SIR C.R.

REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

ELURU-534007

FLUID MECHANICS & MACHINERY LABORATORY

MANUAL
III/IV B.TECH (Mechanical): II SEMESTER

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

 SIR C.R.REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ELURU

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

FLUID MECHANICS & MACHINERY LAB

LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

Sl.No. Name of the Experiment Page No.

1 To calculate the co-efficient of discharge of venturimeter and to find its 2
variation with throat diameter.

2 To calculate the co-efficient of discharge and find its variation with the orifice 5
diameters

3 To observe the variation in the coefficient of discharge of a mouth piece with 8

that in the head above the mouth piece using a mouth piece apparatus by
falling head method.

4 To observe the variation in the coefficient of discharge of a mouth piece with 10

that in the head above the mouth piece using a mouth piece apparatus by
constant head method.

5 To observe the variation in co-efficient of discharge of a V-notch with that in 12

the heights of V-notch using V-notch apparatus.

6 To draw the characteristic curves of a reciprocating pump 14

7 To draw the performance curves of centrifugal pump 17

8 To draw the performance characteristic curves of Francis turbine 20

9 To draw the performance characteristic curves of Pelton wheel turbine 23

10 Determine co-efficient of lift and drag for given aerofoil. 26

11 To verify Bernouli’s theorem. 28

12 To determine the coefficient of friction of a pipe. 31

13 To determine Rankine’s Efficiency and D’ Aubuisson’s Efficiency of 33

Hydraulic Ram.

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 SIR C.R.REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ELURU

1.VENTURIMETER

AIM: To calculate the co-efficient of discharge of Venturimeter and to find its variation with
throat diameter.

APPARATUS: 1) Venturimeter Test Rig 2) Stopwatch 3) Scale

DESCRIPTION: The apparatus consists of 3 Venturimeters of different throat diameters

provided with valves so that we can operate with one Venturimeter at one time and with the
help of these, we can adjust the flow rate also. The apparatus is provided with a water tank
and a collecting tank. Water in the main tank can be driven by means of a motor through the
selected Venturimeter and collected in the collecting tank. Which is provided with same
means to read the depth of water collected. Venturimeter is connected to a U-tube manometer
by means of things, so that we can read the pressure difference.

THEORY: A Venturimeter is a device used for measuring the rate of a flow of a fluid
flowing through a pipe. It consists of three parts
1) A short converging part 2) Throat 3) Diverging part.

It is based on the principle of Bernoulli’s equation.

The discharge through Venturimeter under ideal condition i.e. theoretical flow rate is given
by

a1 a2 √2ghw
Qth = --------------------
√a12 – a22

Where a1 = Cross sectional area of the inlet

a2 = Cross sectional area at the throat
g = Acceleration due to gravity
hw = Net pressure head of water
But actual discharge will be less than theoretical discharge & is given by

Qact = Cd x Qth

Where Cd is coefficient of discharge of Venturimeter and its value is always less than 1.
So Cd can be calculated as for the following formula

Qact
Cd = ----------
Qt

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 SIR C.R.REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ELURU

PROCEDURE:
1. The main tank is filled in with water and the motor connected to Venturimeter tubes is
switched on.
2. First the valve of Venturimeter corresponding to throat diameter 20mm is slightly opened
so that flow through the Venturimeter takes place.
3. The pressure difference in the U-tube manometer is noted down.
4. Time for 5 cm rise of water level is noted down.
5. The valve is further opened in order to attain different flow rates and the above procedure
is repeated for three times and totally four readings are tabulated.
6. The above procedure is repeated for the remaining two Venturimeters of throat diameters
25 mm and 40 mm respectively.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. While adjusting the mercury limbs in U-tube manometer care should be taken to avoid
any expelling out of mercury.
2. While performing the experiment on the Venturimeter the two remaining valves
corresponding to two Venturimeters should be closed.
3. Time taken for 5 cm rise in water level in the collecting tank should be noted carefully.

S.N Time taken Manometer h1-h2

o for 5 cm readings hm = ------ Qth Qact Cd
rise of h1 h2 ----
water level cm cm
100
meters

MODEL CALCULATIONS:

a1 a2 √2ghw
Qth = -------------------
√a12 – a22

a2 / a1 = 0.35

Where a1 = Cross sectional area of the inlet = π /4 x d12

a2 = Cross sectional area at the throat
d1 = Dia of the inlet pipe
g = Acceleration due to gravity
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 SIR C.R.REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ELURU

hw = Net pressure head of water in meters

⎛ ρ ⎞
h w − h m ⎜⎜ m − 1⎟⎟
⎝ ρ w ⎠

hm = Net pressure head of mercury manometer in meters

ρm = Density of mercury = 13,600 kg / m3
ρw = Density of water = 1000 kg / m3

Qact = A x H / t
Where A = Area of the collecting tank = 0.1979 m2
H = Rise of water in collecting tank with in the time ‘t’ in meters
t = time taken for 10 cm rise of water in collecting tank (in seconds)

Qact
Cd = ----------
Qth

Where C d = Coefficient of discharge of Venturimeter

GRAPHS: 1)Q act Vs H w 2)Q act VsQ th Take Qact on Y-axis

RESULT:
Mean value of Cd of Venturimeter =
Cd of Venturimeter by Graph =

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 4

 SIR C.R.REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ELURU

2.ORIFICEMETER

AIM: To calculate the co-efficient of discharge and find its variation with the orifice
diameters

APPARATUS: 1) Orificemeter Test Rig 2) Stop Watch 3) Scale

DESCRIPTION: The apparatus consists of 3 orifice meters of different orifice diameters

provided with valves so that we can operate with one Orificemeter at one time and with the
help of these we can adjust the flow rate also. The apparatus is provided with a tank of water
and a collecting tank. Water in the main tank can be driven by means of a motor through the
selected Orificemeter and collected in the collecting tank which is provided with same means
to read the depth of water collected. Orificemeter is connected to a tube manometer by means
of tubings, so that we can read the pressure difference.

THEORY: Orifice meter is a device used for measuring the rate of flow of a fluid through a
pipe. It also works on the same principle as that of Venturimeter. It consists of a flat circular
plate which has a circular sharp edged hole called orifice, which is concentric with the pipe.
The co-efficient of discharge for orifice meter is much smaller than that for a Venturimeter.
The discharge through Orificemeter under ideal condition i.e. theoretical flow rate is
given by
a1 ao √2ghw
Qth = --------------------
2 2
√a1 – ao
Where a1 = Cross sectional area of the pipe
ao = Cross sectional area of the orifice
g = Acceleration due to gravity
hw = Net pressure head of water
But actual discharge will be less than theoretical discharge & is given by

Qact = Cd x Qth
Where Cd is coefficient of discharge of Orificemeter and its value is always less than 1.
So Cd can be calculated as for the following formula
Qact
Cd = ----------
Qth

PROCEDURE:
1. The main tank is filled in with water and the motor connected to Orificemeter tubes is
switched on
2. First the valve of Orificemeter corresponding to throat diameter 20 mm is slightly opened
so that flow through the Orificemeter tubes takes place.
3. The pressure difference in the U-tube manometer is noted down
4. Time for 5 cm rise of water in the U-tube manometer is noted down
5. The value is further opened in order to attain different flow rates and the above procedure
is repeated for three times and totally your readings tabulated

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 SIR C.R.REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ELURU

6. The above procedure is repeated for the remaining two Orificemeters of throat diameters
25 mm and 40 mm respectively.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. While adjusting the mercury limbs in U-tube manometer care should be taken to avoid
any expelling of mercury out.
2. While performing the experiment on the Orificemeter, the two measuring valves
(remaining valves) corresponding to two Orificemeters should be closed.
3. Time taken for 5 cm rise in water level in the collecting tank should be noted carefully

OBSERVATIONS:

S.N Time taken Manometer h1-h2

o for 5 cm readings hm = ------ Qth Qact Cd
rise of h1 h2 ----
water level cm cm
100
meters

MODEL CALCULATIONS:

a1 ao √2ghw
Qth = --------------------
√a12 – ao2

a0 / a1 = 0.45
Where a1 = Cross sectional area of the pipe = π /4 x d12
ao = Cross sectional area of the orifice
d1 = Dia of the pipe
g = Acceleration due to gravity
hw = Net pressure head of water

⎛ ρ ⎞
h w = h m × ⎜⎜ m − 1⎟⎟
⎝ ρ w ⎠

hm = Net pressure head of mercury mano meter

ρm = Density of mercury = 13,600 kg / m3
ρw = Density of water = 1000 kg / m3

Qact = A x H / t
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 SIR C.R.REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ELURU

Where A = Area of the collecting tank = 0.1979 m2

H = Rise of water in collecting tank with in the time ‘t’ in meters
t = time taken for 10 cm rise of water in collecting tank (in seconds)

Qact
Cd = ----------
Qth

Where C d = Coefficient of discharge of Orificemeter

GRAPHS: 1) Q act Vs H w 2) Q act Vs Q th Take Qact on Y-axis

RESULT:

Mean value of Cd of Orificemeter =

Cd of Orificemeter by Graph =

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 7

 SIR C.R.REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ELURU

3.MOUTH PIECE (FALLING HEAD METHOD)

AIM: To observe the variation in the coefficient of discharge of a mouth piece with that in
the head above the mouth piece using a mouth piece apparatus by falling head method.

APPARATUS: 1) Mouth piece apparatus, 2) Stop watch, 3) Scale

DESCRIPTION: The apparatus consists of a mouthpiece fitted to one side of a vertical tank,
main water tank and a collecting tank. Water in the main tank can be driven by means of a
motor so that it flows in the mouthpiece fitted tank and there by into the collecting tank
through the mouth piece. A valve is provided at the site of motor so that flow in the mouth
piece fitted tank can be adjusted. The vertical tank is provided with some scale to measure the
head of water above the mouth piece. The collecting tank is provided with some scale to read
the water level in it and there by volume of water collected can be computed.

THEORY: Mouth piece is a short length pipe which is two or three times its diameter in
length, fitted in a tank or vessel containing fluid. It is used to measure the rate of flow of
fluid.

Mouth piece fitted external to the tank is called external mouthpiece (this is the
present use with our experiment). The jet of liquid entering the mouth piece constructs to
form a vena – contracta. Beyond this section jet again expands and fill the mouth piece
completely.

Measurement of coefficient of discharge by falling head method

2A(√H1 – √H2)
Coefficient of discharge = Cd = ------------------------------
(a x t x √2g)

Where A = area of the over head tank

H = head of water above the mouth piece
a = area of mouth piece
t = time for water level to fall by 5 cm

PROCEDURE:

1) The mouthpiece fitted tank is completely filled with water.

2) Starting from say40 cm above the mouthpiece (i.e head) time taken for water level to drop
by say 5cm is noted.
3) Now time for water level to drop from 35 to 40cm is noted
4) Similarly 5 to 6 readings are noted.
5) The readings are tabulated.

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 SIR C.R.REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ELURU

PRECAUTIONS:
1) Head above the mouthpiece should be noted carefully.
2) Time for rise in water level in collecting tank and that for fall in water level in mouth
piece fitted tank should be correctly noted.

OBSERVATIONS:

S.No Water head above the mouth piece Time taken for Cd
Initial H1 Final H2 5 cm fall of
water level

MODEL CALCULATIONS:

2A(√H1 – √H2)
Coefficient of discharge = Cd = ------------------------------
(a x t x √2g)

Where A = area of the over head tank = 0.34 X 0.35 = 0.119 m2

H1 = Initial head of water above the mouth piece =
H2 = Final head of water above the mouth piece =
a = area of mouth piece (π/4 d2)
d = Diameter of the mouth piece = 0.01 m
t = time for water level to fall by 5 cm

GRAPHS: t Vs H1 − H 2

RESULT: Mean value of Cd of mouth piece =

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 9

 SIR C.R.REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ELURU

4.MOUTH PIECE (CONSTANT HEAD METHOD)

AIM: To observe the variation in the coefficient of discharge of a mouth piece with that in
the head above the mouth piece using a mouth piece apparatus by constant head method.

APPARATUS: 1) Mouth piece apparatus, 2) Stop watch, 3) Scale

DESCRIPTION: The apparatus consists of a mouthpiece fitted to one side of a vertical tank,
main water tank and a collecting tank. Water in the main tank can be driven by means of a
motor so that it flows in the mouthpiece fitted tank and there by into the collecting tank
through the mouth piece. A valve is provided at the site of motor so that flow in the mouth
piece fitted tank can be adjusted. The vertical tank is provided with some scale to measure the
head of water above the mouth piece. The collecting tank is provided with some scale to read
the water level in it and there by volume of water collected can be computed.

THEORY: Mouth piece is a short length pipe which is two or three times its diameter in
length, fitted in a tank or vessel containing fluid. It is used to measure the rate of flow of
fluid.

Mouth piece fitted external to the tank is called external mouthpiece (this is the
present use with our experiment). The jet of liquid entering the mouth piece constructs to
form a vena – contracta. Beyond this section jet again expands and fill the mouth piece
completely.

Measurement of coefficient of discharge by Constant head method

Theoretical discharge = Qth = a √2gH

Where a – area of mouth piece

H – head of water above the mouth piece

Actual discharge = Qact = (A X h) / t

Where A – area of the collecting tank

h – rise in water level
And t – time for water level to rise by h

Coefficient of discharge is defined as the ratio of actual discharge to theoretical

discharge
Cd = Qact / Qth

PROCEDURE:

6) The main tank is filled with water and the motor is switched on
7) Valve at the motor site is closed to transfer in to the vertical mouth piece fitted tank
8) Time is allowed for the water level to settle at some height above the mouth piece
9) The head of water above the mouthpiece is measured by means of the scale provided at
the side of the tank.
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 SIR C.R.REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ELURU

10) Time for 5am rise in water level in the collecting tank is noted.
11) The valve at motor site is further closed to achieve another flow rate and the above
procedure is adopted.
12) In this manner for 2 more times the similar procedure is repeated and the readings are
noted.
13) Readings at 4 different heads are noted in a tabular form..

PRECAUTIONS:

1) Head above the mouth piece should be noted carefully.

2) Time for rise in water level in collecting tank and that for fall in water level in mouth
piece fitted tank should be correctly noted.
OBSERVATIONS:

S.No Time taken Head above Qact Qth Cd

for 5 cm rise mouth piece
of water level H cm

MODEL CALCULATIONS:

Theoritical discharge = Qth = a √2gH

Where a – area of mouth piece = πd2/4

d = dia of mouth piece = 0.01 m
H – head of water above the mouth piece in meters

Actual discharge = Qact = (A X h) / t

Where A – area of the collecting tank = .45x 0.55 = 0.2475 m2

h – rise in water level (in meters)
t – time for water level to rise by h

Cd = Qact / Qth

GRAPHS: 1) Q act Vs H 2) Q act Vs Q th Take Qact on Y-axis

RESULT:
Mean value of Cd of mouth piece = Cd of mouth piece by Graph =

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 SIR C.R.REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ELURU

5.V– NOTCH

AIM: To observe the variation in co-efficient of discharge of a V-notch with that in the
heights of V-notch using V-notch apparatus.

APPARATUS: 1) V-Notch Test rig, 2) Stop Watch, 3) Scale

DESCRIPTION: The apparatus consists of a V-notch fitted to inside of a channel in

rectangular shape, another side of which is closed, main water tank and a collecting tank.
Water in the main tank can be driven by means of a motor so that water flows in to the
channel and there by in to the collecting tank through V-notch. A valve is provided at the
motor site so that the flow rate through V-notch can be adjusted. The channel is provided
with some means to read the V-notch height. The collecting tank is also provided with some
means to read the rise in water level and there by volume of water collected can be measured.

THEORY: A notch is a device used for measuring the rate of flow through a small channel
or a tank. It may be defined as an opening in the side of a tank or a small channel in such a
way as liquid surface in the tank or channel is below the top edge of the opening.

Theoritical discharge through V-notch is given by

Qth = 8/15 tan θ/2 √2g H5/2

Where θ = V-notch angle

H = head of water above the notch

Actual discharge through V-notch is given by

A× h
Qact =
t
Where A = area of the collecting tank
h = rise in water level in the collecting tank
And t = time for water level to rise by h

Co-efficient of discharge through V-notch is defined as the ratio of actual discharge to

the theoritical discharge

Cd = Qact / Qth

PROCEDURE:
1. The main tank is filled with water and the motor is switched on
2. Value at the motor site is closed to transfer water rate in to the rectangular channel
3. The valve is opened completely to cease the water flow into the channel when the water
level exceeds the notch bottom
4. Time is allowed for the water to flow through the notch till the level settles at the bottom
level of notch

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5. Scale provided at the rectangular tank (channel) is adjusted at zero for the present water
level
6. Now the valve at the motor site is closed tightly so that water moves into the tank and
some time is allowed for the water level to settle at constant height
7. The head of water above the notch is read by means of the scale provided
8. By means of a stop watch, time for 5 cm rise in water level in the collecting tank is
measured
9. The valve at motor site is further closed so that water rises in the rectangular tank and the
above described procedure is repeated and the readings are tabulated

PRECAUTIONS:
1. Initially water in the rectangular channel (tank) should be in plane with that of V-notch
bottom
2. Head above the V-notch should carefully be noted
3. Time taken for 5 cm rise in water level should be read accurately

OBSERVATIONS:

S.No Time taken Head above Qact Qth Cd

for 5 cm rise notch
of water level H cm

MODEL CALCULATIONS:

Qth = 8/15 tan θ/2 √2g H5/2

Where θ = V-notch angle = 60o

H = head of water above the notch
Qact = (A X h)/t

Where A = area of the collecting tank = 0.54 x 0.44 = 0.2376

m2
h = rise in water level in the collecting tank (in meters)
And t = time for water level to rise by h
Cd = Qact / Qth

GRAPHS: 1) Q act Vs H 5/2 2) Q act Vs Q th Take Qact on Y-axis

RESULT:
Mean value of Cd of V- notch = Cd of V- notch by Graph =

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 SIR C.R.REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ELURU

6.RECIPROCATING PUMP

AIM: To draw the characteristic curves of a reciprocating pump

APPARATUS: Reciprocating pump test rig, tachometer and stopwatch

DESCRIPTION:
The experiment setup is a closed circuit type, it mainly consists of
1. Double acting reciprocating pump
2. A single speed 1 HP AC motor with rated speed of 1420 rpm.
3. A piping system and measuring tank .
4. A stepped pulley arrangement for changing of speed.
5. In put power measuring arrangement.
6. Sump.

The reciprocating pump is a double acting type. The suction and delivery pipes are 1” and
¾” in diameter. The pump is driven by a V-belt from the motor through the pulley
arrangement, the measuring tank size is 0.3m x 0.3 m

THEORY: A reciprocating pump essentially consists of a piston or plunger which moves to

and fro in a closed fitting cylinder. A typical double acting cylinder is connected to suction
and delivery pipes, each of which is provided with a non return valve. The piston is
connected to a crank by means of connecting rod. During the suction stroke, the crank rotates
from 0 to 180 degrees and a partial vaccum is created in the cylinder, which enables the
atmospheric pressure acting on the liquid surface in the sump below, force the liquid up the
suction and fill the cylinder by opening the suction valve. During the delivery stroke the
crank rotates 1800 to 3600 and the piston forces the water to go out of the cylinder through
the delivery valve. The operating characteristic curves of a reciprocating pump are obtained
by plotting the discharge Q power input P and overall efficiency η against the head
developed by the pump H when it is operating at constant speed.

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 SIR C.R.REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ELURU

PROCEDURE :
1) The pump is filled with sufficient amount of water and the pump is primed if necessary.
2) The delivery valve is kept open and the pump is started and is run at a particular speed.
The speed of the pump is measured with the help of a tachometer.
3) The actual discharge Q is measured by noting the time taken for a rise in height of water
in the measuring tank.
4) The input power is calculated by noting the time taken for 5 revolutions of the energy
meter disc.
5) Suction and delivery pressures are noted from the pressure gauges.
6) Position of delivery valve is slightly altered for different delivery pressures and another
set of readings of suction pressure, delivery pressure and discharge are found.
7) Characteristic curves are plotted according to the values obtained.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The delivery valve should be completely closed before starting and stopping of the pump
2. Priming is done for the pump before starting

OBSERVATIONS:

S. Spee Time Time Sucti Deliv H Input Out η= Discha

No d taken taken on ery powe put (Op/Ip) rge
(N) for 5 for 5cm head Head r pow x 100 Q(m3/s
rev rise of er ec)
disc water mete
rpm Ps Pd rs W
t T W

MODEL CALCULATIONS:

n × 3600 × 1000
1. Input power =
t × E.C

n = no. of rev of the energy meter disc = 5 rev

t = time taken for 5 rev of the disc
E.C = Energy meter constant = 1200 rev/kwh

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 SIR C.R.REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ELURU

2. Output power = WQH

W = Specific weight of water = 9810 N/m3
A× h
Q=
T
Q = Discharge of the pump
A = area of the collecting tank = 0.3 x 0.3
h = height of the water level in the tank
T = time taken for 5 cm rise of water level
⎡ P P ⎤
H = ⎢ s + d ⎥ × 10.33 m of water head
⎣ 760 1.033 ⎦
Ps = Vacuum pressure in mm of Hg

Pd = Delivery pressure in Kg/cm2

outputpower
3. Efficiency of pump η = × 100
inputpower

GRAPHS:
1) Head Vs Discharge
2) Head Vs Efficiency
3) Head Vs Power

RESULT: The performance curves of the pump are obtained.

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 SIR C.R.REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ELURU

7.CENTRIFUGAL PUMP

AIM: To draw the performance curves of centrifugal pump

APPARATUS: Centrifugal test rig, Stop watch, Tachometer

THEORY: The hydraulic machine converts the mechanical energy into the pressure energy
or hydraulic energy. The machine, which converts the mechanical energy to the hydraulic
energy by means of centrifugal force, that hydraulic machine is known as centrifugal pump.

The centrifugal pump works on the principle of force vortex flow by means
that when certain mass of fluid is rotated by means of any external force. There will
be rise of pressure of the fluid at its centre of rotation takes place at the outlet of the
impeller when the radius is more, the rise in head is more and the discharge is also
high. Due to this rise in pressure head this pressure head can be used to rise the fluid

to a high level.

PROCEDURE:
1. The sump is filled with sufficient amount of water keeping the delivery valve fully
closed, the pump is started

2. Priming is done for the pump before starting

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 SIR C.R.REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ELURU

3. Then the valve is slowly opened and the actual discharge is found by noting the time
taken for 5 cm raise of water level.

4. The time taken for 5 revolutions of the energy meter disc is noted and by using this time
the input power can be known

5. The suction and delivery pressure are known by the pressure gauges

6. The procedure is repeated for different set of readings

PRECAUTIONS:
3. The delivery valve should be completely closed before starting and stopping of the pump

4. Priming is done for the pump before starting

OBSERVATIONS:

S. Spee Time Time Sucti Deliv H Input Out η= Discha

No d taken taken on ery powe put (Op/Ip) rge
(N) for 5 for 5cm head Head r pow x 100 Q(m3/s
rev rise of mete er ec)
disc water rs
rpm Ps Pd W
t T W

MODEL CALCULATIONS:
n × 3600 × 1000
4. Input power =
t × E.C
n = no. of rev of the energy meter disc = 5 rev
t = time taken for 5 rev of the disc
E.C = Energy meter constant = 150 rev/kWh

5. Output power = WQH

W = Specific weight of water = 9810 N/m3
A× h
Q=
T
3
Q = Discharge of the pump in m /sec
A = area of the collecting tank = 1x 0.4 m2
h = height of the water level in the tank in m

T = time taken for 5 cm rise of water level

⎡ P P ⎤
H = ⎢ s + d ⎥ × 10.33 m of water head
⎣ 760 1.033 ⎦
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 SIR C.R.REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ELURU

Ps = Vacuum pressure in mm of Hg

Pd = Delivery pressure in Kg/cm2

outputpower
6. Efficiency of pump η = × 100
inputpower

GRAPHS:
4) Discharge Vs Head
5) Discharge Vs Efficiency
6) Discharge Vs Power

RESULT: The performance curves of the pump are obtained.

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 SIR C.R.REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ELURU

8.FRANCIS TURBINE

AIM: To draw the performance characteristic curves of Francis turbine

APPARATUS: Closed circuit experiment setup containing Francis turbine, tachometer,

weights

THEORY: Radial flow turbines are those turbines in which the water flows in the radial
direction. The water may flow radially from outwards to inwards or vice versa. If the water
flows from outwards to inwards through the runner, the turbine is known as inward flow
reaction turbine.

Reaction turbine means that the water at the inlet of the turbine possess kinetic energy
as well as pressure energy. As the water flows through the runner, a part of pressure energy
goes on changing into kinetic energy

The inward flow reaction turbine having radial discharge at outlet is known as
Francis turbine. In the modern Francis turbine, the water enters the turbine in the radial
direction at the outlet and leaves in the axial direction at the inlet of the runner. The main
parts of the turbine are
1. Casing
2. Runner
3. Guide mechanism
4. Draft tube

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 SIR C.R.REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ELURU

PROCEDURE:
1. The pump is filled with sufficient amount of water and the pump is primed if necessary
2. The turbine is kept in the unloaded position. The gate valve and the manometer cocks are
kept closed
3. The pump is started and the gate valve is slowly opened. The amount of water entering
the casing is adjusted by turning the wheel connected to the guide valves
4. The speed of the turbine is measured and the manometer readings are noted. The head of
the turbine is measured.
5. The turbine is gradually loaded from lower to higher weights and the speed, manometer
readings, load applied are noted for each step of loading
6. The above procedure is repeated for ½, 3/4th, fully open conditions of the gate valve
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Before the experiment is started, it must be checked that the gate valve and the cocks of
the manometer are closed.
2. The water used must be free from dust
3. The cocks of the manometer must be opened gently
OBSERVATIONS:
Gate Speed Pressur Head Manometer readings Load Spring Net WP B η N Pu Q
openin N e gauge of the applied balance load P u u
g (rpm) reading Water W(kg) reading (kg)
P1 S(kg)
Kg/cm2 H

meters
W-S
h1 h2 h=(h1-h2)x
C c 10
m m

mm
¼
½
¾
full

MODEL CALCULATIONS:

WQH
Input Power =Water power = in Kw
1000
W = 9810 N/m3

⎛ 84.5 × h ⎞
Q = ⎜ ⎟ in m3/sec
⎜ 60000 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
84.5 = Venturimeter constant
h = Manometer reading in mm of Hg

⎛ P + 1.033 ⎞
H = ⎜ 1 ⎟ × (10.33) in meters of water
⎝ 1.033 ⎠

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 SIR C.R.REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ELURU

P1 = Pressure gauge reading in Kg/cm2

2πNT
Brake power = Output Power = Kw
60000

N = Speed of brake drum dynamometer in rpm

T = (W − S )× 9.81× 0.162 N-m

output
Efficiency η = × 100
input

N
Unit speed Nu =
H

Q
Unit discharge Qu =
H

P
Unit power Pu =
H32
P = Brake Power

GRAPHS:

1. Unit Speed Vs Unit Discharge

2. Unit Speed Vs Unit Power
3. Unit Speed Vs Efficiency

RESULT: The performance characteristic curves of Francis Turbine are obtained.

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 SIR C.R.REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ELURU

9.PELTON WHEEL

AIM: To draw the performance characteristic curves of Pelton wheel

APPARATUS: Closed circuit experimental setup containing Pelton wheel, tachometer,

Weights

THEORY: The Pelton wheel or Pelton turbine is a tangential flow impulse turbine. The
water strikes the bucket along the tangent of runner. The energy available at the runner is
only kinetic energy. The pressure at the inlet and outlet of the turbine is atmospheric. This
turbine is used for high heads

The water flows from the reservoir and flows through the penstock at the outlet of
which a nozzle is fitted, the nozzle increases the kinetic energy of water flowing through the
penstock. At the outlet of the nozzle, the water comes out in the form of a jet and strikes the
buckets of the runner. The main parts of the Pelton wheel are

1. Nozzle and flow regulating arrangement

2. Runner and buckets
3. Casing and braking jet

PROCEDURE:
1. The pump is fitted with sufficient amount of water and the pump is primed if necessary
2. The turbine is kept in the unloaded position, gate valve and cocks of the manometer are
kept constant
3. The pump is started and the gate valve is slowly opened. The amount of water striking the
wheel is adjusted by keeping the spear in 1/4th open conditions
4. The speed of the turbine is measured and the manometer reading is noted. The head on
the turbine is measured
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 SIR C.R.REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ELURU

5. The turbine is gradually loaded from lower to higher weights and the speed, manometer
reading and the load applied are noted in each case
6. The above procedure is repeated for ½, ¾ th, fully open conditions.

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The gate valve and cocks of the manometer must be closed at the initial stage
2. Water used must be free from dust
3. Manometer readings are taken with out parallax error
4. Cocks of the manometer must be opened gently

OBSERVATIONS:
Gate Speed Pressur Head Manometer readings Load Spring Net WP B N P Q
openin N e of the h1 h2 h=(h1-h2)x applied balanc load P η u u u
g (rpm) gauge Water C c 10 W(kg) e (kg)
readin m m readin
g H g
P1 mm S(kg)
Kg/cm meters
2
W-S
¼
½
¾
full

MODEL CALCULATIONS:

WQH
Input Power =Water power = in Kw
1000
W = 9810 N/m3

⎛ 35.7 × h ⎞
Q = ⎜ ⎟ in m3/sec
⎜ 60000 ⎟
⎝ ⎠

35.7 = Venturimeter constant

h = Manometer reading in mm of Hg

⎛ P + 1.033 ⎞
H = ⎜ 1 ⎟ × (10.33) in meters of water
⎝ 1.033 ⎠
P1 = Pressure gauge reading in Kg/cm2

2πNT
Brake power = Output Power = Kw
60000
N = Speed of brake drum dynamometer in rpm
T = (W − S )× 9.81× 0.162 N-m

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 SIR C.R.REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ELURU

output
Efficiency η = × 100
input

N
Unit speed Nu =
H

Q
Unit discharge Qu =
H

P
Unit power Pu =
H32
P = Brake Power

GRAPHS:
4. Unit Speed Vs Unit Discharge
5. Unit Speed Vs Unit Power
6. Unit Speed Vs Efficiency

RESULT: The performance characteristic curves of Pelton Wheel are obtained.

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 SIR C.R.REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ELURU

10.LIFT AND DRAG COEFFICIENT FOR AN AEROFOIL

Aim:
To determine the lift and drag forces for the given aerofoil and hence to obtain co-
efficient of lift and coefficient of drag.

Apparatus:
1. Wind tunnel test rig
2. NACA 0018 aerofoil of axial chord = 16 cm and Span = 25 cm
3. NACA 0018 aerofoil with a linkage mechanism and a digital component force measuring
transducer to determine lift and drag forces.
4. A pitot - static tube with a U-tube water manometer

Description:
The wind tunnel is of suction type with an axial flow fan driven by a variable speed
DC motor. It consists of an entrance section with a bell mouth inlet containing a flow
straighter, screen and a straw honey combs. This section is followed by a nozzle section, test
section, a diffuser section and a duct containing the axial flow fan. The whole unit is
supported on steel frame. The complete wind tunnel except the test section is constructed of
MS sheets for strength and rigidity. The test section is made of teak wood and has plexiglass
window for visual observations of flow phenomena. The control of the DC motor is by a
rectifier controlled variable speed drive.

Theory:
Wind tunnel is generally used for testing the models of various shapes like aerofoils,
cylinders, cascade of blades etc. In a wind tunnel the important part is the test section. The
aim is to obtain a truly rectilinear flow across the test section. The object to be tested are
placed in the test section. The wind tunnel can be of suction type or blower type. The air
enters in to the settling chamber on account of the large cross section area of the setting
chamber. Its velocity is reduced, and the presence of wire gauges and honey comb straightens
the flow before it is expanded in the contraction zone. The working or test section receives a
uniform stream of air from the contraction zone.

Procedure:
1. The given aerofoil is rigidly fixed in the test section to the vertical rod extending from the
transducer. The angle of incidence (α) is kept at zero initially.
2. The transducers are connected to the digital display device where the lift and drag forces
can be read directly.
3. The motor is started and speed is increased gradually. So that manometer deflection from
the pitot tube is at least 5 cm.
4. The lift force & drag force are noted from the display device
5. The angle of incidence is altered to different angles and the readings of lift and drag
forces are noted.
6. Graphs are plotted for CL CD Versus incidence angle.
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 SIR C.R.REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ELURU

Observations:

Angle of Pitot tube Drag force Lift force

S.No incidence reading FD FL
α (Deg) q (cm) (kgf) (kgf)

Model Calculations:
Incidence angle (α) = 00
Pitot tube reading = q cm
Velocity (V) = 13 √q m/s

Drag Coefficient (CD):

FD
Drag coefficient (CD) = 1
ρV 2 × A
2
Where A = Chord x span

Lift Coefficient (Cl):

FL
Lift coefficient (CL)= 1
ρV 2 × A
2
Results:

Angle of Velocity of Air Drag

Lift Coefficient
SNo incidence V Coefficient
(CL)
α (Deg) (m/sec) (CD)

Precautions:
1. When the power is turned with main switch, the speed control knob of the motor should
be kept at minimum.
2. The DC motor should not be operated at low inlet voltages.
3. The aerofoi1 should be tight in its position while taking the readings for a particular
incidence angle.

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 SIR C.R.REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ELURU

11.VERIFICATION OF BERNOULLI’S THEOREM

Aim:
To verify Bernoulli’s theorem.

Theory:
The Bernoulli’s theorem states that for steady, uniform & laminar flow of an

incompressible fluid, the total energy per unit weight or total head of each particle remains

same along a stream line provided no energy is gained or lost.

Most of the hydraulic studies are based on the principle of Bernoulli’s theorem.
Verification of the above principle experimentally helps in better understanding of the
principles of hydraulics flow.

Mathematically, Bernoulli’ s theorem can be expressed as Total head (or) Total energy
per unit weight,
v2 p
Ht = z + + = Constant
2g w
Where, Z = datum head = position of center of conduit with respect to datum
v2
= Velocity Head
2g

Q = Actual Discharge
Q
V = Velocity of flow = = _____________
A
A = Cross sectional area
g = Acceleration due to gravity
p
= Piezometric head or pressure head
w

w = Specific weight i.e., weight per unit volume = ρ × g = 9810 N/m3

ρ = Mass density is the mass per unit volume for water

Apparatus:
Bernouli’s Apparatus
Collecting tank with piezometer
Stopwatch to measure the time of collection
Meter scale to measure the internal dimensions of the collecting tank

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 SIR C.R.REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ELURU

Description Of The Equipment:

The experimental set up consists of a convergent- passage of rectangular cross section
made out of clear transparent sheet to facilitate visual observation of the flow. The passage
walls are so made that the top of the wall is horizontal and the sidewalls are vertical and
mutually parallel to each other. The lower wall is so constructed that it gives the passage to
the required convergence and divergence. The total length of test section of the passage
divided in to a number of equal lengths, where piezometric tubes are fitted. Each of these
piezometric tubes is provided with a scale to measure the pressure energy or pressure heads.

At both the ends of the passage tanks are provided, which help to stabilize the flow.
The calibrated scale is provided to measure the volume of water in the measuring tank based
on the water level in the gauge glass.

The setup is provided with an arrangement for injecting a dye ( color) into the passage
at its entrance a fine nozzle with the help of which usual observation of the flow can be made

Procedure:

1. The experiment is conducted with datum line taken at the center line of the
rectangular channel of varying cross sections and is same at all sections and
considered ‘zero’ as its value.
2. Open the inlet valve to allow the flow from the supply tank through the conduct. Also
admit the dye into the passage.
3. Adjust the outlet valve of the apparatus, so that a constant head is maintained in the
supply tank of the apparatus.
4. Remove air bubbles in the piezometer tubes. Measure the pressure heads at various
sections of the conduit with the piezometers placed at each section.
5. Note the time ‘t’ for collection of water to the known rise ‘H’ of water level in the
collecting tank.
6. Calculate velocity and hence velocity head.
7. Tabulate the observations and calculate the total heads.

Specimen Calculations:
(Reading No: )
Area of the collecting tank, A = L x B = 0.3 x 0.3 = 0.09 m2
AH 0.09x 0.1 0.009 3
Discharge, Q = = = m /s
t t t
Q
Velocity, v = = m/s
a
v2
Velocity head, = m
2g

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 SIR C.R.REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ELURU

p
Pressure head, h = = m
w

Cross section Time for Avg Discharge Velocity Velocity Pressure Datum Total head
‘H’ m rise time AH Q head, head, head Z v2 p
‘t’ in sec ‘t’ in Q= v= in Ht = z + +
t v2 p
sec a h= m 2g w
in
in 2g w in
m3/s
m3/s in m/s in m m
-4
No Area 10 1 2
m2
1 a1=1.8

2 a2=1.6

3 a3 = 1.4

4 a4=1.2

5 a5=1

6 a6=1.1

7 a7=1.2

8 a8=1.3

9 a9=1.4

10 a10=1.5

11 a11=1.6

12 a12=1.7

13 a13=1.8

14 a14=1.9

Datum head, z = m
v2 p
Therefore, total head at each station, H t = z + + = m
2g w

v12 p1 v 22 p 2
∴ H t = z1 + + = Ht = z2 + + = Constant
2g w 2g w

Graph:
The graphs of pressure head, velocity head and total head are drawn at various cross-
sections, taking the cross section area on X-axis.

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 SIR C.R.REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ELURU

12.CO-EFFICIENT OF FRICTION IN PIPES

Aim:
To determine the Coefficient of Friction of a pipe

Theory:
When a liquid flows through a pipe it looses some of its energy in over
coming the frictional resistance. Hence, the pressure applied at one end of the pipe
does not reach the other end, due to the friction. This loss in pressure head is called
the frictional loss and it depends upon the contact area, velocity of flow and length of
pipe. Determination of Co-efficient of friction helps to determine the head loss in the
flow as it flows from one point to other.

Apparatus:
Ø Test pipe with valves to control now
Ø Manometer or any pressure measuring device to measure the pressure difference
between points of observation
Ø Collecting lank to collect the discharge through pipe
Ø Stop Watch to determine the time of collection of water to know raise of water level
in the tank
Ø Scale to measure the plan dimensions of collecting tank

Description of apparatus:
The test rig consists of a pipe length with inlet and outlet control valves. Two pressure
tapings are made at a length (1 meter) and connected to a U-tube mercury manometer or any
pressure measuring devices to measure the pressure difference between the two points of
observation. A collecting tank is provided at the out let end to collect the discharge and to
find out the actual discharge.

Procedure:
1. Open the inlet valve and allow the liquid to flow through the pipe
2. Note the left limb and right limb readings in the manometer or pressure gauge
readings at the point of observation.
3. Close the outlet valve in the collecting tank
4. Note the time taken for ‘H’ mm raise of water level in collecting lank
5. Increase the discharge by opening the inlet valve and repeat for at least five times

Observations & Tabulations:

Manometric readings in left limb of the manometer, h1 = m
Manometric readings in right limb of the manometer, h2 = m
Specific gravity of manometer liquid, (Mercury) Sm = 13.6

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 SIR C.R.REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ELURU

Specific gravity of flowing liquid, (water) Sf = 1.0

Co-efficient of friction, f=
Length of pipe between the points of observation, l= m
Q
Velocity of flow in pipe, v = , v= m/sec
a
Cross sectional area of pipe, a= m2
Diameter of pipe, d= m
Internal plan area of collecting tank, A= m2
Rise of liquid level in the collecting tank, H= m
Time of collection for ‘H’ rise in the collecting tank, t= sec
AH
Discharge through the pipe, Q = Q= m3/sec
t
S.No Manometer readings Loss of head Time Discharge Velocity Coefficient of
Left Limb Right Difference, x =
⎡ S − Sf ⎤taken
‘H’ mm
for
Q=
AH
V=
Q friction,
h1 (mm) Limb h2 (h1-h2) h f = x ⎢ m ⎥of rise h f .2.g.d
t a f =
(mm) (mm)
⎣ Sf ⎦(sec) 3
(m /sec) m/sec 4.l.v 2
= 12.6 x (mm)
1
2
3
4
5
6

Specimen calculation:
AH
Actual Discharge, Q act = = m3/sec
t
Area of tank, A = m2
Rise of water, H = m
Time taken for ‘H’ m rise of water, t = sec
Lose of head in terms of flowing liquid due to friction,

⎛ S − Sf ⎞ ⎛ (13.6 − 1)(h1 − h 2 ) ⎞
h f = x⎜⎜ m ⎟⎟ = ⎜ ⎟
⎝ S f ⎠ ⎝ 1 ⎠
h .2.g.d
Coefficient of friction, f = f 2
4.l.v
V2
Graph: Draw the graph between hf Vs with hf on y-axis
2g
Result: The coefficient of friction for the given pipe, f =

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 SIR C.R.REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ELURU

13.HYDRAULIC RAM

Aim:
To determine Rankine’s Efficiency and D’Aubuisson’s Efficiency of Hydraulic Ram

Apparatus:
Closed circuit Hydraulic Ram Apparatus, Stop watch
Theory:
The Hydraulic Ram is a type of pump in which the energy of large quantity of water
falling through small height is utilized to lift a small quantity of this water to a greater
height No external power is therefore required to operate this pump. Hydraulic Ram
consists of a valve chamber having a waste valve and delivery valve. The waste valve
opens into an air vessel to which a delivery pipe is connected. This valve opens into an air
vessel to which a delivery pipe is connected. This delivery pipe carries water to the
delivery tank. The valve chamber is connected to a low level supply tank through a supply
pipe.

The working of Hydraulic Ram is based on the principle of water hammer or inertia
pressure developed in the supply pipe. When the waste valve is remains closed then the
hydraulic ram does not function at all. When the waste valve kept open, then water in the
pipe begins to run through waste valve and the flow is set up. The velocity of water in drive
pipe increases under the supply head.

During this period the dynamic pressure of the water under side of valve will become
greater than the dead weight of the waste valve at one stage, then the waste valve gets closed.
Due to this the momentum of moving column of liquid in the pipe is destroyed. This change
in momentum results in increased pressure in the valve chamber. If this pressure exceeds, the
pressure in the topside of the delivery valve due to the column of water in the delivery
pipeline and then the delivery valve opens. The cater from valve chamber rushes into air
vessel and then flow through the delivery pipeline to delivery tank.

Procedure:
1) Fill the supply tank by water.
2) Select particular stroke of waste valve. Then start the priming in valve chamber by
using waste valve. After some time valve starts moving by its own and water starts
collecting in waste water tank and also starts delivering through delivery pipe.
3) Then start the pump.
4) Measure the water column height in waste water tank for particular number of
strokes and time & note it down.
5) Then measure the water column height in the delivery tank for same number of
strokes and note down time.
6) Take number of readings by varying the lift of waste valve.
7) Do the calculations as per given below and find out the Ram Efficiency.

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 SIR C.R.REDDY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, ELURU

Observations:

1) Delivery Tank size : 290 x 290 mm = 0.0841 m2

2) Waste water tank size : 390 x 390 mm = 0.1521 m2
3) Supply Head (H) : l.4m
4) Delivery Head ( hd ) : 2.8m
Observation Table :

No
Waste water tank Delivery tank
of
stro
Was Heig Tim
ke Height
te D’Aubu Rankine
Sr per ht of e ‘T of Time
valv isson’s ’s
N min water in Water
water ‘t’ in
Water
e lift colu sec dischar dischar Efficien Efficien
o of colum sec for
in mn for ge ‘Q’ ge ‘q’ cy cy
wast n ‘y’ ‘y’
mm ‘X’ ‘X’ in in
e 3 in mm 3
valv in mm m /sec m /sec
glass height
e glass heig
tube
tube ht

Calculations:

qxh d
1) D’ Aubuisson’s Efficiency =
(Q + q )× h
Where, q = Volume of water lifted by ram in m3/sec
y
= X Cross sectional area of delivery tank
t
Where, y = Height of water column increase in delivery tank in m.
T = Time for collecting ‘y’ m of water column.
Q = Volume of water collecting in waste water tank.
x
Q= X Cross sectional area of waste water tank.
T
Where, x = Height of water column increase in waste water tank in m.
T = Time for collecting ‘x’ m of water column

q(h d − H )
2) Rankine’s Efficiency =
Q×H

Graph:
No of strokes per minute of waste valve Vs Rankine's Efficiency
No of strokes per minute of waste valve Vs D’aubuisson’s Efficiency
DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING 34