QUASI-STATIC AND IMPACT TESTING ON WELDED METALLIC

STRUCTURES BY USING SHOCK TUBE

A project report submitted

in partial fulfilment of the

requirement for the degree of

Masters Research

By

SAURAV KUMAR

Roll no. 214357008

Under supervision

Prof. R Ganesh Narayanan

Centre for Disaster Management & Research

Indian Institute of Technology Guwahati
Guwahati – 781039, Assam, India
June 2023
i
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the Master’s project report with the title “QUASI-
STATIC AND IMPACT TESTING ON METALLIC WELDED STRUCTURES”,
submitted by Mr SAURAV KUMAR, Roll No.: 214357008 to the Indian Institute of
Technology Guwahati, for the award of the degree of Master’s Research in the
Department of Centre for Disaster Management and Research Engineering is a research
work carried out under my supervision & guidance. The project work, in my opinion, has
reached the requisite standard fulfilling the requirement for the degree in Master’s
Research. The results contained in this report have not been submitted in part or full to
any other University or Institute for the award of any degree or diploma.

Prof. R. Ganesh Narayanan

Mechanical Engineering
IIT Guwahati
Date-1/06/23
Place- Guwahati

ii
 DECLARATION

This Master’s project report on “QUASI-STATIC AND IMPACT

TESTING ON WELDED METALLIC STRUCTURES BY USING SHOCK
TUBE” is based on the original results. The author has acknowledged the sources
from where the data has been obtained for a detailed explanation of the topic. The
author declares that plagiarism has been completely avoided while preparing this
report.

SAURAV KUMAR
Roll no. 214357008
Centre for Disaster Management and Research
IIT GUWAHATI

iii
Dedicated to My Parents

iv
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First and foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude and respect to Professor R.
Ganesh Narayanan sir, Department of Mechanical Engineering, IIT Guwahati, India, for his
unwavering leadership, unflagging support, and unwavering cooperation throughout the
project. His strategies, outlook, and zeal have always served as a steady source of inspiration
and encouragement for me. This project would not have been successful without his oversight
and guidance.

I am extremely grateful to Professor Sudip Mitra sir (HOC, Centre for Disaster Management
and Research), Professor Sougata Karmakar (former CPPC Secretary, Centre for Disaster
Management and Research), and Professor Sandip Das sir (current CPPC Secretary, Centre for
Disaster Management and Research) for allowing me to use the Centre's research facilities. I
am also grateful to all of the teaching members, technical/non-technical employees, and
research scholars of IIT Guwahati's Centre for Disaster Management and Research for their
unwavering collaboration and support throughout the entire course of work.

My heartfelt gratitude goes to my family members, who have been supportive from the start of
my master's journey.

Furthermore, the Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD), Government of India,

assisted me with the fundamental financial requirements for master's students, for which I am
grateful.

v
 ABSTRACT

This project aimed to investigate the effect of various material processing parameters on the
deformation of two different sheet metals i.e. (AA5052 H-32 and SS304), mechanical
properties and failure behaviour of lap joints formed by friction stir spot welding (FSSW) on
dog-bone-shaped specimens made of AA5052 H32 and SS304 materials. Tensile tests were
conducted on the individual specimens to determine their tensile strength and maximum
extension. The lap joints were formed using FSSW at different rotational speeds (612 rpm, 750
rpm, 900 rpm, and 1200 rpm). Subsequently, the lap shear joints were subjected to tensile
testing to measure the maximum fracture load and maximum extension at the fracture load.

The analysis focused on three types of failure observed in the lap joints: partial bond
delamination, tear-off, and pull-out. To examine the joint morphology and assess its
mechanical properties, the lap-welded joint's cross-section was cut using wire-cut electric
discharge machining. Cold-setting material was then used to mould the cut cross-section,
enabling microscopic analysis and Vickers hardness testing across the joint's cross-section.

Additionally, 12 samples measuring 200*200 square mm were prepared by joining aluminium

alloy and stainless steel sheets using FSSW at the four different rotational speeds mentioned
earlier. These samples were subjected to shock tube-based tests to determine the strain at the
welded joint under varying pressure differences. The strain data was obtained by analysing the
voltage signal captured by a pressure transducer and piezo vibration sensor, which were
connected to an oscilloscope.

Furthermore, the failure of the welded joint under the impact load generated by a nylon striker
was observed to evaluate its performance in real-world scenarios. By analysing the obtained
data and observing the joint's behaviour under various test conditions, this project aimed to
enhance the understanding of lap joint characteristics, failure modes, and mechanical properties
when subjected to tensile and impact loads.

vi
 ABBREVIATIONS

FSW Friction Stir Welding

FSSW Friction Stir Spot Welding

P-FSSW Probeless Friction Stir Spot Welding

RFSSW Refill Friction Stir Spot Welding

PD Plunge Depth

SZ Stir Zone

TMAZ Thermo-mechanically affected zone

HA Hook Angle

SEA Stir Zone Edge Angle

HDPE High-Density Polyethylene

SHPB Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar

PMMA Polymethyl Methacrylate

IMC Intermetallic Compound

PAZ Part Affected Zone

SAZ Surrounding Affected Zone

EDS Energy-Dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy

HAZ Heat Affected Zone

FSP Friction Stir Processing

MQL Minimum Quantity Lubrication

HSM High-Speed Machining

SEM Scanning Electron Microscope

vii
 NOMENCLATURE

Ms Mach Number

n Ratio of Hook Height to sheet thickness

m Ratio of Hook width to sheet thickness

Di Initial Diameter

Df Final Diameter

𝜺𝒆𝒙𝒑 Experimental Strain

𝜺𝒑 Peak Strain (piezo vibration sensor)

𝜸 Ratios specific heat capacity

viii
 CONTENTS
CERTIFICATE ..........................................................................................................................ii

DECLARATION ..................................................................................................................... iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ......................................................................................................... v

ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................................. vi

ABBREVIATIONS .................................................................................................................vii

NOMENCLATURE .............................................................................................................. viii

LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................xii

LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................... xv

Chapter 1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1

1.1 Background to Friction..................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Friction Stir Welding........................................................................................................ 1

1.3 Friction Stir spot welding process .................................................................................... 2

1.3.1 List of Components in FSSW .................................................................................... 2

1.3.2 Machine Tool ............................................................................................................. 3

1.4 Welded Structure Condition ............................................................................................. 3

1.4.1 Material Required for Welded Structure ................................................................... 3

1.4.2 Welded Joint Requirement ........................................................................................ 4

1.5 Stages of Friction Stir Forming ........................................................................................ 5

1.6 Shock Tube-Based Forming ............................................................................................. 5

1.6.1 Working Construction ............................................................................................... 5

1.6.2 Working Principle...................................................................................................... 5

1.6.3 Shock tube-based experimental facility..................................................................... 7

1.6.4 Advantage of Shock Tube Forming [5] [6]................................................................. 10

1.6.5 Limitations of Shock Tube Forming [8] ................................................................... 11

1.6.6 Application of Shock Tube ...................................................................................... 11

1.7 Motivation and Objective of the Work. ......................................................................... 11

ix
Chapter 2. Literature Review ................................................................................................... 14

2.1 Friction stir forming with the influence of rotational speed, performance and failure. . 14

2.2 Formability and failure response during the shock tube-based impact forming. ........... 20

2.3 Fracture analysis and the effect of High-strain rate response on the composite material.
.............................................................................................................................................. 24

Chapter 3. Experimental Methodology .................................................................................... 32

3.1 Working Principle of Joining the welded joint. ............................................................. 32

3.2 Experimental Procedure. ................................................................................................ 32

3.2.1 Selection of machining tool (tool steel) for FSSW.................................................. 32

3.2.2 Machine Tool Design. ............................................................................................. 34

3.2.3 The Base Plate's Hemispherical Hollow is Being Prepared. ................................... 34

3.2.4 Die sinking EDM S 50 ZNC Machine, (Make: Sparkonix (India) pvt.) ................. 35

3.2.5 Specimen Discripcription ........................................................................................ 37

3.2.6 Experimental Setup.................................................................................................. 38

3.3 Tensile Strength Testing Sample and its Results. .......................................................... 39

3.3.1 Tensile test sample in 0◦ Rolling Direction. ............................................................ 39

3.3.2 Tensile Test Result. ................................................................................................. 41

3.4 Lap Shear Test and its Result. ........................................................................................ 44

3.4.1 Lap Shear Sample at Different Rotational Speed .................................................... 46

3.4.2 Lap Shear Sample Failure Analyses. ....................................................................... 47

3.4.3 Lap Shear Test Results. ........................................................................................... 49

3.4.4 Vickers Hardness Test of Cross Section of Welded Joint. ...................................... 50

3.4.5 Morphological Feature of FSF Joint Cross Section................................................. 52

3.4.6 Location of Failure at Different Rotational Speeds. ................................................ 56

3.5 Shock Tube-Based Test. ................................................................................................. 60

3.5.1 Shock Tube-Based by Using 1Mylar Sheet (0.1mm). ............................................. 60

3.5.2 Shock Tube-Based Test by Using 1Mylar Sheet (0.2mm). ..................................... 64

x
 3.5.3 Shock Tube-Based Test by Using 2Mylar sheets (each of 0.1mm). ....................... 68

3.5.4 Modes of Failure of Welded Joint Sheets. ............................................................... 71

Chapter 4 Conclusions and Scope of Future Work .................................................................. 74

4.1 Conclusions .................................................................................................................... 74

4.2 Scope of Future Work .................................................................................................... 75

References ................................................................................................................................ 76

xi
 LIST OF FIGURES

Fig. 1. 1 Illustrate the Component FSSW Machine ................................................................... 2

Fig. 1. 2 Machine Tool, Top view ............................................................................................. 3

Fig. 1. 3 Machine Tool, Side View ............................................................................................ 3

Fig. 1. 4 Lap configuration Illustrated ....................................................................................... 4

Fig. 1. 5 Different Stages of Forming process (not in Scale) .................................................... 5

Fig. 1. 6 Working Principle of Shock tube ................................................................................ 6

Fig. 1. 7 Shock Tube facility used during the experiments ....................................................... 8

Fig. 1. 8 Position of Pressure Transducers ................................................................................. 9

Fig. 1. 9 Position of Peizo-Vibration sensor placed near the pin joints ..................................... 9

Fig. 1. 10 Experimental setup for shock tube forming with the location of nylon striker ....... 10

Fig. 3. 1 Dimension of Machining Tool for FSSW ................................................................. 34

Fig. 3. 2 Die Sinking EDM (producing hemispherical cavity) ................................................ 35

Fig. 3. 3 Location of the hemispherical Cavity (not in scale) .................................................. 37

Fig. 3. 4 Experimental Setup for Performing (FSSW)............................................................. 39

Fig. 3. 5 Different Rolling Direction ....................................................................................... 40

Fig. 3. 6 Aluminium Alloy (AA5052 H-32) ............................................................................ 41

Fig. 3. 7 Stainless Steel (SS304) .............................................................................................. 41

Fig. 3. 8 250KN Servo-hydraulic Universal testing machine (UTM) ..................................... 42

Fig. 3. 9 Aluminium Alloy (AA5052 H-32) After Tensile Test .............................................. 42

Fig. 3. 10 Stainless Steel (SS304) after the Tensile Test ......................................................... 43

Fig. 3. 11 Aluminium Alloy Tensile Test, Load vs Extension plots ....................................... 43

Fig. 3. 12 Stainless Steel Tensile Test plot, Load vs Extension .............................................. 44

Fig. 3. 13 lap Shear Configuration of Al and Steel .................................................................. 45

xii
Fig. 3. 14 Eight Sample of Lap joint before lap shear test....................................................... 46

Fig. 3. 15 Trial-1 Lap shear tested sample .............................................................................. 47

Fig. 3. 16 Trial-2 Lap shear tested sample ............................................................................... 47

Fig. 3. 17 Load Variation vs Elongation at Different Rotational Speed .................................. 49

Fig. 3. 18 Performance of Lap Shear Test between Fracture Load vs Rotational Speed ........ 49

Fig. 3. 19 Cross-section cut of welded joints ........................................................................... 50

Fig. 3. 20 Location of Indentation by diamond shape pyramid having a square base ............. 50

Fig. 3. 21 VHN (hardness variation across the joints) ............................................................. 51

Fig. 3. 22 Morphological Feature, which describe the location (SW, BW, PW, PH) ............. 52

Fig. 3. 23 Morphological feature, which describe the location(USFW, USFH, FPD, SST) ... 52

Fig. 3. 24 Dimensional analyses of Morphological feature ..................................................... 53

Fig. 3. 25 Geometric Dimension of joints at RS-612 rpm ....................................................... 54

Fig. 3. 26 Geometric Dimension of Joints at RS-750 rpm....................................................... 54

Fig. 3. 27 Geometric Dimension of Joints at RS-900 rpm....................................................... 54

Fig. 3. 28 Geometric Dimension of Joints at RS-1200 rpm..................................................... 55

Fig. 3. 29 Failure Region of joints at RS-612 rpm .................................................................. 57

Fig. 3. 30 Failure surface of Top and Bottom of the Sheet metals .......................................... 57

Fig. 3. 31 Failure Region of Joints at RS-750 rpm .................................................................. 58

Fig. 3. 32 Failure Surface of Top and Bottom of the Sheet Metals ......................................... 58

Fig. 3. 33 Failure Region of Joints at RS-900 rpm .................................................................. 58

Fig. 3. 34 Failure Surface of Top and Bottom of the Sheet Metal ........................................... 58

Fig. 3. 35 Failure Region of Joints at RS-1200 rpm ................................................................ 59

Fig. 3. 36 Failure Surface of Top and Bottom of the Sheet Metals ......................................... 59

Fig. 3. 37 Pressure time histories of Incident and Reflected Wave ......................................... 60

Fig. 3. 38 variation of micro-strain vs whole process time (by Piezo-vibration sensor) ......... 62

Fig. 3. 39 Comparison of Peak strain and Experimental strain ............................................... 63

xiii
Fig. 3. 40 Top and bottom face of sheets after deformation (1mylar 0.1 mm) ........................ 64

Fig. 3. 41 Pressure time histories of Incident and Reflected Wave ......................................... 65

Fig. 3. 42 variation of micro-strain vs whole process time (by Piezo-vibration sensor) ......... 66

Fig. 3. 43 Comparison of Peak strain and Experimental strain ............................................... 67

Fig. 3. 44 Top and Bottom face of sheets after deformation 1mylar (0.2 mm) ....................... 67

Fig. 3. 45 Pressure time histories of Incident and Reflected Wave ......................................... 68

Fig. 3. 46 Experimental strain at Different Rotational Speed .................................................. 70

Fig. 3. 47 Top and Bottom face of sheets after deformation (2-Mylar each 0.1 mm) ............. 70

Fig. 3. 48 Failure Surface of Top and Bottom of sheet metal at RS-612 rpm ......................... 71

Fig. 3. 49 Failure Surface of Top and Bottom of sheet metal at RS-750 rpm ......................... 72

Fig. 3. 50 Failure Surface of Top and Bottom of sheet metal at RS-900 rpm ......................... 72

Fig. 3. 51 Failure Surface of Top and Bottom of sheet metal at RS-900 rpm ......................... 73

xiv
 LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. 1 Average pressure, Velocity, and Mach number...................................................... 10

Table 3. 1 Chemical Composition of Machining Tool for FSSW (% Wt) .............................. 33

Table 3. 2 Detail of the Base Plate ........................................................................................... 36

Table 3. 3 Chemical Composition of AA5052 H-32 (% Wt) .................................................. 37

Table 3. 4 Chemical Composition of SS304 (% Wt) ............................................................... 37

Table 3. 5 Dimensional features of sheet metal ....................................................................... 38

Table 3. 6 Comparison between AA5052 H-32 and SS304 .................................................... 44

Table 3. 7 Modes of failure in Lap shear test .......................................................................... 48

Table 3. 8 Measured Value of Morphological features on FSSW joints cross-section ........... 55

Table 3. 9 Pressure , velocity and Mach number calculation from observed data .................. 61

Table 3. 10 Effect of strain and dome height by using 1mylar sheet of 0.1 mm ..................... 61

Table 3. 11 Effect of strain and dome height by using 1mylar sheet (0.2mm) ........................ 65

Table 3. 12 Effect of experimental strain and dome height by using 2mylar sheets (each of
0.1mm).............................................................................................................................. 68

xv
 Chapter 1. Introduction

1.1 Background to Friction

Although knowledge of friction dates back to antiquity, the use of frictional heat for solid-
phase joining and forming techniques have only been extant over the last century.

Friction was first studied around 1500 AD by Leonardo da Vinci, and more specifically by
Amontons (1699) who postulated that the coefficient of dry friction is independent of the
contact area, the speed of motion, and the applied load. However, beyond normal limits,
Coulomb (1779) found that with increased load the coefficient of friction increased and that it
was also dependent on the speed of motion.

In friction joining and forming, the process is more related to a fluid layer of high viscosity
between solid components in relative motion and under significant compressive loading. The
thixotropic properties and the fluid flow features that occur in conventional friction welding
[1]
have been reported . In some respect, the science of friction processes is probably more
closely allied to that of rheology.

1.2 Friction Stir Welding

Friction stir welding was first patented by TWI in 1991, and since that time there has been
widespread interest in the technology.

A growing number of reports have been published that generally confirm that FSW offers a
number of uses. technical advantages for an ever-increasing range of materials. The technology
surrounding the overall tool geometry (probe, shoulder profiles), and the tool attitude have been
reported to be the heart of the FSW technique.

Operating FSW underwater provides an increased cooling rate, leading to a reduced heat-
affected zone and consequent improvement in the properties of some materials [2].

The use of fluid and/or air coolants applied externally, or through internal spaces within, the
tool has been claimed to improve traverse rates by 20-100% over that achieved without cooling
[3]
.

1
 1.3 Friction Stir spot welding process
In friction stir spot welding (as shown in Figure 1), individual spot welds are created by
pressing a rotating tool with high force onto the top surface of two sheets that overlap each
other in the lap joint. The frictional heat and the high pressure plastify the workpiece material
so that the tool plunges into the joint area between the two sheets and stirs up the oxides. The
tool is plunged into the sheets until the shoulder is in contact with the surface of the top sheet.
The shoulder applies a high forging pressure, which bonds the components metallurgically
without melting.

After a short dwell time, the tool is pulled out of the workpiece again so that a spot weld can
be made about every 5 seconds.

Machine tool spindle

Clamp

Operating Panel

Feed Mechanism
Machine Tool Motor
Machine table

Fig. 1. 1 Illustrate the Component FSSW Machine

1.3.1 List of Components in FSSW

 Machine Tool Motor
 Machine Tool Spindle
 Machine Tool
 Clamp
 Machine Table
 Feed Mechanism
2
  Operating Panel

1.3.2 Machine Tool

The tool (as depicted in Figures 1.2 and 1.3) has a spinning shank and shoulder without a pin.
The tool's shoulder section pierces the materials. The shoulder may be shaped to effectively
break up and spread the oxide skins on the surrounding surfaces as well as to push the
plasticized material in a z-axis direction. When employing one-piece tools, which have
previously proven to be extremely dependable in the automobile and rail vehicle industries, a
hole is left once the tool is retracted. [4]

The spinning tool is frequently encircled by a non-rotating clamping ring with which the
workpiece is clamped tightly against each other before and during welding. The clamping ring
can also be utilised to prevent the creation of burrs or beads by reducing the pressing out of
plasticized material. The rotational speed of the tool, the contact pressure, and the plunge depth
are crucial factors in friction stir spot welding. The welded junction is produced as a result.
Nowadays, spot welding guns can be controlled by force control, position control, or a product-
specific programmed force-displacement control.

Fig. 1. 2Figure:-
Machine1.3.3
Tool, Top view
Fig. 1. 3 Machine Tool, Side View

1.4 Welded Structure Condition

1.4.1 Material Required for Welded Structure
 Machine Tool (Tool Steel).
 Anvil (Base Plate of Mild steel machined to produce Hemispherical Cavity of
3.42mm of diameter and 0.645mm of depth at the centre, 1.5mm thickness,
200*200 mm2).
 Aluminium sheet (AA5052-H32 of 1.5mm thickness, 200*200 mm2).

3
  Stainless Steel (ASME SA240 Grade 304) drilled 2.5mm diameter through the
hole at the centre of the plate, 1.5mm thickness and 200*200 mm2.

1.4.2 Welded Joint Requirement

 Anvil (base plate) is placed at the bottom of the plate arrangement in a lap
configuration (as depicted in Figure 4), followed by stainless steel sheet metal
above the base plate, and finally aluminium (AA5052-H32) sheet metal above
the SS304.
 The SS304 plate hole, AA5052-H32 plate, and base plate (MS) cavity are all
properly aligned.
 The hemispherical diameter of the base plate (MS) is higher than the hole
diameter on SS304 (this causes the joint to interlock).

Dbase plate (MS) > Dpre-drilled hole (SS304)

Fig. 1. 4 Lap configuration Illustrated

Fig. 1. 4 Two sheets are arranged in such a way that the lower sheet has a pre-drilled hole that
is in line with the hemispherical cavity in the anvil.

4
1.5 Stages of Friction Stir Forming

Fig. 1. 5 Different Stages of Forming process (not in Scale)

Fig. 1.5 At four different rotational speeds, a friction stir spot weld (FSSW) is created, with
three welded joints at each speed. Stage 1, depicts the positioning of two separate sheets
(aluminium alloy and stainless steel) above the Anvil. Stage 2, As the rotating tool moves
downward, the tool and upper sheet come into contact, plasticizing the upper and lower sheets
and allowing the plunge depth joint to be produced. A large volume of material settles in the
Anvil's hemispherical cavity. Stage 3, is retracing back to the initial position after fabricating
the spot joint tool. As a result, the interlocking joint illustrated above is created.

1.6 Shock Tube-Based Forming

1.6.1 Working Construction
The shock tube is a piece of lab equipment that has two sections: the driver section,
which represents the high-pressure zone, and the driven section, which represents the low-
pressure region. A diaphragm made of Mylar sheets of various thicknesses separates the two
sections. A device called a shock tube produces high velocity, temperature, and pressure
conditions for a brief period of time through the creation of gas flow conditions. Two pressure
transducers are connected in the driven section, with the first transducer situated at 250 mm
and the second at 500 mm apart. Welded sheets are set at the shock tube's end.

1.6.2 Working Principle

A shock tube is a device made up of a long rigid cylinder that is split into two sections a high-
pressure driver section and a low-pressure driver section as shown in Fig. 1.10. A diaphragm
made of a metal sheet or layers of Mylar sheets separates the two portions. The diaphragm
ruptures when the pressure difference between the driver and driven sections reaches a
threshold value, causing a rapid release of gas and it creates a shock wave inside the tube. It
propagates with a Mach number greater than one along the driven section. The incident

5
Pressure wave is sensed by the Pre-installed pressure transducer. The pressure variation inside
the shock tube is depicted schematically in Fig. 1.6, Several factors determine the size of the
shock wave Mach number (Ms). The Diaphragm's thickness (several layers of Mylar sheets are
employed) is the key determining element. The majority of investigations have taken into
consideration using constant layers of Mylar sheets to repeatedly produce the desired Mach
number magnitude. The gas utilised in the driver portion has an impact on the shock wave's
speed as well. The heavier gas, such as nitrogen (N2), moves more slowly through the tube
during an experiment, resulting in a lower Mach number (Ms=1.86), but the lighter gas, such
as helium (He), allows for a higher Mach number (Ms=2.5), at constant bursting pressure (21.87
bar).

Fig. 1. 6 Working Principle of Shock tube

Applying a vacuum before bursting across the driven part also causes the shock wave to move
more quickly than usual. A gas of high pressure and temperature is created behind the shock
wave as it travels. The equations describing the change in pressure and temperature with respect
to the speed of the shock wave are described below. [6]

Wright [7] outlined the conservation of energy, mass, and momentum, and the relationships for
pressure, temperature, and density across the shock wave front may be calculated using this
theory.
………………….. (a)
𝑃2 2𝛾𝑀12 − (𝛾 − 1)
=
𝑃1 (𝛾 + 1)
………………….. (b)
𝑇2 { 2𝛾𝑀12 − (𝛾 − 1)} ∗ {(𝛾 − 1)𝑀12 + 2}
=
𝑇1 (𝛾 + 1)2 ∗ 𝑀12
………………….. (c)
𝜌2 𝑀12
∗ (𝛾 + 1)
=
𝜌1 (𝛾 − 1) ∗ 𝑀12 + 2

6
Above relationship (a), (b), (c) in which P1, T1, 𝜌1 are the pressure, temperature and density
ahead of the shock wave front and P2, T2, 𝜌2 are the pressure, temperature and density behind
the shock wave front, 𝛾 is the adiabatic gas constant, and M1 is the Mach number of the shock
wave relative to the driven gas.

The nylon striker is placed just after the second transducer, Incident Pressure wave impinges
on the surface of the Nylon Striker due to that it moves at high velocity thus it strikes the welded
joint between the sheets after that nylon striker rebound like pressure wave i.e. Reflected wave,
it is again sensed by both pressure transducers. There is a piezo vibration sensor fixed at the
backside of the welded joint which gives the strain signal during the deformation in the x-y
direction. All the data Incident pressure wave, Reflected pressure wave and strain are in the
form of voltage signal which is displayed on the Oscilloscope, then the voltage signal is
multiplied by their sensitivity value to get the actual value.

1.6.3 Shock tube-based experimental facility

In a number of research, the shock tube has been used to carry out sheet metal forming
tests at moderate to high strain rates (20-850 s-1). It is a laboratory tool that can concurrently
produce high pressure (3–30 bar) and high velocity (400–700 m/s) conditions. The shock tube
has been introduced in various studies to conduct sheet metal forming experiments in moderate
to high ranges of strain rates (20 – 850 s-1). It is a laboratory device, which is capable of
generating high velocity (400 – 700 m/s), and pressure (3 – 30 bar) conditions simultaneously
[5]
. The basic working principle of the shock tube is discussed earlier in section (1.6.2). The
shock wave generated inside the shock tube travels down and when it imparts to the end, it
reflects and generates a higher pressure and temperature condition than the incident one. The
high-pressure field zone is created for a short duration of time, which induces impact loading
at the end of the shock tube. This impulsive environment can be utilized to assess the dynamic
behaviour of the material. It can replicate the standard bulge testing device to stretch the
material bi-axially and understand the variation in forming properties in a moderate to a higher
range of strain rates by using pressurized air instead of hydraulic fluid.

The specimen used in the current experiment, a flat plate having a measurement of 200*200
mm2, was so large that it was challenging to seal the shock tube's end. It mandates that tests be
carried out in the driving part under atmospheric pressure in an open environment. Due to its
low cost and availability, high-pressure nitrogen (N2) gas is utilised during the experiment as
the driver, while air is employed as the driven gas for all of the sets of tests. To produce a

7
pressure difference between the two parts, a diaphragm was made from thin Mylar sheets of
varying thicknesses (0.1 and 0.2mm). Fig. 1.7 depicts the experimental setup used for this
work.

Driven Section

Fig. 1. 7 Shock Tube facility used during the experiments

As shown in Fig. 1.7 the shock tube employed in this investigation has an overall length of 4
m and is divided into a 2 m driver part and a 2 m driven section. Both the driver and the driven
part have an inner diameter of 55 mm and a thickness of 10 mm. Through the experiment, three
different bursting pressures—5.75 0.3 bar, 7.89 0.3 bar, and 11.36 0.3 bar—are achieved by
rupturing 1 Mylar sheet of varying thicknesses (0.1 mm and 0.2 mm) and 2 Mylar sheet of 0.2
mm thickness. To measure the bursting pressure, a digital pressure gauge has been installed at
the driver portion.

As illustrated in Fig. 1.8 two pressure transducers (P1 and P2) with a sensitivity of 14.62
mV/bar are positioned 385 mm and 885 mm from the end of the shock tube, respectively. To
determine the incident pressure, reflected pressure, and shock Mach number (Ms) produced by
the tests. To determine the impulsive pressure felt by the specimen during shock loading. Fig.
1.9 depicts the pressure and strain histories obtained from the two pressure transducers and
piezo vibration sensor (to get strain data in the form of the voltage signal with a sensitivity of
“12mV/microstrain”) at three different experimental conditions. The signals from the two
pressure transducers and piezo vibration sensor (which is placed at the back of welded joint)

8
are processed through a signal conditioner (PCB Piezotronics Model 482C) and recorded by
the digital oscilloscope (Tektronix MDO 3024) having a maximum sampling rate of 2.5 GS/s.
Experiments are performed three times on four different specimens (welded joints are created
at four different rotational speeds) by using three different Mylar sheets. The average incident,
reflected pressure and shock Mach number (Ms) obtained during experiments which is
explained shock tube forming.

Fig. 1. 8 Position of Pressure Transducers

Fig. 1. 9 Position of Piezo-Vibration sensor placed near the pin joints

9
 Fig. 1. 10 Experimental setup for shock tube forming with the location of nylon striker

Table 1. 1 Average pressure, Velocity, and Mach number

Mylar sheets of Avg. Brusting Avg. Incident Avg. The velocity of Shock wave
different thickness Pressure (bar) Pressure (bar) Reflected Incident Mach number
Pressure pressure (m/s) (Ms)
(bar)

1mylar (0.1mm) 5.75 ± 0.3 2.094 4.691 500 1.457

1mylar (0.2mm) 7.89 ± 0.3 2.458 5.892 555.556 1.619

2mylar (0.1mm of 11.36 ± 0.3 2.826 7.349 625 1.823

each)

1.6.4 Advantage of Shock Tube Forming [5] [6]

 The shock tube capability makes it simple to use to examine the dynamic behaviour of
sheets and composite materials at moderate to high strain rates due to the consistency
in the loading and simplicity of handling.

10
  The deformation is caused by the pressure energy that was created as a result of the
shock wave's quick travel. Thus, it is possible to analyse the deformation behaviour of
both conductive and non-conductive materials under high strain rates.
 The inertial effect created by the impulsive loading situation greatly stretches the sheet
metal without strain localization. It produces more formability than traditional forming.
 The dynamic loading in the shock tube reduces the spring-back significantly in
comparison to conventional quasi-static forming operations. This simplifies the
problem related to the die design significantly.
 The procedure is safe for the environment and may be utilised as a dynamic loading
mechanism on laboratory scales if the necessary safety and precautions are followed.

1.6.5 Limitations of Shock Tube Forming [8]

 The repeatability of the shock tube experiments is not so accurate because of the use of
Mylar diaphragms. However, this error can be eliminated by mounting a quick opening
valve between the high-pressure driver section and low pressure-driven section.
 By increasing the capacity of the shock tube facility, sheets may be deformed up to
failure using shock wave-based forming. In addition, a large volume of driving gas and
a complex safety chamber may be required.
 During the experiment, the diaphragm breaking produces more noise.

1.6.6 Application of Shock Tube

The shock tube facility may be used in the lab and industry to study the dynamic
behaviour of sheets and composite materials. Furthermore, the insertion of a closed-end die at
the end of the shock tube can be advantageous in fabricating a low-cost and high-accuracy final
product.

1.7 Motivation and Objective of the Work.

The field of structural engineering plays a vital role in ensuring the safety and reliability
of various engineering applications. Welded metallic structures are extensively used in a wide
range of industries, including automotive, aerospace, and construction, due to their high
strength and structural integrity. The performance of these structures under impact loading
conditions is of paramount importance, as they may experience quasi-static impacts during
their service life, such as collisions, drop tests, or accidental loads.

11
One of the popular techniques for joining metallic structures is friction stir spot welding
(FSSW). This process offers several advantages over traditional welding methods, including
lower heat input, reduced distortion, and improved joint strength. However, despite its
widespread use, there is still a need for comprehensive studies to understand the quasi-static
impact behaviour of welded metallic structures prepared by FSSW.

The motivation behind this thesis is to address the knowledge gap regarding the response of
welded metallic structures to quasi-static impact loading. The impact behaviour of such
structures is highly complex and influenced by various factors, including material properties,
welding parameters, and joint geometry. The interaction between these factors and the resulting
structural response under quasi-static impact conditions is not yet fully understood.

To overcome this knowledge gap, this thesis proposes the utilization of shock tube experiments
to investigate the quasi-static impact behavior of welded metallic structures prepared by the
FSSW process. Shock tubes offer a controlled and reproducible environment for simulating
impact loading, allowing for accurate measurement and analysis of structural response. By
conducting a series of well-designed experiments, it will be possible to evaluate the effects of
welding parameters, joint geometry, and material properties on the structural performance of
the welded metallic structures.

The outcomes of this research will have significant implications for both academia and
industry. From an academic perspective, the findings will contribute to the understanding of
the quasi-static impact behaviour of welded metallic structures, providing valuable insights
into the underlying mechanisms governing their response. This knowledge can be incorporated
into advanced numerical models and simulation tools, enabling more accurate predictions of
structural behaviour under impact loading.

On an industrial level, the results of this research can be utilized to optimize the design and
manufacturing processes of welded metallic structures. Understanding the influence of FSSW
parameters on the impact resistance of these structures will enable engineers to make informed
decisions regarding joint design, material selection, and welding process optimization.
Ultimately, this can lead to the development of safer and more efficient welded structures for
a wide range of applications.

12
In conclusion, this thesis aims to investigate the quasi-static impact behaviour of welded
metallic structures prepared by the FSSW process using shock tube experiments. By bridging
the existing knowledge gap, the research outcomes will contribute to the field of structural
engineering, enabling improved design and manufacturing practices for welded structures.

13
 Chapter 2. Literature Review

This chapter gives a brief overview of research done by various researchers related to this topic.
In section 2.1 we learn about the influence of rotational speed, performance and failure of the
welded joint (FSSW) by performing different tests such as the Tensile test, Lap shear Test and
modes of failure analysis. In section 2.2 we learn about the deformation of welded joints plate
and the failure of joints by the action of the shock wave with a higher Mach number (Ms > 1).
In section 2.3 we learn about the effect of high strain rate response.

2.1 Friction stir forming with the influence of rotational speed,

performance and failure

Saju and Narayanan (2017) Friction stir forming (FSF) [9] is a welding technique that
does not involve melting and is considered environmentally friendly. It is commonly used to
join different types of sheet metal together. However, there is limited information available
about the process. This study aims to investigate the potential of FSF for joining dissimilar
grades of aluminium alloys. Specifically, it focuses on the impact of the tool's rotational speed
on the formation of joints and their mechanical performance. The researchers conducted
systematic experiments and analyzed the macrostructure of the joints. They also examined the
distribution of hardness, joint morphology, and failure modes at various rotational speeds. The
results indicate that the tool's rotational speed significantly affects the mechanical performance,
the formation of different zones within the joint, and the distribution of hardness. The study
achieved a maximum lap shear strength of approximately 6 kN, which is higher than what other
friction-based joining technologies can achieve with the same material combination. The best
rotational speeds for fabricating FSF joints with the materials used were found to be between
500 and 1500 rpm. The macrostructure analysis revealed that at lower rotational speeds (1500
rpm), a continuous stir zone was observed, while at medium rotational speeds (1500 rpm),
partitions within the stir zone were visible. At higher rotational speeds (>1500 rpm), localized
stir zones were distributed across the cross-section. The hardness profile of the friction stir-
formed samples exhibited an inverted "W" shape across the cross-section.

14
The Friction Stir Friction (FSF) technique works well for combining sheet metals of
comparable quality, such as AA 5052-H32 and AA 6061-T6. FSF produces a much greater lap
shear strength of 6.14 kN than other friction-based joining technologies such as friction stir
welding (FSW) and friction stir spot welding (FSSW). Mechanical performance investigation
revealed an upward or continuous trend in both fracture load and extensibility when tool
rotational speed rose from 500 to 1500 rpm. However, a downward trend is observed when the
tool rotational speed is further increased from 1500 to 3000 rpm. As shown, the plasticized
metal flows radially inward from the plastically deformed metal flow zone through the pre-
drilled hole in the lower sheet, causing the mechanical pin to form. The analysis of joint
morphology revealed that the rotating speed of the tool does not affect the development of
external structural characteristics, which affect both joint strength and aesthetic appearance.
Mechanical tests revealed three failure modes: partial bond delamination, tear-off, and pull-
out. These failures begin with the creation of critical weak zones caused by upper sheet
thinning, poor bonding, and upward deformation of the bottom sheet. Importantly, the
mechanisms of failure are unpredictable and unaffected by the tool's rotational speed. The tool's
rotational speed affects the joint strength of FSF samples. The bottom steel sheet's function as
a stiff body makes Al-Steel spot connecting employing FSF more accessible. As a result, it is
simpler to extrude Al alloy into the anvil chamber through a hole that has already been
predrilled in the bottom sheet. The attempt made in this work to combine aluminium alloys of
various grades with FSF is an essential advancement in this area.

[10]
Li et al. (2018) Probeless friction stir spot welding (P-FSSW) successfully welded a
third-generation Al-Li alloy, resulting in joints exhibiting symmetrical 'basin' shapes. These
joints consisted of two distinct regions: the stir zone (SZ) and the thermo-mechanically affected
zone (TMAZ). The SZ displayed recrystallized grains, while the TMAZ contained deformed
grains. To investigate the relationship between the mechanical strength and the morphology of
P-FSSW joints, a phenomenological model was developed. The stir zone width, stir zone edge
angle (SEA), and hook angle (HA) were only a few of the geometric characteristics of the joints
that were included in this model. The model demonstrated that the stir zone could be
represented by an ellipse, which had restrictions despite changes in the welding parameters.
The form of the hook defect had a substantial impact on both the fracture mechanism and the
tensile/shear strength of the joints. Additionally, keeping a one-to-one relationship between the
shoulder diameter and sheet thickness was necessary for a sound weld, allowing the creation
of high-quality connections during manufacturing operations.

15
The stir zone and the thermo-mechanically impacted zone are two distinct zones in the P-FSSW
joint. The stir zone exhibits fine recrystallized grains, whereas the thermo-mechanically
impacted zone exhibits strongly deformed grains. These regions each have unique properties.
The hook angle has a significant impact on the joint's strength under tensile or shear loads.
To achieve maximum strength, the hook angle should be close to 90°. Additionally, the fracture
mechanism is significantly influenced by the form of the hook defect. The ratios of hook height
(n) to sheet thickness (d) and hook width (m) to sheet thickness (D) are used to calculate this.

Mubiayi et al. (2017) Without melting the components, friction stir spot welding (FSSW)
[11]
connects materials that are comparable and dissimilar. In this work, different process
parameters and tool geometries were used to combine AA1060 and C11000 sheets. All spot
welds showed evidence of copper rings, often known as hooks, forming throughout the welding
process. These copper rings grew longer as the depth of the tool shoulder plunge increased.
The length of the copper ring, however, changed while utilising a flat pin/flat shoulder and a
conical pin/concave shoulder at 1200 rpm, respectively. Energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS)
analysis of the spot welds revealed various microstructures, with copper pieces and particles
present in the aluminium matrix. With the exception of the weld created at 800 revolutions per
minute utilising a conical pin and a concave shoulder, the shear tensile findings were affected
by the tool shoulder plunge depth.

The most current research study shows that the friction stirs spot welding technology
successfully connects commercially pure copper C11000 and pure AA 1060. A copper ring
(hook) was visible in every spot weld, and it was discovered that deeper shoulder plunges led
to longer copper ring lengths. However, copper ring length was shown to decrease with a flat
pin/flat shoulder, whereas a modest increase was seen with a conical pin and concave shoulder
in spot welds made at 1200 rpm using various tool geometries. Spot welds with various
microstructures, including copper particles and fragments contained in the aluminum matrix,
were examined. The majority of spot welds had satisfactory material mixing overall. The
mapping of the weld's stir zone also showed various copper particle distribution patterns within
the matrix of aluminum. With the exception of the weld created at 800 rpm using a conical pin
and concave shoulder, increasing the shoulder plunge depth typically led to larger failure
stresses.

[12]
Bilici et al. (2012) High-density polyethylene (HDPE) sheets, in particular, are welded
using friction stir spot welding, which has a number of characteristics that affect the strength

16
of the welds. The investigation of how these welding settings affect the static strength of
friction stir spot welds in HDPE sheets was the main goal of the study. A precise selection of
welding settings is essential to achieving the best weld strength. Cross-nugget failure and pull-
nugget failure are two different types of fracture modes that were seen during lap-shear tests.
The duration of dwell time, the depth of the tool plunge, and the tool rotating speed were found
to be key determinants of the development and strength of the joint. It's interesting to note that
the joint with the best strength also had a pull nugget failure type of failure. Using a video
spectral comparator, cross-sectional images of the joints were examined. It was discovered that
the tool's plunge rate had little effect on friction stir spot welding.

The length of dwell time, the tool's rotational speed, and the depth of plunge all affect the
formation of nuggets during the welding process and the strength of the resulting joint,
according to research done on the friction stir spot welding and lap-shear tests of high-density
polyethylene sheets. To produce welds of the highest calibre, it is imperative to employ the
best criteria. High-density polyethylene predominantly melted close to the tool pin. Higher
strength can be seen in joints that fracture using the pull nugget failure mode. The strength of
the joints is not significantly impacted by the tool's plunging rate.

Dashatan et al. (2013) Friction stir spot welding (FSSW) [13] is a new welding process for
polymeric materials. This study looks at the ability of FSSW to combine two distinct polymers,
polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS). To do this, an
improved tool with an extra plate is used to produce lap joint welded specimens. The inquiry
also looks into how different FSSW settings affect the mechanical properties of welded
specimens. The tool's rotating speed, the plunge rate, and the dwell time are selected as the
process parameters, and the experimental tests are carried out using a 33-full factorial design
of the experiment. Utilizing signal-to-noise ratio and analysis of variance, the impact of these
process parameters on the weld strength, which is considered a mechanical property, is
identified. The study highlights the significant influence of process parameters on weld strength
as well as the viability of friction stir spot welding to combine PMMA and ABS. Three fracture
mechanisms are noticed during lap-shear tests throughout the research.

The goal of the current study is to determine whether friction stir spot welding can successfully
fuse PMMA and ABS thermoplastics. The study shows that the two materials may be
successfully bonded using this welding approach using a newly created tool. The lap-shear
strength of the PMMA/ABS specimens was selected as the mechanical characteristic to

17
evaluate the quality of the joints. The results of the study show that several process variables,
including dwell duration, tool plunge rate, and tool rotational speed, have a substantial impact
on the strength of the welds. The parameter that has the greatest influence, in this case, is the
tool plunge rate, with higher rates resulting in weaker welds. On the other hand, lengthening
the dwell period makes the weld stronger. Additionally, the tool's ideal rotational speed is
determined, maximizing joint strength. Three separate fracture modes that take place during
the lap-shear tests and lead to the failure of the specimens are shown by macrostructure
observations.

Dong et al. (2019) Refill Friction Stir Spot Welding (RFSSW) [14] was effectively used in
this investigation to weld different Al/Mg materials. The main goal of the study was to find out
how the length of the joining procedure affected the microstructure and mechanical
characteristics of the welded connections. The results showed that the liquid eutectic phase
produced by the stirring action of the welding tool was what welded the Al/Mg alloys together.
A considerable layer of intermetallic compounds (IMCs) was created at the joint's center after
welding. The pin-affected zone had an IMC layer that was roughly 1100 m thick, but the sleeve-
affected zone had a significantly weaker diffusion layer that was only 10 m thick. Only a minor
quantity of liquid eutectic phase was formed with a welding duration of 1 second, resulting in
a 10 m IMC layer in the pin-affected zone. The IMC layer thickened as the welding time
increased. As the welding duration was increased, the lap shear failure force of the joint
increased initially and then declined. At a welding time of 2 seconds, the maximum failure load
of 3.6 kN was attained. The failure occurred through the IMC layer and was characterised by
a brittle fracture mechanism.

Dissimilar Al/Mg alloys were joined in the RFSSW technique by the development of a liquid
eutectic phase caused by sleeve stirring. Even though the sleeve served as the plunging element,
the intermetallic compound (IMC) layer was noticeably thicker in the part affected zone (PAZ)
than in the surrounding affected zone (SAZ). Because of the increased production of liquid
eutectic during the welding process, the IMC layer thickness rose as the welding time
increased. The lap shear failure load of the joint increased first and subsequently decreased as
the welding duration increased. In 2 seconds, the peak failure load of 3.6 kN was obtained.

Fereiduni et al. (2015) The study looked at how the speed of rotation and the amount of time
the welding tool was in contact with the joint affected the structure and strength of the friction
stir spot welded Al-5083 aluminum/St-12 [15] steel alloy sheets. The tool was not penetrated the

18
bottom steel sheet during the welding procedure. To weld the samples, different rotational
speeds, notably 900 and 1100 rpm, were used in conjunction with dwell periods ranging from
5 to 15 seconds. Temperature fluctuations were monitored during the joining procedure. The
researchers used stereo, optical, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with energy-
dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) to analyze the microstructure at the joint interface, the
production of intermetallic compounds (IMCs), and the locations of fractures. The alternative
welding procedure worked well for attaching the sheets. The optimal dwell times for both
rotational speeds were identified, with 10 seconds for 1100 rpm and 12 seconds for 900 rpm
resulting in the maximum failure loads. The creation of a thin intermetallic (IM) layer at the
joint contact was ascribed to the increase in strength with prolonged dwell durations. The
reduction in strength, on the other hand, was related to the production of a relatively thick IM
layer at the joint interface and the accumulation of aluminum grains near the exit-hole
periphery, where the final fracture occurred. The IM reaction layer's critical thickness was
determined to be 2.3 micrometres. When a rotational speed of 900 rpm was used instead of
1100 rpm, stronger joints were obtained.

For both rotational speeds of 900 and 1100 rpm, the joint strength initially improved before
declining as the dwell time rose. The creation of a non-continuous intermetallic (IM) layer with
a thickness of less than 2.3 m at the joint interface was blamed for the rise in tensile-shear
strength with prolonged dwell periods. The development of a rather continuous IM layer with
a thickness of 2.9 m and the expansion of aluminum grains close to the weld exit hole was
linked to the strength's declining trend. The dwell time needed to achieve the best tensile and
shear strengths decreased from 12 to 10 seconds when the rotating speed was increased from
900 to 1100 rpm. For a given dwell period, specimens welded at 900 rpm showed higher
tensile-shear strengths than those welded at 1100 rpm.

Pathak et al. (2013) A more contemporary method for combining lightweight sheet
metals in the manufacture of automotive and aerospace body components is friction stir spot
[16]
welding (FSSW). It is essential to have a thorough grasp of the weld's mechanical
characteristics, microstructure, and failure causes to assure the successful application of this
solid-state welding procedure. In this experiment, tools with either round or tapered pins, as
well as different rotating speeds, plunge depths, and dwell times, were used to apply FSSW to
aluminum-5754 sheet metal. The study aims to investigate the effects of the tool design and

19
process parameters on the temperature distribution around the sheet-tool contact, the ensuing
weld microstructure, the weld strength, and the mechanisms of failure. The peak temperature
during welding was found to be higher when using a tool with a circular pin than when using
a tapered pin. The outcome was the formation of a bigger dynamically recrystallized stir zone
(SZ), with the SZ's hook tip bending away from the keyhole and towards the upper sheet.
Therefore, compared to welds made with tapered pins, those made with circular pins showed a
larger lap shear separation load. Through the use of optical cross-sectional micrographs and
scanning electron microscope (SEM) fractography, it was possible to identify three different
failure modes of the weld nugget due to the important roles that the size and hardness of the
SZ played in crack propagation.

Temperature patterns along the contact between a metal sheet and a welding tool have been
seen during spot welding. The rotating speed and dwell time of tools with circular or tapered
pins affect the symmetry of these designs. Peak temperatures rise as rotational speed and dwell
time increase. Furthermore, the tool's design influences temperature distribution, with a tool
equipped with a round pin producing more heat than one supplied with a tapered pin under
equal conditions. Every spot weld has four separate zones with different microstructures. The
micro-hardness of the weld region is greatest in the heat-affected zone (HZ). The bonded region
and the creation of a hook-like structure are principally influenced by the tool pin profile. When
compared to tapered pins, welds performed with circular pins have larger dynamically
recrystallized heat-affected zones. When using a tapered pin, the hook development happens
closer to the keyhole, resulting in a narrower hook width but a higher hook height than when
using circular pins. The weld areas' cross-sectional micrographs and scanning electron
microscopy (SEM) fractography demonstrate three separate failure pathways. Shear failure, in
which a fracture propagates parallel to the sheet surface, mixed shear-tensile failure with an
angled crack, and tensile failure with nugget pull-out perpendicular to the sheet surface via the
heat-affected zone are examples of these modes. The occurrence of these failure scenarios is
determined by the width of the heat-affected zone, hook geometry, load-bearing capacity, and
weld joint hardness.

2.2 Formability and failure response during the shock tube-based impact
forming.

20
 Barik et al. (2022) conducted both experimental and numerical investigations in this
[17]
study to acquire a better knowledge of the dynamic forming behaviour of AA 5052-H32
friction stir spot-welded (FSSW) sheets. The sheets were exposed to biaxial deformation using
a shock tube and had a thickness of 1 mm. To distort the FSSW sheet, we employed a
hemispherical nylon striker launched at high velocity. We also investigated the effect of tool
rotating speed and plunge speed on the FSSW joint. To evaluate the rate-dependent flow stress-
strain properties, we used a novel approach that involved adding these variables into the
DEFORM-3D finite element (FE) simulation. To discover the rate-dependent characteristics,
we fitted the tensile test data from the undeformed segment of the FSSW sheet to the modified
Johnson-Cook (MJC) model. To analyze the stress-strain data for the spot-welded zone, we
created a hardness-based multiplication factor, which was then fitted to the MJC model. We
demonstrated the influence of tool rotational speed and plunge speed on welding and shaping
results. Temperature variations during FSSW were compared to experimental data, and there
was a high correlation found. We learned about material mixing during joint formation by
visualising the material flow during FSSW. These findings were consistent with previous
research. In addition, we forecasted several forming outcomes, including the distribution of
effective strain, the height of the neck, and failure patterns. The Freudenthal damage model
and the MJC model were combined to achieve this. The expected outcomes and the
experimental data showed good agreement.

A two-stage manufacturing process has been successfully implemented and validated in

the lab. Friction Stir Spot Welding (FSSW) of the sheet occurs in the first stage, and impact
forming occurs in the second. The outcomes of this procedure were precisely predicted using
finite element (FE) simulations. The paper provides a method for experimental modelling that
may be applied to the two-stage manufacturing process design. The flow stress-strain data for
the unwelded region of the FSSW sheet are derived from a tensile test performed on a sheet
distorted by a shock tube and used in the FE simulations of impact forming. A hardness
multiplying factor is found for the spot weld zone to take into consideration the unique
characteristics of that region. These strategies are simple to apply in a lab setting and offer
adequate forecasts of the sheet's formability in the presence of spot welds. The temperature
evolution during FSSW shows that the temperature rise is inversely correlated with the tool's
rotational speed. The pace of temperature rise, however, is barely impacted by the speed of the
plummet. When the material flow is visualized during FSSW, it is clear that the materials are

21
significantly mixed with faster rotational speeds. A wider binding width is also produced by
longer processing durations at slower plunging speeds, which encourage more uniform plastic
deformation.

The FSSW's joint morphology demonstrates that as rotational speed increases, the breadth of
the hook widens noticeably while the height of the hook shrinks. On the other hand, slower
plunge rates result in more heat generation and plastic deformation, which results in a wider
hook and a smaller hook height. The MJC flow stress model and the Freudenthal damage model
work together to predict the deformation profile, failure pattern, and effective strain
distribution. These predictions generally agree with the experimental findings.

Agrawal et al. (2015) The goal of the current study is to determine how different traverse
[18]
speeds affect how Al 6063T6 tubes are formed at the ends after friction stir processing
(FSP). To determine their effects on the mechanical characteristics of the processed zone, the
evolution of the forming load, and tube thinning, the study entails conducting experiments on
end expansion, reduction, and beading. To simulate the end-forming processes and validate the
outcomes, including the load requirements and occurrence of instabilities, finite element
simulations are also used. The tensile behaviour and end shaping of the tubes are significantly
influenced by the traversal speed. The dislocation density measurement supports its
relationship with the treated zone's strain-hardening exponent. When properly optimized, the
FSPed Al tubes have favorable tensile characteristics, end-forming behaviour, and energy
absorption capacity, making them excellent for end-forming applications. To ensure broad
applicability, it is essential to address the emergence of instabilities during end formation.
Furthermore, in terms of load requirements, the outcomes of the finite element simulations are
in good agreement with the results of the experiments. The thickness strain mapping method's
predictions, in particular the displacement at the start of beading instabilities, are satisfactory.
However, there is a glaring mismatch in the tube expansion forecast. However, the forecasts
for wrinkle formation during end reduction appear promising.

The tensile behaviour and end-forming properties of the tubes are significantly influenced by
the pace at which the Friction Stir Processing (FSP) is carried out. When compared to the base
metal, the FSPed zone has lower yield and tensile strengths, but its elongation and strain
hardening exponents (n) are either equal to or higher. This decrease in strength is a result of

22
the treated zone's thermal softening. In addition to being less hard than the base metal, the
FSPed zone also exhibits unpredictable traverse speed effects. However, as traverse speed is
increased, all tensile characteristics become better. While the value of n rises as a result of a
drop in average dislocation density, the strength of the FSPed zone improves as a result of
reduced heat flux at higher traverse speeds. All end-forming processes and traversal rates result
in an increase in the hardness of the FSPed zone, which is predominantly caused by strain
hardening. For all traverse speeds, the increase in hardness is more noticeable in end expansion
and end reduction than in end beading. When compared to FSPed tubes, the raw tube requires
a larger load to deform throughout various end-forming procedures. The load demand in FSPed
tubes likewise increases with traverse speed. This phenomenon is influenced by the weld zone's
strength and, to some extent, the ability to harden during end shaping.

The findings imply that FSPed tubes, when properly optimized for FSP parameters such
as traverse speed, can be employed in end-forming applications in place of raw aluminium
tubes. The parent tube is more suited for end expansion applications in terms of energy
absorption capability, whilst the FSPed tube is suitable for tube reduction and beading. Despite
the fact that the traverse speed in this study had no impact on energy absorption, a speed of 125
mm/min is advised since it produces a stronger and more ductile FSPed zone. Additionally,
compared to expansion and decrease, energy absorption in the beading operation is
substantially higher.

Neugebauer et al. (2011) The impact of velocity on a variety of factors, including

performance, cost, productivity, energy and resource efficiency, safety, and environmental
[19]
concerns, is critical in the manufacturing industry. This study examines basic phenomena
and significant elements related to velocity as a process parameter. It also explores applications
like superplastic forming and high-speed cutting that were created using unusual process
velocities. Recent technological developments are taken into account in these debates.

It is impossible to overestimate the significance of velocity in the manufacturing industry

given its profound effects on a number of factors, including performance, cost, productivity,
energy and resource efficiency, safety, and environmental concerns. While cutting technology
has been developing methods for both high and low velocities, forming technology has
successfully established techniques for both. Technology has a lot of potentials when velocity

23
effects are taken advantage of, but it also adds complications with regard to local deformation
phenomena, temperature distribution, and strain rates. As a result, it is difficult to numerically
simulate machining and shaping processes that are dominated by velocity. Cutting speeds have
frequently grown by thousands of per cent in a short amount of time, and this trend is
anticipated to continue, particularly in the machining of high-strength metals and lightweight
materials. The flushing conditions, such as the use of the cryogenic cooling medium, minimum
quantity lubrication (MQL), or high flushing pressure, are also influenced by the cutting speed.
The use of extra energy sources or superimposed processes like ultrasonic and laser heating,
integrated cutting kinematics, or certain flushing techniques will enable hybrid cutting
processes to operate at higher cutting rates. Cutting and grinding tools are made with a focus
on high-performance cutting while accommodating fast cutting speeds.

The adoption of high speeds in grinding operations is anticipated to result in greater usage of
CBN wheels and speed stroke approaches, which push the boundaries of the process. High
velocities in forming processes are made possible by technologies like explosive forming,
electromagnetic forming, and laser-shock forming. These techniques have shown to be useful
in shaping materials that were previously difficult to mould by traditional techniques. Focused
research is being done on the shaping of lightweight and composite materials to increase
process efficiency, expand the range of complicated shapes, and improve product quality.

Since the middle of the 20th century, the CIRP (International Academy for Production
Engineering) community has led the way in the development of high-speed machining (HSM),
high-speed cutting (HSC), high-performance cutting (HPC), and hard cutting. To advance the
aforementioned trends, they use a methodology that blends scientific research, real-world
applications, and simulation techniques.

2.3 Fracture analysis and the effect of High-strain rate response on the
composite material

Haque et al. (2005) The behaviour of S2-glass/vinyl-ester composites under high strain rate
loading is examined in the current work. Particularly, the compressive characteristics and
failure analyses of plain weave and unidirectional composites are looked at. For the
experiments, the Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar (SHPB) [20] method is used. To comprehend the

24
progression of damage at various stress levels and the impact of strain rate on composites, a
systematic technique is used. An SHPB device that has been modified to include a wave-
trapping mechanism is utilised to accomplish this. This prevents repetitive loading and permits
regulated impact loading, allowing for the study of the development of microstructural damage
during the loading period. At various strain rates, the stress-strain responses are examined in
each of the three major directions. In order to pinpoint the failure modes, microscopic exams
are carried out.

Comparisons between the SHPB test findings and quasi-static compressive strength, strain at
failure, and elastic moduli are made. A change in the failure mechanism under high strain rate
loading may be identified using this comparison. It has been found that the strain rate affects
both the compressive strength and failure strain of plain weave and unidirectional composites.
The study examines these rate dependencies and finds a link between failure modes and how
strain rate affects composites. Additionally, the unidirectional composites subjected to high
strain rate loading are subjected to a three-dimensional transient FEA. In order to obtain the
relevant stress contours, the FEA simulates stresses applied to the fibre in the thickness, fibre,
and transverse directions.

The experimental findings obtained under high-strain rate settings are in good agreement with
the stress-strain behaviour anticipated by the FEA.

Summary: Under high strain rate loading, this work thoroughly explores the compressive
characteristics and failure analysis of S2-glass/vinyl-ester composites. It examines how strain
rate affects the behaviour of composites, finds failure modes, and draws links between these
modes and strain rate's impacts. To further understand the failure mechanisms in the
composites under high strain rate loading, the study also uses finite element analysis.

The study examined the effects of high strain rates and progressive deterioration under
compressive stress on both unidirectional and weaving S2-glass/vinyl-ester composites. To
examine these impacts, the researchers used a modified version of the SHPB (Split Hopkinson
Pressure Bar) approach. To validate the experimental findings derived from the SHPB
approach, they also carried out a transient 3-D FEA (Finite Element Analysis). Results from
both methods showed a fair degree of agreement. At greater strain rates, ranging from 245 to

25
1760 s-1, it was generally observed that both unidirectional and plain weave composites
showed enhanced failure strength and failure strain. In the case of unidirectional composites,
matrix cracking, and interfacial debonding were responsible for the crack initiation. When the
pressure was applied transversely across the fibre direction and perpendicular to the fibres, the
crack then progressively spread at a 45-degree angle. When the stress was applied in the
direction of the fibres, shear-mode micro buckling and kink band development were the first
signs of damage. This eventually caused the matrix to fracture longitudinally. When a load was
applied in the direction of the thickness in plain weave composites, matrix cracking in the
transverse fibres caused cracks to form. Then, as the cracks continued to spread through the
thickness, the middle portion of the specimens began to delaminate. On the other hand, the
fractured specimens showed total fragmentation with many delaminations, fiber breaking, and
debonding when the force was applied in the fibre direction. When loaded in the thickness
direction, plain weave S2-glass/vinyl-ester composites outperformed unidirectional
composites in terms of compressive strength and failure strain. Comparing the quasi-static
compression data to the findings of the high-strain rate tests, the strength was much lower. The
stress and strain response of the unidirectional composites under high strain rate loading was
successfully predicted by the FEA analysis, displaying a respectable match. Initiation of
damage under high strain rate loading was well correlated with the site of maximum stress in
the FEA study.

Tedesco et al. (1995) To determine how rising strain rates affect concrete's tensile strength,
[21]
an experiment was conducted using split-Hopkinson pressure bars (SHPBs) and direct
tension testing on plain concrete samples. The finite element method (FEM) was used to
conduct a detailed analysis to fully comprehend the behaviour of the SHPB tests. Analyses that
were both linear and nonlinear were carried out. The results of the numerical calculations
demonstrated the dynamic stress conditions that the specimen underwent before failure as well
as the mode of failure.

The findings of the linear static analysis show that there are places where stress is localized
close to the notch and where the specimen and incident bar meet. The static nonlinear analysis,
which demonstrates the growth of cracks in those stress-concentrated locations, supports this
conclusion. However, the fracture of the cross-section at the notch finally causes the collapse.
The anticipated mode of failure in the dynamic nonlinear analysis is dependent on the loading

26
rate. Failure occurs at the notch when there is little or no tension. Both the incident end and the
notch of the specimen fail at an intermediate strain rate. Failure only happens at the incident
end of the specimen when the strain rate is significant. However, failure constantly occurs
during the rise time of the incident pulse, regardless of the loading rate.

Guedes et al. (2008) Through experimentation and numerical simulations, the dynamic
compressive strength of a quasi-isotropic fibre composite was the focus of this study. In-plane
compression tests on quasi-isotropic laminates were carried out utilizing the Split Hopkinson
[22]
Pressure Bar (SHPB) at a strain rate of about 400/s. The Texipreg HS160 REM material
system, which is made of high-strength unidirectional carbon fibre and epoxy resin, was used
in this study. The experimental results showed a considerable increase in the dynamic strength
of the quasi-isotropic Laminates compared to the static values. An ABAQUSTM-based finite-
element model was used to supplement the experimental results. Both user-defined interface
finite elements and three-dimensional solid elements (C3D8I) with eight nodes were used in
the model. According to the research, these interface components made it easier for the three-
dimensional solid parts representing the composite layers to link with one another. They
included a coherent damage model that made it possible to simulate the beginning and spread
of delamination. According to the model, interface delamination was the main factor affecting
failure under the specified conditions. The experimental testing proved that all quasi-isotropic
laminates fragmented into numerous almost entire sublimates, supporting this supposition. The
postulated hypothesis that internal layer damage played a small influence in the failure of quasi-
isotropic laminates was confirmed by the model's high degree of agreement with the
experimental findings.

The investigation and simulation of a quasi-isotropic fibre composite's dynamic

compressive strength were the main goals of the work. With INSTRON testing equipment for
low rates and a Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar (SHPB) for high rates, compression tests were
performed at various strain rates. The findings demonstrated that, in comparison to static
values, the dynamic strength of the quasi-isotropic laminates greatly increased. The laminates
separated into several sublimates while largely remaining intact in the high strain rate testing.
This showed that the degradation, specifically by delamination, mainly took place at the
interfaces between layers as opposed to within the layers themselves. A finite-element model
using the user-defined interface of finite elements and three-dimensional solid elements from

27
ABAQUSTM was used to run the simulations. The composite layers modelled by the solid
elements were joined by the interface elements, which also included a cohesive mixed-mode
damage model to replicate the beginning and spread of delamination. The model made the
assumption that only delamination at the interfaces occurred and that there was no layer-level
deterioration. The finite-element model's predictions and the experimental findings agreed
well, supporting the idea that delamination-induced interface degradation was the primary
cause of failure.

Magness Jr et al. (1994) A comparison of the behaviours of several high-density materials

[23]
is done in ballistic penetration experiments. The deformation and failure modes of these
materials under high-pressure and high-strain-rate loading conditions are investigated using
metallographic investigations. A big "mushroomed" head forms on the penetrator when certain
high-density materials, such as pure tungsten, tungsten heavy alloys, and a tungsten alloy with
6% uranium, demonstrate steady plastic flow. However, two other families of uranium alloys
exhibit swift localizations in the plastic flow, which causes the deformed material to be quickly
thrown away from the penetrator's head. These components can enter more effectively thanks
to early disposal, which also lessens the development of the mushroomed head. As a result, a
key element in determining the projectile's capacity to penetrate is the stability of the plastic
flow in the penetrator alloy.

Most efforts to increase dense materials' resilience against ballistic impact have focused on
improving their mechanical properties, such as strength and ductility. The stability of the
material's deformation at the front of the penetrator, according to the ballistic experiments
previously described, appears to be the key element determining the maximum penetration
capability of a penetrator. Instead of the penetrator material's starting strength or tensile
ductility, this stability of plastic flow depends on how the material thermo-mechanically reacts
to rapid deformation occurring under high hydrostatic pressures in localized places.

Okoli et al. (1998) The different facets of the quick response displayed by fibre-
reinforced composite materials have attracted the interest of numerous researchers. [24] But the
underlying mechanisms that control failure when subjected to high-speed stresses are still
largely unknown to us. In order to clarify this issue, we used a scanning electron microscope
(SEM) to study the effects of strain rate and fibre content on failure mechanisms by looking at

28
the broken surfaces of tensile specimens. On a woven glass/epoxy laminate, we performed
tensile tests while gradually increasing the rates at which strain was applied. In addition, we
conducted tension tests on a second laminate made of randomly positioned continuous glass
reinforcement while altering the volume fractions of fibres in an effort to establish a link
between fibre content and failure mechanisms. According to our research, the woven laminate
fibres were the primary site of the brittle tensile failure. Additionally, when the loading speed
increased, the matrix material started to play a bigger part in the failure process, leading to
more matrix degradation and more fibre pull-out incidents. The findings also showed that
higher fibre volume percentages increased the likelihood of failure, which was mostly
determined by the matrix.

As the cross-head rates rise from intermediate to high, the failure behaviour of the tested
laminates changes. The laminates initially display a failure mode that is characterized by brittle
failure with fibre pull-out and fibre fracture at quasi-static cross-head speeds. The laminates,
however, exhibit brittle failure as the cross-head rates rise, causing serious matrix damage
before the final fracture. The most common failure mode in random continuous laminates
(WMG) is brittle failure accompanied by fibre pull-out. Additionally, matrix shear failure is
typically seen. The laminate with the lowest fibre volume fraction (15.5%) is the lone
exception, and it fails predominantly as a result of mechanisms that are fibre-dominated. This
shows that when the fibre volume fraction rises, the matrix's significance in the failure process
grows. In other words, as the fibre volume fraction is elevated, the risk of failure being
dominated by the matrix grows.

Bragg et al. (1981) In some field applications, choosing the right material qualities for the
[25]
design of buildings made of frozen earth has been difficult. Interest has focused on the
mechanical characteristics that control how frozen soil formations respond to bending loads.
The influence of strain rate, temperature, and sample size on the compressive and tensile
properties of frozen silica sand has been identified by experimental experiments comprising
uniaxial compression and split cylinder tests. The gathered data, which identifies several testing
methods' limits, contains details on the initial tangent modulus, compressive strength, failure
stresses, and tensile strength. The report summarises the different testing circumstances'
documented failure modes. The first yield stress, compressive peak strength, and initial tangent
modulus all rise with decreasing temperatures and rising strain rates, according to research.

29
Split cylinder testing showed that tensile strengths were unaffected by deformation speeds.
While the initial tangent modulus increases with an increase in sample diameter (while
maintaining a fixed length-to-diameter ratio), the uniaxial compressive strengths show a
modest reduction. As strain rates increase from low to high values, the behaviour of
deformation and failure modes changes from plastic to brittle. Greater particle readjustments
are possible before achieving peak strength thanks to pressure melting, water migration, and
refreezing, which results in larger failure strains at slower strain rates (where more time is
available). Limiting values for design scenarios can be established based on observations of
failure strains.

At low strain rates, the amount of strain before failure increased from less than 1% at high
strain rates to more than 4%. More pressure-induced melting, water movement, refreezing, and
particle modifications can occur before attaining maximum strength at slower speeds.
According to a mathematical relationship, the initial stiffness also rose as the strain rates
increased. Similar to how temperature influences compressive strength under uniaxial
conditions, temperature's effect on stiffness (below -6°C) can be roughly calculated. As long
as the length-to-diameter ratio remained constant, it was discovered that for frozen silica sand,
both the compressive strength and the strain at failure were largely unaffected by the sample's
diameter. Both the compressive strength and the initial stiffness consistently rose when the
temperature dropped below -6°C. The initial stiffness displayed values comparable to those
seen at -6°C under the same strain rate, however at warmer temperatures, the compressive
strength became more dependent on the strain rate. When evaluating split-cylinder samples,
the rate of deformation was essentially unaffected by the tensile strength determined indirectly
when the values were over 1.3 mm/min at -6°C. Localized compression was seen in the loading
strip area rather than tensile failure at slower deformation rates.

Justusson et al. (2013) The method for determining the mechanical characteristics of thin,
homogenous materials that depend on both axial directions and loading rates is presented in
this research study. [26] The technique focuses on an aluminium alloy sheet as a demonstration
and makes use of a shock tube. The Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar (SHPB), which has
historically been used to assess uniaxial properties, can now be modified with a bulge cell to
create a "dynamic bulge test." Without making considerable changes to the test apparatus, it is
difficult to capture the lower strain rate response due to the fixed nature of the SHPB. The

30
suggested method uses shock wave loading to overcome this drawback by creating a biaxial
tensile stress condition at the centre of the crown while applying intermediate to high loading
rates. The rate-dependent constitutive characteristics of the plate material can be ascertained
by combining an inverse modelling approach with finite element (FE) simulation. The study
demonstrates the efficiency of the shock loading approach in obtaining rate-dependent
properties from thin sheet materials that are commercially available, specifically employing
aluminium that is of commercial grade.

Using an optimisation approach and an inverse modelling technique on a finite element model
of the shock response, strain rate-dependent mechanical properties are derived. The findings
are consistent with earlier studies, and this study shows a significant correlation between the
model predictions and the results of the experiments.

We investigated the varied rates of stress and strain response of thin aluminium sheets in a
shock tube facility. The study concentrated on the 200–850 s-1 strain rate range. Previous
studies had trouble verifying their methodologies, particularly the difficulty with wave
propagation in Split Hopkinson Pressure Bar (SHPB) tests, which made it difficult to collect
data for intermediate strain rates. However, the shock-loading/inverse modelling method was
successful in precisely predicting the material's subsequent reaction at intermediate strain rates.
The shock tube can produce strain rates surpassing 103 s-1 even though the current investigation
only recorded rates of up to 850 s-1. The optimization technique described in the research
successfully identified the yield stress ratio based on the strain rate by comparing the strain
profiles and displacements in various directions.

31
 Chapter 3. Experimental Methodology

3.1 Working Principle of Joining the welded joint

The FSF method generates heat and softens the upper sheet by frictional contact by
utilising a spinning tool. The softened metal is then moulded and driven through a pre-drilled
hole into a chamber in the lower sheet. The frictional heat decreases the metal's strength during
this process, allowing it to flow more freely. As the heated upper sheet metal is pushed through
the pre-drilled hole in the bottom sheet, the narrow section of the joint is created. The deformed
metal takes on the shape of the hollow on the anvil block's upper surface, resulting in a
mechanical pin interlock. Retracting the rotating tool completes the joint creation. As a result,
the lap junction that was started by the heating generated by stirring is completed by the
formation of a mechanical pin interlock, which acts as a type of mechanical rivet. The complete
process sequence is schematically illustrated in Fig. 1.5

The anvil cavity determines the shape of the pin head when plasticized metal is driven out
through the extrusion process. The diameter of the final head should be greater than the
diameter of the first hole to ensure a solid connection. A poor connection will result if the
diameter of the head and the hole are almost the same. This is because the head can easily pop
out of the hole. The bottom sheet may be forced into it during the forging process if the anvil
cavity is extended to make a larger pinhead. The material on the top strip should become pliable
enough to flow into the anvil chamber through the pre-drilled hole if the stirring tool is
appropriately configured, which should generate enough frictional heat. The material of the
workpiece, the design of the tool and anvil, and process variables like tool rotating speed and
plunge depth all have an impact on the joint strength, which is dictated by the neck and pinhead.

3.2 Experimental Procedure

3.2.1 Selection of machining tool (tool steel) for FSSW
Tool steel refers to any type of carbon steel or alloy that is exceptionally well-suited for
manufacturing tools and tooling, including cutting tools, dies, hand tools, knives, and various

32
other items. The reason they are considered tool steel is due to their notable qualities such as
hardness, resistance to wear and deformation, and their ability to maintain a sharp cutting edge
even at high temperatures. These attributes make tool steels ideal for shaping other materials
through processes such as cutting, machining, stamping, or forging. [16]

There is a specific kind of tool steel that possesses the ability to air-harden at a relatively low
temperature, similar to oil-hardening types. Additionally, it maintains dimensional stability,
meaning it does not easily undergo changes in shape or size. Consequently, this particular type
of tool steel is commonly utilized for creating dies, forming tools, and gauges that do not

require extreme wear resistance but do demand a high level of stability. [17]

Table 3. 1 Chemical Composition of Machining Tool for FSSW (% Wt)

Element Cr Mo Si V C Ni Cu Mn P&S
Content 4.75 – 1.10 – 0.8 – 0.8 – 0.32 - 0.30 % 0.25 % 0.20 – 0.03,
5.50 % 1.75 % 1.20 % 1.20 % 0.45 % 0.50 % 0.03%

Table 3.1 H-13 chromium hot-work steel is commonly used in both hot and cold work tooling
applications. Chemical composition of the machining tool (FSSW) (in wt%). H-13 is the tool
steel that is utilised in tooling applications the most because of its superior combination of high
toughness and fatigue resistance.

33
 3.2.2 FSSW Tool

Fig. 3. 1 Dimension of Machining Tool for FSSW

Fig. 3.1 According to the dimensions of the tool holder on the friction stir spot welding machine
illustrated in the figure, all machining tool dimensions were taken into account.

3.2.3 The Base Plate's Hemispherical Hollow is Being Prepared.

The foundation plate is made of mild steel, which is easily found in the workshop. It is
then cut into the precise dimensions shown in Table 3.2 using a shearing machine. As depicted
in Fig. 3.2 at the center of the base plate, a hemispherical cavity is formed. Since the anvil (base
plate), which supports the welded structure, is not a part of the welded structure itself, the
diameter of the cavity head created should be bigger than the diameter of the predrilled hole on
the stainless steel (SS304).

The electric discharge machining (EDM) technique known as die sinking creates the
hemispherical cavity. An electrode and workpiece are submerged in a dielectric fluid during
die sinking, also known as a cavity-type EDM or volume EDM. A suitable power source is

34
linked to the electrode and the workpiece. The copper tool serves as a cathode, and the
workpiece serves as an anode.

3.2.4 Die sinking EDM S 50 ZNC Machine, (Make: Sparkonix (India) pvt.)
1. Technical Specification:-
 Dielectric system – integral with the machine tool
 Dielectric capacity – 400 litre
 Position measuring – incremental linear scale
 Maximum job height – 250mm
 Feed motor/servo system for z-axis – DC servo
 Work table dimension – 600*400mm2

2. Pulse Generator:-
 Type of pulse generator – MOSFET
 Maximum working current – 50A
 Maximum MRR – 400mm3/min
 Surface finish (Ra) – 0.80 microns
 Power supply – 415v/3ph/50Hz
 Connected load – 5KVA

Fig. 3. 2 Die Sinking EDM (producing hemispherical cavity)

Fig. 3.2 A machining method based on spark erosion is called die sinking (EDM). It uses an
RC circuit and a high voltage/low current method. The capacitor is first charged once the circuit

35
is first closed. The capacitor is discharged (discharging of the capacitor is a spontaneous
process), and the second phase circuit is open. Conductive metals are swiftly and precisely
shaped using the machining technique. Examples include producing square holes, keyways, or
injection moulding mould cavities. The tool (copper) serves as a cathode, and the work-piece
serves as an anode. A spark gap is made in order to carry out this machining procedure. The
tool's movement in relation to the work-piece can be used to regulate the spark gap.

Mechanism - Electric spark is generated, due to which Intense heat is produced thus, the base
plate undergoes fusion and vaporization.

Role of dielectric fluid - To flush out the removed material from the machining zone.

Table 3.2 shows the basic parameters such as Type of material, features, cavity diameter, plate
thickness and plate dimension as shown in the Fig. 3.3 which shows the cavity location but
figures are not in scale because we have taken closer snap of the cavity.

Table 3. 2 Detail of the Base Plate

Material Features Cavity Cavity Plate Plate

Diameter Depth thickness Dimension
Mild Steel Hemispherical
cavity on the
upper surface (
at the centre of 3.42 mm 0.645 mm 1.5 mm 200 * 200 mm2
the base plate)

36
 Fig. 3. 3 Location of the hemispherical Cavity (not in scale)

3.2.5 Specimen Description

Table 3. 3 Chemical Composition of AA5052 H-32 (% Wt)

Materials Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Zn Al

AA5052 H- ≤ 0.2 0.1 -0.3 ≤ 0.2 0.1- 0.2 2.8-4.2 0.2-0.3 ≤ 0.3 Remaining
32

Table 3. 4 Chemical Composition of SS304 (% Wt)

Materials Cr Mn Si Ni P S C N Fe

SS304 17.5- 2 1 8– 0.045 0.015 0.07 0.1 Remaining

19.5 10.5

37
Table 3.3 and Table 3.4 chemical composition of Aluminium alloy (AA5052 H-32) and
stainless steel (SS304) in %Wt.

Table 3. 5 Dimensional features of sheet metals

Materials Features Plate thickness Plate dimensions (mm2)

(mm)
AA5052 H-32 ------ 1.5 200 * 200

Stainless steel The drilled hole of diameter

(SS304) is 2.5 mm at the centre of the 1.5 200 * 200
plate.

Table 3.5 The two different sheet metals have the same thickness and dimension and the
stainless steel plate has a through hole of 2.5 mm diameter so that it should be aligned with the
base plate having a hemispherical cavity at the centre of the plate.

3.2.6 Experimental Setup

As depicted in Fig. 3.4 the fixture's diagonal centre served as a place to hold square
blocks from the anvil. Using the spark EDM technique, a hemispherical hollow was machined
into the anvil's upper surface as explained in section 3.2.4 The friction stirrer, the fixture, the
anvil, and the clamps are the essential elements of the experimental setup. Stainless steel
(SS304) and AA 5052-H32 sheets are used in the tests. Stir-heating was used to form-joint the
top sheet of stainless steel, AA 5052-H32, to the bottom sheet, SS304. The thickness of each
sheet is 1.5 mm as the lap configuration shown in Fig. 1.5

38
 Fig. 3. 4 Experimental Setup for Performing (FSSW)

3.3 Tensile Strength Testing Sample and its Results

3.3.1 Tensile test sample in 0◦ Rolling Direction
The orientation in which a metal sheet, plate, or coil is rolled during mechanical
processing is referred to as grain direction. This procedure involves sculpting and lengthening
the crystals of the heated metal by compressing it between rollers. The grains can be further
polished by switching the direction of the rolling. Both the rolling direction (RD) and the
transverse direction (TD) are kept at high levels of strength and elongation because of the
change in rolling directions. The anisotropic characteristics of the alloy are influenced by the
rolling directions.

Isotropic materials have identical qualities evaluated in all directions, although most industrial
sheets will differ when tested in specific directions, such as the rolling, transverse, and 45-
degree directions of the coil. Planar anisotropy is the name given to this deviation. The average
of the properties in the sheet's plane and those in the through-thickness direction may also differ
from one another. By symmetry, one would anticipate that the width and thickness strains in

39
tensile testing of a material with uniform qualities in all directions would be equal; if they are
not, this indicates the presence of some anisotropy. If the width change is monitored throughout
the test, the R-value can be calculated constantly and some strain-related variation may be seen.
Measurements are frequently performed at a specific strain level, such as 15% eng. The R-
value is measured in one of three directions: rolling, diagonal, or transverse. The direction is
indicated by a suffix, such as R0, R45, or R90. The sheet is said to exhibit planar anisotropy if
these values are different for a particular material, and the most typical explanation for this is

𝑅0 + 𝑅90 − 2𝑅45 ……………….. (a)

∆𝑅 =
2

which could be either positive or negative, though it is typically positive in steels. If the
measured R-value is different from unity, this indicates that there is a difference between the
average in-plane and through-thickness properties. This difference is typically represented by
the normal plastic anisotropy ratio, which is described as

𝑅0 + 2𝑅45 + 𝑅90 ………………(b)

𝑅𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
4

In this context, the word "normal" refers to characteristics that are "perpendicular" to the sheet's
plane. As illustrated in Fig. 3.5 there are a number of aspects that can be taken into account
during the rolling process to generate metals in plate or sheet form, such as the subsequent
annealing and the grains of microstructure and macrostructure, as they become elongated when
it rolls. A desired crystallographic (texture) orientation can be formed based on the rolling
direction, which produces variations in characteristics due to its direction.

Fig. 3. 5 Different Rolling Direction

40
 3.3.2 Tensile Test Result

Fig. 3. 6 Aluminium Alloy (AA5052 H-32)

Fig. 3. 7 Stainless Steel (SS304)

Fig. 3.6 and Fig. 3.7 Aluminium AA 5052 H-32 and Stainless steel ASME SA240 Grade304
are 100mm in length, 10mm in width, and 1.5mm in thickness. Three Samples of each
aluminium and stainless steel are machined in 0◦ rolling direction by using CNC Wire-Cut
EDM (electric discharge machining). Three samples of each material are prepared to test the
tensile strength under 250KN servo-hydraulic Universal Testing Machine (UTM) as shown
below in Fig. 3.8 the above Figure is before the testing of the sample.

Stainless steel: Stainless steel has high strength and great corrosion resistance. It is an iron alloy
with a minimum 10.5% chromium concentration, which gives it its ability to resist corrosion.
Other substances like nickel, molybdenum, and manganese are also found in stainless steel,
which improves its mechanical qualities.

Alloys made of aluminium are thin and have good weight-to-strength ratios. Due to their high
level of corrosion resistance and superior thermal conductivity, they are frequently employed
in a variety of industries. Typically, copper, zinc, magnesium, and manganese are used as
alloying agents together with aluminium as the main component of aluminium alloys.

41
Fig. 3. 8 250KN Servo-hydraulic Universal testing machine (UTM)

Fig. 3. 9 Aluminium Alloy (AA5052 H-32) After Tensile Test

42
As depicted in Fig. 3.9 and Fig. 3.10 three samples of AA5052 H-32 and stainless steel in the
form of dog bone. After the tensile test there is a change in the gauge length.

Fig. 3. 10 Stainless Steel (SS304) after the Tensile Test

Fig. 3. 11 Aluminium Alloy Tensile Test, Load vs Extension plots

In Fig. 3.11 and Fig. 3.12 three samples of each Aluminium alloy and stainless are cut into dog
bone to perform the tensile test ASTME E8. Out of three samples the average value of each

43
parameter is calculated which is presented in tabular form i.e. Table 3. 6 shows the comparison
of different parameters as mentioned below.

Fig. 3. 12 Stainless Steel Tensile Test plot, Load vs Extension

Table 3. 6 Comparison between AA5052 H-32 and SS304

Specimen of Tensile Stress Modulus of Maximum Extension at Yield (offset at

different at max load elasticity load (N) maximum 0.2%)
material (MPa) (GPa) load (mm) (mm/mm)

AA5052 H-32 247.006 64.714 2186.005 5.1248 0.00435

SS304 705.451 151.346 5819.976 23.5084 0.003936

Table 3.6 shows the comparison of average tensile strength of three samples of aluminium alloy and
stainless steel.

3.4 Lap Shear Test and its Result

44
 Fig. 3. 13 lap Shear Configuration of Al and Steel

A lap shear test is a type of mechanical test used to evaluate the strength and integrity of
adhesive bonds between two overlapping adherents as shown in Fig. 3.13 It is commonly
employed in various industries, including aerospace, automotive, construction, and
manufacturing. The purpose of the lap shear test is to assess the bond strength and resistance
to shear forces exerted on the joint. The test involves subjecting the bonded specimen to an
external force that induces shear stress along the bond line. This force can be applied through
tension or compression, causing the adherents to slide or deform relative to each other. During
the test, the applied force gradually increases until the bond fails or reaches a specified
criterion. The failure mode and load at failure are recorded to evaluate the performance of the
adhesive bond. The lap shear strength is a key parameter derived from the test and represents
the maximum shear stress that the bond can withstand before failure.

Lap shear tests can be conducted using various testing machines, such as universal testing
machines or specialized shear testing equipment. The test parameters, including the specimen
dimensions, loading rate, and environmental conditions, are typically defined by relevant
industry standards or specific application requirements. The results of lap shear tests provide
crucial information for designing and selecting adhesives, evaluating bonding processes, and
assessing the structural integrity of bonded joints. These tests are instrumental in ensuring the
reliability and performance of adhesive bonds in a wide range of applications.

45
3.4.1 Lap Shear Sample at Different Rotational Speed

Fig. 3. 14 Eight Sample of Lap joint before lap shear test

As shown in Fig. 3.14 eight samples are prepared for the lap shear test at four different
rotating speeds, with two samples at each speed. Lap shear is performed on the 250KN servo-
hydraulic Universal Testing Machine (UTM) as shown in Fig. 3.8, There are two notations

46
mentioned in Fig. 3.15, which represent "(a) as stainless steel" and "(b) as an aluminium alloy
(AA5052 H-32)."

3.4.2 Lap Shear Sample Failure Analyses

Fig. 3. 15 Trial-1 Lap shear tested sample

Fig. 3. 16 Trial-2 Lap shear tested sample

47
Eight samples were lap sheared as indicated in Fig. 3.15 and Fig. 3.16 and each sample
displayed a unique type of failure. Partial bond delamination, tear-off, and pull-out-off are the
three most common types of failure that have been noted. (a) and (b) represents stainless
steel(SS304) and aluminium alloy (AA5052 H-32). Table 3.7 includes a list of each sample
failure. Different types of failure are discussed below.

 Partial bond delamination - The bonded region partially delaminates in a partial bond
delamination failure, eventually leaving the extruded pin and some bonded region at
the stir location over the lower sheet. Poor metallurgical bonding at the stir stick's
perimeter is to blame for this kind of failure.
 Tear-off - When the tear-off failure mode occurs, the upper sheet has torn off around
the stirred area, leaving the entire bonded region attached to the lower sheet. Regardless
of the production of pins, this kind of failure primarily results from the thinning of the
upper sheet at the stir spot's diameter.
 Pull-out-off - The bonded region has completely delaminated in a pull-out failure,
causing the separation of the top and lower sheets. The samples that failed in pull-out
mode also show a distorted lower sheet hole. Thus, pull-out failure is caused by a
combination of inadequate metallurgical bonding and imprecise pin creation.

Table 3. 7 Modes of failure in Lap shear test

Rotational speed (RPM) Different modes of failure in lap shear test

Trail – 1 Trail - 2

612 Partial Bond Delamination Tear off

750 Tear off Partial Bond Delamination

900 Tear off Tear off

1200 Tear off Pull out off

Table 3.7 is used to explain the failure zone (in section 3.4.6) of welded joints at different
rotational speeds.

48
3.4.3 Lap Shear Test Results
Trial-1
2500

612 (rpm)
Fracture load (N)

2000

750 (rpm)
1500
900 (rpm)

1000 1200 (rpm)

500

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5
Elongation (mm)

Fig. 3. 17 Load Variation vs Elongation at Different Rotational Speed

For lap shear samples of Trial 1, the fracture load is plotted versus the elongation at fracture
load in Fig. 3.17 elongation at fracture load occurs at rotational speeds of 612 rpm, 750 rpm,
900 rpm, and 1200 rpm, with a minor decrease at 900 rpm. When the rotating speed rises from
612 rpm to 1200 rpm, the elongation percentage increases by about 149.85%.

2500
Average fracture load (N)

2000

1500

1000

500

0
500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Rotational speed (rpm)

Fig. 3. 18 Performance of Lap Shear Test between Fracture Load vs Rotational Speed

In Fig. 3.18 the tool rotational speed is shown against the average fracture load for lap shear
samples. As tool rotational speed increases from 612 rpm to 750 rpm, the fracture load
increases by about 84.42%. As we increased to 750 rpm, the fracture load slightly increased.
49
We then increased the rotational speed from 900 to 1200 rpm, which resulted in increment of
fracture load by 27.27%.

3.4.4 Vickers Hardness Test of Cross Section of Welded Joint

When the mean diagonal of the indentation has been determined, the Vickers hardness may be
calculated from the formula. The advantages of the Vickers hardness test are that extremely
accurate readings can be taken and just one type of indenter is used for all types of metals and
surface treatments. Although thoroughly adaptable and very precise for testing the softest and
hardest materials, under varying loads. The Vickers machine is a floor standing unit that is
more expensive than the Brinell or Rockwell machine.

A diamond pyramid with a square base and an angle of 136◦ ± 0.5 between opposite faces is
used as an indenter. The Vickers hardness is defined by

136°
2𝐹 sin( ) 𝐹
2
𝐻𝑉 = i.e. 𝐻𝑉 = 1.854 ∗ ……….. (a)
𝑑2 𝑑2

above equation (a), in which “F” represents load in kgf and d represent airthemetic mean of
two diagonals.

Fig. 3. 19 Cross-section cut of welded joints

Fig. 3. 20 Location of Indentation by diamond shape pyramid having a square base

50
Fig. 3.19 shows the cross-section, which is cut by the wire-cut EDM machine such that to
analyse the joints between the plates. Macroscopic view as depicted in Fig. 3.20 Further cross-
section cut sample used for the Vickers hardness analyses. As the number mentioned in Fig.
3.4.4.2 i.e. location of indentation such that “1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 9 are lies on Aluminium surface
(AA5052 H-32) and “7, 8, 10 and 11 are lies on stainless steel surface (SS304). The diamond
pyramid with a square base is applied for 15 seconds with a load of 500 gf or (0.5kgf).

250

612 (rpm)
7
200
750 (rpm) 8
10
900 (rpm)
1200 (rpm)
150 11
VHN

100
3
2 4 5
1
50
6 9
Side Wall
Base Metal
Bounded Region Stir Zone

0
location of indentation over the cross-section of joint

Fig. 3. 21 VHN (hardness variation across the joints)

In Fig. 3.21 shows the hardness variation along the upper surface over the cross-section
(locations 1 to 11 mention in Fig. 3.20) of FSF samples fabricated at four different rotational
speeds (612, 750, 900 and 1200 rpm). The hardness of the FSF joints is found to be lesser than
that of the parent metals. The inverted “W” shaped hardness profile typical for a pin tool
friction stir process is observed in all FSF samples. Highest hardness is observed near the
interface of plates (where the joint taken place). For all samples, stir zone possesses lower
hardness and a decrease in the hardness and decrease in the hardness is observed towards the
stir zone centre (at location 9). This depicts the fact that zero torque acting at the center of the
pin-less tool induces no stirring other than downward plunging of the plasticized metal and
subsequently enhances the formation of a softer zone at the center of the stir zone (SZ). An
increase in torque in the radial direction of the pin-less tool induces considerable stirring and
51
subsequent formation of a stronger region towards the circumference of the friction stir zone.
It is observed that hardness near the side wall gets increased more than the parent metal.

3.4.5 Morphological Feature of FSF Joint Cross Section.

Fig. 3. 22 Morphological Feature, which describe the location (SW, BW, PW, PH)

Fig. 3. 23 Morphological feature, which describe the location(USFW, USFH, FPD, SST)

52
 Fig. 3. 24 Dimensional analyses of Morphological feature

Joint morphology analysis involves the assessment of various structural characteristics that
develop within a friction stir-fusion (FSF) joint while also examining the impact of tool
rotational speed on its formation. The appearance of the joint can be affected by macro defects,
and features such as mechanical pin interlock and bond width play a role in determining the
strength of the joint. Measurable attributes include macro defects like the width and height of
flash present on the upper and lower sheets (referred to as USFW, USFH, LSFW, and LSFH,
respectively), as shown in Fig. 3. 22 as well as the bulging of the upper sheet in upward and
sideward directions (UB and SB). Additionally, parameters such as final plunge depth (FPD),
the thickness of the joint below the stirring spot (SST), and intrinsic features of the FSF joint
such as the width and height of the mechanical pin (PW and PH) and the metallurgical bonding
(BW) are also considered as shown in Fig. 3. 23 The geometric dimensions of the joint are
depicted in Fig. 3. 24 illustrating a typical FSF joint cross-section. To measure these
aforementioned features, a Nikon digital microscope was employed.

53
Fig. 3. 25 Geometric Dimension of joints at RS-612 rpm

Fig. 3. 26 Geometric Dimension of Joints at RS-750 rpm

Fig. 3. 27 Geometric Dimension of Joints at RS-900 rpm

54
 Fig. 3. 28 Geometric Dimension of Joints at RS-1200 rpm

Joint morphology and geometric dimensions of the welded joint cross-section at a rotational
speed of 612 rpm are shown in Fig. 3. 25, Fig. 3. 26, Fig. 3. 27 and Fig. 3. 28 which represents
the welded joint cross-section at the rotational speed of 750, 900 and 1200 respectively.

Table 3. 8 Measured Value of Morphological features on FSSW joints cross-section

Rotational PW PH SW BW UB USFW USFH FPD SST

speed (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)

612 1.59 0.45 14.09 13.16 0.58 0.90 0.40 1.29 2.45

750 - - 13.02 12.0 2.04 0.58 0.66 3.78 1.43

900 2.25 0.43 14.69 13.96 1.11 0.26 0.37 2.19 2.0

1200 1.97 0.40 13.19 12.41 1.97 0.89 0.90 4.30 1.31

Morphological features on FSF joints cross-section have various terms as shown in Table 3. 8
which are explained here, (PW—Pin Width, PH—Pin Height, BW—Bond Width, UB—
Upward bulging, SB—Sideward Bulging, FPD—Final Plunge Depth, USFW—Upper Sheet
Flash Width, USFH—Upper Sheet Flash Height and SST—Stir Spot Thickness).

When the tool rotating speed is changed from 612 to 1200, it is seen that the joint strength-
determining pin width (PW), pin height (PH), and bond width (BW) parameters practically stay
the same for FSF joints. In spite of variations in tool rotational speed, stable pin width and pin

55
height guarantee flawless anvil cavity filling during pin production. This demonstrates that the
exterior geometric features affecting the strength of the FSF joint are unaffected by the tool's
spinning speed.

The restricting effect of fixture clamps restricts the thermal expansion of the upper sheet in the
length direction of the sample, resulting in upward bulging of the upper sheet (UB). The stirring
and axial force may have caused excessive upward protrusion of stirred metal along the tool's
lateral surface, resulting in significant upward bulging of the upper sheet. UB fluctuates
between 0.58 mm at 612 rpm and 2.04 mm at 750 rpm for all other tool rotating speeds. UB is
minimum at 612 rpm and maximum at 750 rpm. Accordingly, the UB adjustment has little
impact on tool rotational speed. The upper sheet may have bulged upward in a nearly identical
manner over the range of tool rotational speeds due to the constant tool plunge depth of 2.9
mm, which may have been the cause.

In addition to UB, sideward bulging (SB) of the upper sheet is also observed for all samples.
For FSF samples manufactured at 900 and 750 rpm, respectively, sideward bulge diameters of
14.69 and 13.02 mm are measured. Since the upper sheet can freely bulge up and to the side
while clamped, most samples have random bulge measurements, and a trend with the tool
change rotational speeds has not yet been noticed. A stirring spot is produced on the surface of
the upper sheet by the tool's plunge depth (FPD). Similar to UB, measured measurements of
the plunge depth hold steady when the tool's rotational speed rises. This is because the upper
sheet bulging impacts the FSF spot joint's tool imprint depth.

Flash is typically a type of deformation that happens in upper and lower sheets (USFW, USFH)
when the material is free to bulge out in any direction. These measurements at various tool
rotation speeds were compared.

3.4.6 Location of Failure at Different Rotational Speeds.

However, in this section, we have closely examined the failure zone of the welded joints at
diverse rotational speeds. As we have described in Table 3. 7 the types of failure occur at
different rotational speeds. Three types of failure were detected on eight separate samples at
four different rotating speeds, each with two samples. It is stated in the table for Trails 1 and
2, however, an illustrated picture is presented for Trail 2. In this section below figure (a) and

56
(b) means the upper and lower surface of aluminium alloy (AA5052 H-32). Figures (c) and (d)
means the upper and lower surface of stainless steel (SS304).

Fig. 3. 29 sheets joint prepared at the rotational speed of 612 rpm, which has a failure region
that lies near the interface of aluminium and stainless steel. It is a case of Tear-off as shown in
Fig. 3. 30 When the tear-off failure mode occurs, the upper sheet has torn off around stirred
area, leaving the entire bonded region attached to the lower sheet. Regardless of the production
of pins, this kind of failure primarily results from the thinning of the upper sheet at the stir
spot's diameter.

Fig. 3. 29 Failure Region of joints at RS-612 rpm

Fig. 3. 30 Failure surface of Top and Bottom of the Sheet metals

Fig. 3. 31 sheets joint prepared at the rotational speed 750 rpm, which has failure region lies at
either side of side bulging (SB) of aluminium and stainless steel. It is a case of Partial bond
delamination as shown in Fig. 3. 32 The bonded region partially delaminates in a partial bond
delamination failure, eventually leaving the extruded pin and some bonded region at the stir
location over the lower sheet. Poor metallurgical bonding at the stir stick's perimeter is to blame
for this kind of failure.

57
 Fig. 3. 31 Failure Region of Joints at RS-750 rpm

Fig. 3. 32 Failure Surface of Top and Bottom of the Sheet Metals

Fig. 3. 33 Failure Region of Joints at RS-900 rpm

Fig. 3. 34 Failure Surface of Top and Bottom of the Sheet Metal

58
Fig. 3. 33 sheets joint prepared at the rotational speed 900 rpm, which has failure region lies
near the interface of aluminium and stainless steel. It is a case of Tear-off as shown in Fig. 3.
34 When the tear-off failure mode occurs, the upper sheet has torn off around stirred area,
leaving the entire bonded region attached to the lower sheet. Regardless of the production of
pins, this kind of failure primarily results from the thinning of the upper sheet at the stir spot's
diameter.

Fig. 3. 35 sheets joint prepared at the rotational speed 1200 rpm, which has failure region lies
near the pin extruded to the predrilled hole in steel sheet. It is a case of Pull out off as shown
in Fig. 3. 36 The bonded region has completely delaminated in a pull-out failure, causing the
separation of the top and lower sheets. The samples that failed in pull-out mode also show a
distorted lower sheet hole. Thus, pull-out failure is caused by a combination of inadequate
metallurgical bonding and imprecise pin creation.

Fig. 3. 35 Failure Region of Joints at RS-1200 rpm

Fig. 3. 36 Failure Surface of Top and Bottom of the Sheet Metals

59
3.5 Shock Tube-Based Test
As the working construction, principal, experimental facility, advantage and limitations, and
application of the shock tube have been explained in section 1.6, so here I directly entered into
experimental data and results.

3.5.1 Shock Tube-Based by Using 1Mylar Sheet (0.1 mm)

During the experiment, two pressure transducer is used to obtain the pressure voltage signal
which is displayed on the oscilloscope (Tektronix MDO 3024) having sampling rate is kept
constant as 2*106, as shown in Fig. 3. 37 in which two curve is shown i.e. incident pressure
wave and reflected pressure wave. The pressure time histories for all the experiments using a
diaphragm of 1 Mylar sheet having a thickness of 0.1 mm.

Trial-1
6

4
Pressure (bar)

Reflected wave

3
Incident wave

0
0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015 0.0020 0.0025 0.0030 0.0035 0.0040 0.0045
Time (s)

Fig. 3. 37 Pressure time histories of Incident and Reflected Wave

Table 3. 9 computes the average bursting pressure, average incident pressure, average reflected
pressure, velocity of incident wave pressure, and shock wave Mach number. The value of
bursting pressure is obtained straight from the digital meter. We obtained a voltage signal for
average incidence and reflected pressure, which we multiplied by a sensitivity of 14.62mV/bar
to obtain pressure in terms of a bar. We knew the separation distance of the two transducers,
which was 500mm, and when the pressure wave crossed the transducers, we got a change in
time, so we know distance and time, so here comes the velocity of the pressure wave. The
Mach number is obtained by dividing the pressure wave velocity by the velocity of sound.

60
 Table 3. 9 Pressure , velocity and Mach number calculation from observed data

Mylar sheets Avg. Brusting Avg. Incident Avg. Velocity of Shock wave
of different Pressure Pressure Reflected Incident Mach
thickness (bar) (bar) Pressure pressure number (M)
(bar) (m/s)

1mylar (0.1 5.75 ± 0.3 2.094 4.691 500 1.457

mm)

1mylar (0.2 7.89 ± 0.3 2.458 5.892 555.556 1.619

mm)

2mylar (0.1 11.36 ± 0.3 2.826 7.349 625 1.823

mm of each)

The effect of strain and dome height is seen in Table 3. 10 For the initial marked diameter
depicted in Fig. 1.9 after deformation (due to the action of the nylon striker), the initial diameter
changes and is regarded as the final diameter; consequently, the experimental strain (𝜀𝑒𝑥𝑝 ) was
computed. Hc denotes the dome height from the welded joint's centre, while Hs denotes the
dome height from the plate's surface. We obtained the piezo-film strain (𝜺𝒑 ) by employing a
piezo vibration sensor, as illustrated in Fig. 1.9. In Table 3. 10 the peak strain measured by the
piezo-vibration sensor which gives a micro-strain (um) signal.

Table 3. 10 Effect of strain and dome height by using 1mylar sheet of 0.1 mm

Rotational Di Df Df/Di 𝑫𝒇 Hc Hs 𝜺𝒑 (um/um),

𝜺𝒆𝒙𝒑 = 𝐥𝐧( )
Speed (mm) (mm) 𝑫𝒊 (mm) (mm)
(Piezo-film strain)
(RPM)
(mm/mm)
612 55 57.68 1.0487278 0.0475778 18.94 16.32 47.05992

61
 750 55 57.28 1.0414546 0.0406184 16.58 14.12 31.51691

900 55 61.6 1.12 0.11332868 18.24 15.70 26.8815

120 55 59.04 1.0734546 0.07088204 16.22 13.54 30.757833

The variation of strain is shown in Fig. 3. 38 To measure the variation of strain, we used a piezo
vibration sensor, which was placed close to the pinhead of the joints as shown in Fig. 1. 9 The
piezo sensor's terminal was connected to an oscilloscope (Tektronix MDO 3024), whose
sampling rate was maintained at 2*106. The voltage signal of strain was produced, and this
signal was amplified with a sensitivity of 12mV/um. At rotating speeds of 612 rpm and 900
rpm, the maximum and minimum peak strains are measured to be 47.588 um and 26.885 um,
respectively.

50
45
40
35
612 (rpm)
30 750 (rpm)
25
900 (rpm)
Microstrain

20
15
1200 (rpm)
10
5
0
-50.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015 0.0020 0.0025 0.0030
-10
-15
-20
Time (s)

Fig. 3. 38 variation of micro-strain vs whole process time (by Piezo-vibration sensor)

Fig. 3. 39 its shows the comparison between peak strain and experimental strain, at rotational
speed 612 rpm, value of both strain almost equal. As the speed increases, experimental

62
increases and then decreases. Experimental strain is maximum at rotational speed 900 rpm,
which is 113.3286 mm/mm. In case of peak strain data from piezo-vibration sensor, as the
rotational speed increases there is slight decrease till 900 rpm then increases to 1200 rpm which
is around 14.42% increment. At rotational speed 900 rpm, strain from piezo vibration sensor is
the lowest i.e. 26.8815 mm/mm and the experimental strain is maximum i.e. 113.3286 mm/mm.
there is huge difference in both the strain data, it is because of piezo vibration sensor sense the
deformation till the elastic region but there might be the possibility plastic deformation so, that
data cannot be encountered by piezo vibration sensor but both the deform region data can be
shown in experimental strain.

120

113.32868
100 Experimental strain

Peak Strain
80 70.88204
Strain

60
47.5778
40.6184
40 30.75783
26.8815

20 31.51691

0
500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Rotational speed (rpm)

Fig. 3. 39 Comparison of Peak strain and Experimental strain

63
 200*200 mm2

Fig. 3. 40 Top and bottom face of sheets after deformation (1mylar 0.1 mm)

Fig. 3. 40 shows the deformation of sheet metal. The Pressure difference created by 1mylar of
0.1 mm, due to which both the plate remains intact to each other means failure welded joint is
not taken place only deformation of the plate occurred.

3.5.2 Shock Tube-Based Test by Using 1Mylar Sheet (0.2 mm)

During the experiment, two pressure transducer is used to obtain the pressure voltage
signal which is displayed on the oscilloscope (Tektronix MDO 3024) having sampling rate is
kept constant as 2*106, as shown in Fig. 3. 41 in which two curve is shown i.e. incident pressure
wave and reflected pressure wave. The pressure time histories for all the experiments using a
diaphragm of 2 Mylar sheet having a thickness of 0.2 mm.

64
 9
Trial-2

6
Pressure (bar)

5 Reflected wave

4
Incident wave
3

0
0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015 0.0020 0.0025 0.0030 0.0035 0.0040 0.0045
Time (s)

Fig. 3. 41 Pressure time histories of Incident and Reflected Wave

The effect of strain and dome height is seen in Table 3. 11 For the initial marked diameter
depicted in Fig. 1. 9 after deformation (due to the action of the nylon striker), the initial
diameter changes and is regarded as the final diameter; consequently, the experimental strain
(𝜀𝑒𝑥𝑝 ) was computed. Hc denotes the dome height from the welded joint's centre, while Hs
denotes the dome height from the plate's surface. We obtained the piezo-film strain (𝜺𝒑 ) by
employing a piezo vibration sensor, as illustrated in Fig. 1. 9. In Table 3. 11 the peak strain
measured by the piezo-vibration sensor which gives micro-strain (um) signal.

Table 3. 11 Effect of strain and dome height by using 1mylar sheet (0.2 mm)

Rotational Di Df Df/Di 𝜺𝒆𝒙𝒑 Hc Hs 𝜺𝒑 (um/um),

Speed (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
𝑫𝒇 (Piezo-film
(RPM) = 𝐥𝐧( )
𝑫𝒊 strain)

(mm/mm)
612 55 57.04 1.037091 0.0364197 20.38 18.44 52.4609

750 55 58.84 1.069818 0.0674885 22.76 19.62 40.411

65
 900 55 59.44 1.080727 0.0776339 23.40 21.52 39.6654

120 55 58.20 1.058181 0.0565513 23.14 20.96 38.418

60
55
50
45 612 (rpm)
40
35 750 (rpm)
30
Microstrain

25
1200 (rpm)
20
15
10
5
0
-50.0005 0.001 0.0015 0.002 0.0025
-10
-15
-20
-25
Time (s)

Fig. 3. 42 variation of micro-strain vs whole process time (by Piezo-vibration sensor)

The variation of strain is shown in Fig. 3. 41 To measure the variation of strain, we used a piezo
vibration sensor, which was placed close to the pinhead of the joints as shown in Fig. 1. 9 The
piezo sensor's terminal was connected to an oscilloscope (Tektronix MDO 3024), whose
sampling rate was maintained at 2*106. The voltage signal of strain was produced, and this
signal was amplified with a sensitivity of 12mV/um. At rotating speeds of 612 rpm and 1200
rpm, the maximum and minimum peak strains are measured to be 52.4609 um and 38.418 um,
respectively.

66
 88

80
Experimental strain 77.6339

72 Peak strain 67.4885

64
56.5513
56 52.4609
Strain

48
40.411 39.6654 38.418
40 36.4197

32

24

16
500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Rotational speed (rpm)

Fig. 3. 43 Comparison of Peak strain and Experimental strain

200*200 mm2

Fig. 3. 44 Top and Bottom face of sheets after deformation 1mylar (0.2 mm)

Fig. 3. 43 its shows the comparison between peak strain and experimental strain, As the speed
increases, experimental increases and then decreases. Experimental strain is maximum at

67
rotational speed 900 rpm, which is 77.6339 mm/mm. In case of peak strain data from piezo-
vibration sensor, as the rotational speed increases there is decrease in peak strain. The
maximum peak strain is 52.4609 mm/mm which is at speed 612 rpm but experimental strain at
speed 612 rpm is 36.4197 mm/mm which is lower than peak strain.

Fig. 3. 44 shows the deformation of sheet metal. The pressure difference created by 1mylar of
0.2mm, due to both the plate getting separated means failure welded joint further failure
analyses are analysed in the next section.

3.5.3 Shock Tube-Based Test by Using 2Mylar sheets (each of 0.1 mm)
During the experiment, two pressure transducer is used to obtain the pressure voltage signal
which is displayed on the oscilloscope (Tektronix MDO 3024) having sampling rate is kept
constant as 2*106, as shown in Fig. 3. 45 in which two curve is shown i.e. incident pressure
wave and reflected pressure wave. The pressure time histories for all the experiments using a
diaphragm of 2 Mylar sheets each having a thickness of 0.1 mm. both the Mylar sheets are
joined by adhesive.

Fig. 3. 45 Pressure time histories of Incident and Reflected Wave

Trial-3
12

10

8
Pressure (bar)

6
Reflected wave
4 Incident wave

0
0.0000 0.0005 0.0010 0.0015 0.0020 0.0025 0.0030 0.0035 0.0040 0.0045

Time (s)

Table 3. 12 Effect of experimental strain and dome height by using 2mylar sheets (each of 0.1 mm)

68
 Rotational Di Df Df/Di 𝑫𝒇 Hc (mm) Hs (mm)
𝜺𝒆𝒙𝒑 = 𝐥𝐧( )
Speed (mm) (mm) 𝑫𝒊
(RPM)
(mm/mm)
612 55 58 1.054545 0.0531093 28.08 24.98

750 55 58.24 1.058909 0.0572392 29.70 28.90

900 55 57.20 1.04 0.0392207 26.28 23.34

1200 55 57.32 1.0421818 0.0413164 25.62 22.82

The effect of strain and dome height is seen in Table 3. 12 For the initial marked diameter
depicted in Fig. 1. 9 after deformation (due to the action of the nylon striker), the initial
diameter changes and is regarded as the final diameter; consequently, the experimental strain
(𝜀𝑒𝑥𝑝 ) was computed. Hc denotes the dome height from the welded joint's centre, while Hs
denotes the dome height from the plate's surface.

Fig. 3. 46 its shows the experimental strain, As the speed increases, experimental increases and
then decreases. Experimental strain is maximum at rotational speed 750 rpm, which is 57.2392
mm/mm.

69
 60

55 53.1093
57.2392
50
Experimental strain

45
39.2207 41.3164

40

35

30

25
500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Rotational speed (rpm)

Fig. 3. 46 Experimental strain at Different Rotational Speed

200*200 mm2

Fig. 3. 47 Top and Bottom face of sheets after deformation (2-Mylar each 0.1 mm)

Fig. 47 shows the deformation of sheets metal. Pressure difference created by 1mylar of 0.2
mm, due to both the plate got separated it means failure welded joint further failure analyses is
analysed in the next section.

70
3.5.4 Modes of Failure of Welded Joint Sheets
There are two steps to the forms of deformation: pressure-based bulging (stage 1) and striker-
based bulging (stage 2). The top and lower surfaces of the aluminium alloy (AA5052 H32) are
shown in the below figure as (a) and (b), respectively whereas aluminium is the upper sheet
and stainless steel is lower sheet, while the upper and lower surfaces of the stainless steel
(SS304) are shown as (c) and (d).

Fig. 3. 48 Failure Surface of Top and Bottom of sheet metal at RS-612 rpm

Fig. 3. 48 depicts the failure joints between the plates at a 612 rpm rotating speed. This is the
scenario when we utilised a 0.2 mm thick 1mylar sheet. Failure joints happened in two ways,
such as “Tearing Off” the joints which means When the tear-off failure mode occurs, the upper
sheet has torn off around the stirred area, leaving the entire bonded region attached to the lower
sheet. Regardless of the production of pins, this kind of failure primarily results from the
thinning of the upper sheet at the stir spot's diameter. “Pull-Out-Off” the joints which means
The bonded region has completely delaminated in a pull-out failure, causing the separation of
the top and lower sheets. The samples that failed in pull-out mode also show a distorted lower
sheet hole. Thus, pull-out failure is caused by a combination of inadequate metallurgical
bonding and imprecise pin creation. Both occurred concurrently, resulting in combined failure.

71
 Fig. 3. 49 Failure Surface of Top and Bottom of sheet metal at RS-750 rpm

Fig. 3. 49 depicts the failure joints between the plates at 750 rpm rotating speed. This is the
scenario when we utilised a 0.2 mm thick 1mylar sheet. We discovered that failure joints
occurred in a variety of ways, such as the bond width of the joint being torn off while remaining
intact with the pin head, as shown in above figure.

Fig. 3. 50 Failure Surface of Top and Bottom of sheet metal at RS-900 rpm

Fig. 3. 50 depicts the failure joints between the plates at a 900 rpm rotating speed. This is the
scenario when we utilised a 0.2 mm thick 1mylar sheet. Failure joints happened by the action
of partial bond delamination which means the bonded region partially delaminates in a partial
bond delamination failure, eventually leaving the extruded pin and some bonded region at the
stir location over the lower sheet. Poor metallurgical bonding at the stir stick's perimeter is to
blame for this kind of failure.

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 Fig. 3. 51 Failure Surface of Top and Bottom of sheet metal at RS-900 rpm

Figure 3. 51, depicts the failure joints between the plates at a 1200 rpm rotating speed. This is
the scenario when we utilised a 0.2mm thick 1mylar sheet. Failure joints happened by the action
of Pull-out-off, which means The bonded region has completely delaminated in a pull-out
failure, causing the separation of the top and lower sheets. The samples that failed in pull-out
mode also show a distorted lower sheet hole. Thus, pull-out failure is caused by a combination
of inadequate metallurgical bonding and imprecise pin creation.

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 Chapter 4 Conclusions and Scope of Future Work

4.1 Conclusions
In this study, we conducted a thorough examination to explore how AA5052 H32 and
SS304 sheets behave during dynamic forming at a welded joint. The forming process was
carried out at various rotational speeds using a shock tube. We intentionally deformed the
sheets within safe limits as well as beyond those limits. To verify our predictions, we compared
them to experimental data collected from shock tube experiments conducted in a laboratory
setting. The results were promising and suggest that these findings can be applied in the product
design processes of the automotive and aerospace industries.

The main conclusions drawn from this research are as follows:

 When joining sheet metals made of aluminum alloy (AA5052 H-32) and stainless steel
(SS304), which achieved their maximum lap shear strength at 1200 rpm, FSF can be
utilized successfully.
 It is discovered that mechanical pin creation is caused by the inward radial flow of
plasticized metal from the plastically deformed metal flow zone via the predrilled hole
in the lower sheet.
 Inverted W-shaped hardness profiles demonstrate that as tool rotational speed
increases, the stirring effect intensifies, resulting in harder sections closer to the stir
zone boundary. Additionally, as the heat flow increases at high tool rotating speeds,
the hardness of the central stir zone diminishes.
 This study analyses the impact of several welding parameters on the welding and
forming outputs, including tool rotating speed, plunge speed, and plunge depth. The
bond width grows with increased tool rotating speed and tool plunging depth,
according to the joint morphology. Larger bond width is also a result of a slower dive
speed.
 The results of the joint morphology investigations showed that the rotating speed of
the tool has no influence on the development of the exterior structural features, which
have an impact on the joint's strength and aesthetic appeal.

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  During mechanical performance tests, the three forms of failure—partial bond
delamination, tear-off, and pull-out-off—are seen. These three modes of failure are
brought on by the establishment of a critical weak zone caused by the thinning of the
top sheet, poor bonding, and upward distortion of the bottom sheet. Random failure
modes exist, and they are unrelated to tool rotational speed.
 The weld joint strength regulates the final height of deformation during the shock tube-
based forming of FSSW sheets. The weld strength is increased with a deeper plunge
depth on the tool, which reduces the failure region while creating FSSW sheets. The
difference in tool plunge speed, however, has a negligible impact on the failure pattern
and dome height.

4.2 Scope of Future Work

The future scope of research in this area involves investigating the welded joints created by
friction stir spot welding at different rotational speeds. These welded joints will be subjected
to testing using a shock tube, allowing for the observation of plate deformation and strain.

By conducting such experiments, we can gain valuable insights into the behaviour of welded
joints under dynamic loading conditions. This research can help us understand how different
rotational speeds during the welding process affect the quality and integrity of the joints.

Additionally, the deformation of the plates and the strain measurements obtained from the
shock tube experiments will provide crucial data for further analysis. This information can be
used to optimize the welding parameters, improve the design of welded structures, and enhance
the overall performance and durability of products in various industries, such as automotive
and aerospace. A shock tube can be implemented to fabricate a shaped product by mounting a
close-end die at the end of the setup.

Overall, future research in this field aims to deepen our understanding of the dynamic behavior
of welded joints created by friction stir spot welding, leading to advancements in welding
techniques and the development of more reliable and efficient welded structures.

Due to their unique characteristics, such as their lightweight, superior static and dynamic
strength, and improved thermal and acoustic insulation, sandwich sheets are increasingly being
used in the automobile industry today. Therefore, it will be more interesting to investigate the
dynamic forming behaviour and crashworthiness of sandwich panels utilising the shock tube.

75
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