Gen Bio1 NOTES

Cell Theory

The cell theory is a fundamental principle in biology that describes the properties and functions of cells. It consists of
three main parts:

1. All living organisms are composed of cells. This means that cells are the basic building blocks of all life forms,
from single-celled organisms to complex multicellular organisms.
2. The cell is the basic unit of structure and organization in organisms. Cells are the smallest units that can carry
out all the processes necessary for life, such as metabolism and reproduction.
3. All cells arise from pre-existing cells. This means that new cells are produced by the division of existing cells,
rather than forming spontaneously.

First Postulate
 Cork of Hooke - cytoplasm had already dissipated, indicating the cell’s death
 Teeth scraping of Leeuwenhooek – found animalcules shooting and spinning inside the cell.

Second Postulate
 Matthias Jacob Schleiden (1838) – small compartments in his plant specimens are cells
 Theodore Schwann (1839) – proposed that all animals are made up of cells

Third Postulate
 Rudolf Virchow (1855) – introduced 3rd tenet of the cell theory: omnis cellula e cellula means “cells come
from pre-existing cells

Development of cell theory

 Marcello Malpighi and Nenemiah Grew (1665-1676) – determined the presence of organelles within its
cells
 Jan Evangelista Purkenji (1787 – 1869) – gave the name protoplasm, the colloidal substance in the cell
 Roberts brown (1831) – discovered cell organelles – nucleus of the cell
 Albrecht Von Roelliker (1840) – stated that sperm and egg are composed of cells
 Louis Pasteur (1849) – developed fermentation – process to kill bacteria

Cell History (People)

• Hans and Zacharias Janssen (1590)
- Father and son from German. Placed two spectacle lenses into a tube that leads to the 1 st compound
microscope.
• Robert Hooke (1665)
- 1665 discovered the cell through a thin slice of cork which he compared to a cellulae
• Anton/Antoni/Antoine Van Leeuwenhoek
- Father of microbiology
- Examined diff. subjects using compound microscope
- 1676 – bacteria in water

Spontaneous Generation – belief that living things could spontaneously arise from non-living material.

Major Parts of the Cell

1. Plasma Membrane – separates the cell’s interior from its environment
- Encloses and safeguards organelles from possible harm
- Control’s the exchange of essential components from other cells
Components:
1. Phospolipids – made of glycerol, two fatty acid tails, and phosphate-linked head group
Phospolipid Bilayer – 2 layer of phospholipids with its tail pointing upward
2. Cholesterol - four fused carbon rings
2. Proteins – move large molecules or aid in cell recognition
Peripheral proteins – attached on the surface (inner-outer)
Integral proteins – embedded through membrane
3. Nucleus – discovered by Robert Brown 1833
- Control center most vital part of the cell
- Nucleolus – site of ribosomes synthesis

Cell Organelles

1. Nucleus: The control center of the cell, containing genetic material (DNA). It regulates gene expression and
mediates the replication of DNA during the cell cycle.
2. Mitochondria: Often referred to as the "powerhouses" of the cell, mitochondria generate ATP (adenosine
triphosphate), which is used as a source of chemical energy.
3. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
o Rough ER: Studded with ribosomes and involved in protein synthesis and processing.
o Smooth ER: Lacks ribosomes and is involved in lipid synthesis and detoxification.
4. Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for secretion or delivery to other organelles.
5. Ribosomes: The sites of protein synthesis, found either floating freely in the cytoplasm or attached to the rough
ER.
6. Lysosomes: Contain digestive enzymes that break down waste materials and cellular debris.
7. Peroxisomes: Contain enzymes that help in the breakdown of fatty acids and the detoxification of harmful
substances.
8. Cytoskeleton: A network of protein fibers (microfilaments, intermediate filaments, and microtubules) that
provides structural support, shape, and movement to the cell.
9. Cell Membrane: A lipid bilayer with embedded proteins that regulates the movement of substances into and out
of the cell.
10. Vacuoles: Membrane-bound sacs that store nutrients, waste products, and help maintain turgor pressure in plant
cells.
11. Chloroplasts: Found in plant cells and some algae, chloroplasts are responsible for photosynthesis, the process of
converting sunlight into chemical energy.
12. Centrosomes: found in eukaryotic cells, assist in arranging microtubules

Eukaryotic Cells:

 Have a nucleus.
 Contain membrane-bound organelles (e.g., mitochondria, ER, Golgi apparatus).
 Larger in size (10–100 micrometers).
 DNA is linear and contained within the nucleus.
 Often multicellular (e.g., plants, animals, fungi).
 Undergo mitosis for cell division.

Prokaryotic Cells:

 No nucleus, DNA floats freely in the cytoplasm.

 Lack membrane-bound organelles.
 Smaller in size (1–10 micrometers).
 DNA is circular.
 Typically unicellular (e.g., bacteria, archaea).
 Reproduce through binary fission.

Both (Shared Characteristics):

 Have cell membranes.

 Contain ribosomes (although structurally different).
 Have cytoplasm.
  Use DNA as genetic material.
 Perform metabolism and other life processes.

Cell types nb

Cell specialization nb

Phases of the Cell Cycle

Mitosis

1. Interphase: This is the phase where the cell spends most of its life. Interphase is divided into three sub-phases:
o G1 Phase (Gap 1): The cell grows in size, synthesizes proteins, and produces RNA. This phase focuses
on normal cell functions and preparation for DNA replication.
o S Phase (Synthesis): DNA replication occurs, resulting in the duplication of chromosomes. Each
chromosome now consists of two sister chromatids connected at the centromere.
o G2 Phase (Gap 2): The cell continues to grow and produces proteins and organelles required for cell
division. The cell checks for any DNA replication errors and prepares for mitosis.
2. M Phase (Mitosis): This is the phase where the cell actually divides. Mitosis is further divided into several
stages:
o Prophase: Chromosomes condense and become visible. The nuclear envelope begins to break down, and
the mitotic spindle (a structure made of microtubules) starts to form.
o Metaphase: Chromosomes line up along the equatorial plane (metaphase plate) of the cell. The spindle
fibers attach to the centromeres of the chromosomes.
o Anaphase: The sister chromatids are pulled apart towards opposite poles of the cell as the spindle fibers
shorten.
o Telophase: The chromatids reach the poles of the cell and begin to de-condense back into chromatin. The
nuclear envelope reforms around each set of chromosomes, resulting in two distinct nuclei.
3. Cytokinesis: This is the final step where the cytoplasm of the cell divides, resulting in two separate daughter
cells. In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs through a process called cleavage furrow formation, while in plant cells,
a cell plate forms to separate the daughter cells.

Meiosis
- Chromosome no. of daughter cell is reduced into half (four haploid daughter cells)

Meiosis 1 – 2 daughter cells

Prophase 1:
Leptotene – same sa prophase of mito
Zygotene – synpsis occurs forming tetrads
Pachytene – crossing over
Diplotene – disintegration of nuclear membrane
Diakinesis – formation of spindle fiber

Metaphase 1 - nuclear membrane completely disintegrated

- Spindle fibers attached to the tetrads
- Tetrads move to metaphase plate

Anaphase 1 – chromosomes move from the center to opposite poles

Telophase 1 – cytoplasm divide, nuclear membrane is formed
Cytokinesis 1 – cytoplasm split into 2, making 2 cells (46n)

Meiosis 2 – sister chromatids of each chromosomes separate

• Prophase II – same sa mitotic phase of prophase except it contains haploid chromosomes

• Metaphase II – formation of spindle fibers

- Chromosome aligned at the metaphase plate
• Anaphase II – daughter chromosomes moves towards the opposite poles
• Telophase II – reappearance of nuclear envelope
- formation of 4 haploid daughter cells
• Cytokinesis – cytoplasm of cell split into two, making 4 new cells (23n)
Tetrads - 4 chromosomes

Regulation of the Cell Cycle

The cell cycle is tightly regulated by various checkpoints and proteins to ensure proper division and function:

1. G1 Checkpoint: Checks for cell size, nutrients, growth factors, and DNA damage before entering the S
phase.Geb BIO
2. G2 Checkpoint: Ensures that DNA has been replicated correctly and that there are no errors before proceeding to
mitosis.
3. M Checkpoint: Monitors the alignment of chromosomes on the metaphase plate and ensures that all
chromosomes are properly attached to the spindle fibers before anaphase begins.

Key Regulatory Proteins

 Cyclins: Proteins that regulate the progression of the cell cycle by activating cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs).
 Cyclin-Dependent Kinases (CDKs): Enzymes that, when activated by cyclins, drive the cell cycle forward.
 Tumor Suppressor Proteins: Such as p53, which can halt the cell cycle if DNA damage is detected.

Passive Transport

Passive transport does not require energy input from the cell. Substances move across the cell membrane along their
concentration gradient (from high to low concentration). Types of passive transport include:

1. Simple Diffusion:
o Description: Movement of small, nonpolar molecules (like oxygen, carbon dioxide) directly through the
lipid bilayer.
o Example: Oxygen entering cells and carbon dioxide leaving cells.
2. Facilitated Diffusion:
o Description: Movement of larger or polar molecules (like glucose or ions) through specific membrane
proteins (transporters or channels) without energy input.
3. Osmosis:
o Description: A special case of facilitated diffusion involving water molecules. Water moves through
selective permeable membranes via water channels called aquaporins.

Active Transport

Active transport requires energy, usually in the form of ATP, to move substances against their concentration gradient
(from low to high concentration). Types of active transport include:

1. Primary Active Transport:

o Description: Direct use of energy (typically ATP) to transport molecules against their gradient via
specific pumps.
2. Secondary Active Transport (Cotransport):
o Description: Utilizes the energy from primary active transport indirectly. It involves the movement of
one substance down its gradient to drive the movement of another substance against its gradient.
3. Bulk Transport (Vesicular Transport):
o Description: Transport of large quantities of substances or large particles via vesicles. This process
requires energy.
o Types:
  Endocytosis: The cell membrane engulfs external materials to form a vesicle and brings them
into the cell. Types include:
 Phagocytosis: Engulfing large particles or cells (e.g., white blood cells eating bacteria).
 Pinocytosis: Engulfing extracellular fluid and dissolved substances
 Exocytosis: Vesicles containing cellular products or waste merge with the plasma membrane to
release their contents outside the cell (e.g., neurotransmitter release from neurons).

Transport mechanisms are essential for various cellular functions, including:

 Nutrient Acquisition: Cells need to import essential nutrients and ions.

 Waste Removal: Cells must expel metabolic waste products and toxins.
 Homeostasis: Maintaining the proper internal environment by regulating ion concentrations and water balance.
 Cell Communication: Transport mechanisms play a role in the signaling pathways and interactions between
cells.

Hypertonic Solution:

 A hypertonic solution has a higher concentration of solutes (such as salt or sugar) compared to the inside of the
cell.
 Water will move out of the cell into the surrounding solution to balance the concentration.
 As a result, the cell will shrink or become dehydrated

Isotonic Solution:

 An isotonic solution has the same concentration of solutes as inside the cell.
 Water moves equally in and out of the cell, so there is no net movement of water.
 The cell maintains its normal shape and size in an isotonic environment.

Hypotonic Solution:

 A hypotonic solution has a lower concentration of solutes compared to the inside of the cell.
 Water will move into the cell from the surrounding solution.
 As a result, the cell will swell and may even burst (this is called lysis in animal cells and turgid in plant cells,
where the cell wall prevents bursting)

Diffusion:

 Diffusion is the movement of particles (such as molecules or ions) from an area of higher concentration to an
area of lower concentration.
 It occurs passively, meaning it does not require energy.

Osmosis:

 Osmosis is a specific type of diffusion, where water molecules move from an area of lower solute
concentration (or higher water concentration) to an area of higher solute concentration (or lower water
concentration) through a semi-permeable membrane.
 Like diffusion, it is a passive process and does not require energy.
 The goal of osmosis is to balance the concentration of solutes on both sides of the membrane.

Nb at ppt lesson 7