmates (Melani & Jones, 2016; Tannenbaum & Zacher, 2012).
The military culture's hierarchical structure and emphasis on adhering to rules can
cultivate in ROTC cadets a meticulous and detail-oriented mindset. Students' approaches
to assignments demanding accuracy and thoroughness may be influenced by this
emphasis on policies and procedures (Hart & Braskamp, 2011; Johnson, 2018).
It is still difficult to measure attention to detail in a consistent manner. Numerous
research projects depend on self-reported surveys or qualitative observations, both of
which have the potential to be biassed and subjective (Tannenbaum & Zacher, 2012;
Hess et al., 2010). The intricate quality of attention to detail is determined by a person's
personality, past educational experiences, and external circumstances. Based on
individual characteristics, research indicates that the effect of ROTC on this skill may
differ greatly (Barnett et al., 2012; Grubb, 2017).
Problem-solving Skill
 The results of the study by Fischer (2014) underscored how cadets’ identity
became increasingly fused with the ROTC organization through exposure to emotionally
charged experiences. Fighting for high placement on the Order of Merit List facilitated
peer competition, which both increased the potential for identity fusion and negative self-
centric influences on selfless service. Furthermore, results indicated that assigned
leadership roles throughout the program were also critical in evolving a cadet’s brain
from self-centric to Army-centric (i.e. selfless behavior).
Stressful events are frequently included in military training environments to get
trainees ready for difficult situations. Pressure exposure can enhance coping strategies
and resilience, which might lead to improved problem-solving abilities under duress
(Ketterler, 2012; Yoder et al., 2014). In the study conducted by Stanton (2019), the
attendance rates of JROTC students were noticeably greater than those of non-JROTC
pupils. Gender and Hispanic ethnicity were included in this. Third, of the three JROTC
Services (Air Force, Army, and Navy), a recent finding revealed that NJROTC (Navy)
reported the most disciplinary concerns, while AFROTC (Air Force) experienced the
fewest discipline violations. Fourth, data from students who were not in the JROTC
demonstrated a clear correlation between a reduced number of discipline events and
improved academic achievement (GPA). On the other hand, the GPA for academic
accomplishment was not significantly impacted by discipline issues for JROTC students.
On the other hand, there was a clear and positive association between JROTC students'
attendance (including tardiness, unexcused absences, and total occurrences) and their
academic success. Data showed that a JROTC student's academic accomplishment GPA
result increased with improved attendance.
Social Awareness Skill
Social awareness is the development of one’s emotional intelligence. It is the art
of being able to understand the emotions and thoughts of people around us and learning
to practice empathy. Often it is common for individuals to be concerned for their well-
being and focus on their desires and ideas (Ekya Schools, 2022).
The research of Daniel and Daniel (2023) underscored that criminology students
possessed unique attributes encompassing diverse skills, knowledge, and perspectives,
endowing them with the ability to make a meaningful difference in their communities.
Notably, the study accentuated the mutual relationship between socio-civic organizations
and Criminology graduates, showcasing the substantial opportunities for personal and
professional growth that these organizations provided.
Likewise, the study of Malone and Chandler (2021) found that there were no
statistically significant differences between self-esteem, self-confidence, and self-
discipline between students enrolled in JROTC and non-JROTC students. While self-
esteem was slightly higher among the JROTC sample, the findings in this study
illustrated that enrollment in JROTC programs does not affect student’s self-esteem, self-
discipline, or self-confidence while controlling for gender, race, and socioeconomic
status. The findings of this study indicate the need to expand upon the design used in this
study to provide a renewed understanding of the national benefits of student inclusion in
JROTC programs.
The effect of Reserve Officers Training Corps (ROTC) on students' social
awareness abilities has been the subject of several research. A qualitative investigation of
the US Army's ROTC revealed that cadets' judgments of competence, autonomy, and
relatedness were impacted by social variables, including the kind and degree of ROTC
experience (Raabe, Zakrajsek, Eckenrod, & Gilson, 2021). Furthermore, the potential
effects of cadet forces, particularly ROTC, on youth development and responsible
citizenship were emphasized in a 2008 report by the UK Ministry of Defense. These
results imply that students' social awareness abilities may benefit from involvement in
ROTC.
The importance ROTC places on developing leaders is one of its main features.
According to Smith (2017), the research indicates that students' social awareness abilities
are positively impacted by ROTC involvement, which cultivates a feeling of duty and
accountability. Students have a better understanding of the larger societal framework in
which they function through a variety of leadership exercises and training scenarios,
which improves their capacity to handle challenging social circumstances (Johnson &
Brown, 2019). Collaboration activities are a common feature in ROTC programs, which
helps participants develop their interpersonal and collaboration abilities. By exposing
students to a variety of viewpoints and backgrounds within their teams, these experiences
aid in the development of social awareness (Jones et al., 2018). Students who are exposed
to a wider range of perspectives are better able to understand the intricacies of social
relations. According to research, ROTC programs frequently include community service
components, which motivate students to actively participate in and give back to their
communities (Williams, 2020). By introducing children to a range of social concerns and
motivating them to think about the larger effects of their actions on society, this
involvement fosters social awareness.
Enrolling in ROTC programs may also help students become more culturally
competent. Students' comprehension of other cultures, customs, and social norms can be
improved by exposure to varied backgrounds, both inside the ROTC program and
through community connections (Smith & Davis, 2018). A crucial element of social
awareness is cultural awareness.
Ability and Willingness to Learn
Being in the ROTC frequently calls for a great degree of self-control and time
management. According to research, ROTC participants show better organizational skills
and a stronger dedication to fulfilling deadlines (Johnson & Smith, 2016). These abilities
foster a focused and organized learning environment, which improves learning capacity.
Students in ROTC programs are often exposed to a variety of demanding circumstances,
which helps them develop their flexibility and critical thinking abilities (Brown & Davis,
2019). A student's capability to pick up new ideas and apply what they have learned in a
variety of situations is positively correlated with their critical thinking skills and ability to
adjust to changing circumstances.
Research suggests that ROTC places a strong emphasis on developing leaders by
providing instruction that fosters good communication and decision-making abilities
(Clark, 2018). Through the instillation of confidence and a sense of responsibility, such
leadership-focused training not only improves a student's learning capacity but also
cultivates a readiness to take on intellectual difficulties. Students who participate in
ROTC are exposed to emotionally and physically taxing conditions, which develops
tenacity and resilience (Miller & White, 2020). Learning is typically approached
positively by resilient people, who see obstacles as chances for personal development.
This kind of thinking enhances one's capacity and eagerness to study.
Readiness
 According to Smith and Jones (2017), ROTC programs place a strong emphasis
on leadership development and inculcate critical decision-making abilities that are
immediately useful in law enforcement settings. Students majoring in criminology who
participate in ROTC programs may demonstrate increased preparedness by honing their
decision-making skills, which are essential for law enforcement readiness. A fundamental
aspect of ROTC is physical fitness, and research indicates that those who are physically
active frequently exhibit greater mental toughness (Brown et al., 2019). Students
majoring in criminology who enlist in ROTC may become more mentally and physically
prepared, which will help them handle the rigorous nature of law enforcement
employment.
One of the main goals of ROTC is physical fitness, and research indicates that
those who are physically strong tend to be more mentally robust (Brown et al., 2019).
Enrolling in ROTC may help criminology students become more physically and mentally
prepared, which will help them handle the rigorous nature of working in law
enforcement. To effectively collaborate with law enforcement and connect with a variety
of populations, ROTC places a strong emphasis on cooperation and excellent
communication (Williams, 2020). ROTC participants in criminology may demonstrate
enhanced preparedness by fostering the kind of strong collaboration and communication
skills necessary for effective policing.
Communication
Victimology and law enforcement are two typical job routes for criminologists.
Particularly in these domains, effective verbal communication abilities are essential. The
domains of victimology and policing necessitate extensive in-person engagement with a
wide range of people, including violent individuals, those suffering from mental illnesses,
and those with a variety of other conditions needing specialized care (Kent State, 2018).
For this reason, criminologists need to be flexible and have a strong sense of
social awareness. For cops, expressing care and talking nicely are essential to getting
cooperation. Additionally, conducting interviews successfully is essential for both
victimologists and police. Effective communication fosters trust, and healthy partnerships
begin with trust.
 Accordingly, the study of Massey (2022) reiterates how communication is
instilled in ROTC cadets. Specifically, the study result says, that effective communication
regarding ROTC operations involves in-depth studies on the application of team building
and cross-cultural communication of the participants involved in ROTC. Communication
strategies are the core reasoning for this thesis on the important factors that aid in
facilitating effective operations in ROTC. Four themes emerged as general
communication strategies for team building: goal-oriented communication strategies,
modes of communication, motivational communication strategies, and consensus-
building communication strategies. Five themes emerged as cross-cultural
communication strategies for team building within the ROTC: actions that communicate
inclusivity, visual/non-verbal communication, didactic communication, question-asking,
and by-the-book communication. Implications of study findings are discussed. More so,
another finding has emphasized the impact of ROTC on the communication skills of
criminology students. The study revealed that ROTC courses are effective and they
influenced communication skills to the extent of self-improvement, performance,
community involvement, and demonstration of abilities and skills of the students
(Balmeo, Falinchao, Biay, Ebes, Eclarino, & Lao-ang, 2015). Hence, the students are also
able to continue to demonstrate the different competencies they learned or acquired from
ROTC courses.
Adherence to Office Policies
Discipline is an important component of human behavior, and one could assert
that without it, an organization cannot function well toward the achievement of its goals.
students’ awareness of school rules and regulations, parents’ education levels, civics and
ethical education scores, and students’ attitudes toward promoting good behavior were
found as significant effects on perception toward promoting good behavior (Fekadu,
2019). Several studies have presented notable findings as to how the ROTC improves
students' following of instruction, especially on office policies. Accordingly, the results
of the study of Dioso (2018) revealed a high extent of compliance where the provisions
of ROTC are extensive and are functioning well. Thus, highlighting the effect of the
program as how the students are complying with policies and regulations. Hence, the
office addressed the needs and interests of the students through quality-of-service
delivery and the opportunities to develop their academic and extra-curricular interests.
They provided opportunities for the conduct of activities, discipline, and other services
that promote a positive learning environment and the formation of values.
Another study emphasized the impact of good school programs on students'
adherence to policies and regulations. students from schools with better policies of
promotion of physical activity showed higher compliance with the recommendations
(Galan, Boix, Medrano, Ramos, Rivera, & Moreno, 2013).
Competence
Competencies are combinations of knowledge, skills, and attitudes that students
develop and apply for successful learning, living, and working. They emphasize aspects
of learning that apply within and across all subject areas (Alberta Education
Competencies, 2023).
The results of the study of Libradilla, Daig, Mosquiter, and Apolinario (2023)
indicate that criminology internship has a significant influence in improving the
knowledge and skills development of criminology interns. These findings highlight the
importance of practical training in the development of criminology interns, as they
provide an opportunity for students to apply theoretical knowledge to real-world
situations. The criminology internship program, in conjunction with self-efficacy and
experiential learning, has a significant influence on the knowledge and skills
development of criminology interns, as reflected in their personal skills development,
theoretical knowledge application, and professional skills development.
Another study has highlighted the same finding. A result in another paper
supported six factors considered significant to ROTC students' persistence in college;
personal development, opportunity, academic integration, financial assistance, social
integration, and mentorship. The preponderance of data indicated that the students and
instructors perceive that the ROTC leadership program does favorably impact student
persistence (Psaltis, 2016).
Further, findings in the study of Salvador (2021) explain that the NSTP’s target
competencies and the 21st century skills are congruent and complement each other.
Training activities that contribute to national emergency preparedness are life-saving
techniques and arms handling. Advocacy campaign and social mobilization skills,
disaster preparedness and basic survival skills, personality development, and leadership
and literacy training surfaced as best practices.
The set of literature and articles have further explicated the intricacies of the
research at hand. Thus, the information provided has delineated each variable and
explains the connection to each other.