Physical Layer :

Cabling :
To connect two or more computers or networking devices in a network, network cables are
used.

There are three types of network cables : coaxial, twisted-pair, and fiber-optic.

Coaxial cable
This cable contains a conductor, insulator, braiding, and sheath.

The sheath covers the braiding, the braiding covers the insulation, and the insulation covers the
conductor.

The following image shows these components.

Sheath

This is the outer layer of the coaxial cable. It protects the cable from physical damage.

Braided shield

This shield protects signals from external interference and noise. This shield is built from the
same metal that is used to build the core.
Insulation

Insulation protects the core. It also keeps the core separate from the braided shield. Since
both the core and the braided shield use the same metal, without this layer, they will touch
each other and create a short-circuit in the wire.

Conductor

The conductor carries electromagnetic signals. Based on conductor a coaxial cable can be
categorized into two types; single-core coaxial cable and multi-core coaxial cable.

A single-core coaxial cable uses a single central metal (usually copper) conductor, while
a multi-core coaxial cable uses multiple thin strands of metal wires.

Coaxial cables in computer networks

The coaxial cables were not primarily developed for the computer network.

These cables were developed for general purposes.

They were in use even before computer networks came into existence.

They are still used even their use in computer networks has been completely discontinued.

Because of its low cost and long durability, coaxial cables were used in computer networking
for nearly two decades (the 80s and 90s).

Coaxial cables are no longer used to build any type of computer network.

Specifications of coaxial cables

 Coaxial cables have been in use for the last four decades.

During these years, based on several factors such as the thickness of the sheath, the metal of
the conductor, and the material used in insulation, hundreds of specifications have been
created to specify the characteristics of coaxial cables.

From these specifications, only a few were used in computer networks. The following table
lists them.

Type Conductor Description

RG-6 Solid copper Used in cable network to provide cable Internet service and cable
TV over long distances.
RG-8 Solid copper Used in the earliest computer networks. This cable was used as the
backbone cable in the bus topology. In Ethernet standards, this cable
is documented as the 10base5 Thicknet cable.
RG-58 Several thin This cable is thinner, easier to handle and install than the RG-8
strands of cable. This cable was used to connect a system with the backbone
copper cable. In Ethernet standards, this cable is documented as the 10base2
Thinnet cable.
RG-59 Solid copper Used in cable networks to provide short-distance service.
 Coaxial cable uses RG rating to measure the materials used in shielding and conducting cores.
 RG stands for the Radio Guide. Coaxial cable mainly uses radio frequencies in transmission.

Twisted-pair cables
The twisted-pair cable was primarily developed for computer networks.

This cable is also known as Ethernet cable. Almost all modern LAN computer networks use
this cable.

This cable consists of color-coded pairs of insulated copper wires.

Every two wires are twisted around each other to form pair. Usually, there are four pairs.
Each pair has one solid color and one stripped color wire.

Solid colors are blue, brown, green, and orange. In stripped color, the solid color is mixed
with the white color.

Based on how pairs are stripped in the plastic sheath, there are two types of twisted-pair
cable : UTP and STP.

In the UTP (Unshielded twisted-pair) cable, all pairs are wrapped in a single plastic sheath.

In the STP (Shielded twisted-pair) cable, each pair is wrapped with an additional metal
shield, then all pairs are wrapped in a single outer plastic sheath.
 Similarities and differences between STP and UTP cables

 Both STP and UTP can transmit data at 10Mbps, 100Mbps, 1Gbps, and 10Gbps.
 Since the STP cable contains more materials, it is more expensive than the UTP cable.
 Both cables use the same RJ-45 (registered jack) modular connectors.
 Both cables can accommodate a maximum of 1024 nodes in each segment.
 The maximum segment length for both cables is 100 meters or 328 feet.

The following image shows both types of twisted-pair cables.

Fiber optic cable

This cable consists of a core, cladding, buffer, and jacket.

The core is made from thin strands of glass or plastic that can carry data over a long
distance. The core is wrapped in the cladding; the cladding is wrapped in the buffer, and
the buffer is wrapped in the jacket.

 Core carries the data signals in the form of light.

 Cladding reflects light back to the core.
 Buffer protects the light from leaking.
 The jacket protects the cable from physical damage.

Fiber optic cable is completely immune to EMI (Electro Magnetic Interference) and RFI (Radio
Frequency Interference).
This cable can transmit data over a long distance at the highest speed. It can transmit data up
to 40 kilometers at the speed of 100Gbps.

Fiber optic uses light to send data.

It reflects light from one endpoint to another.

Based on how many beams of light are transmitted at a given time, there are two types of
fiber optical cable : SMF and MMF.

SMF (Single Mode Fiber) optical cable

This cable carries only a single beam of light.

This is more reliable and supports much higher bandwidth and longer distances than the MMF
cable.

This cable uses a laser as the light source and transmits 1300 or 1550 nano-meter
wavelengths of light.

MMF (Multi Mode Fiber) optical cable

This cable carries multiple beams of light. Because of multiple beams, this cable carries much
more data than the SMF cable. This cable is used for shorter distances. This cable uses an
LED as the light source and transmits 850 or 1300 nano-meter wavelengths of light.

Network Interface Card (NIC)

Network Interface Card (NIC) is a hardware component that is present on the computer.
It is used to connect different networking devices such as computers and servers to share data
over the connected network.

It provides functionality such as support for I/O interrupt, Direct Memory Access (DMA)
interfaces, partitioning, and data transmission.

NIC is important for us to establish a wired or wireless connection over the network.

Network Interface Card is also known as Network Interface Controller, Network Adapter,
Ethernet card, Connection card, and LAN (Local Area Network) Adapter.

Types of Network Interface Cards

There are the following two types of NICs -

1. Ethernet NIC

Ethernet NIC was developed by Robert Metcalf in 1980. It is made by ethernet cables. This
type of NIC is most widely used in the LAN, MAN, and WAN networks.

Example: TP-LINK TG-3468 Gigabit PCI Express Network Adapter.

2. Wireless Networks NIC

It is a wireless network that allows us to connect the devices without using the cables. These
types of NICs are used to design a Wi-Fi connection.

Example: Intel 3160 Dual-Band Wireless Adapter

Repeater :
A repeater is a dynamic network device used to reproduce the signals when they transmit over
a greater distance so that the signal’s strength remains equal.

A repeater accepts weak signals, electrically regenerates them and then sends the messages on
their way.

There are two types of repeaters: amplifiers and signal-regenerating repeaters.

Hub :
Hubs are networking devices operating at a physical layer of the OSI model that are used
to connect multiple devices in a network. They are generally used to connect computers in
a LAN.
A hub has many ports in it.
A computer which intends to be connected to the network is plugged in to one of these ports.
When a data frame arrives at a port, it is broadcast to every other port, without considering
whether it is destined for a particular destination device or not.

Types of Hubs
Initially, hubs were passive devices. However, with development of advanced technology,
active hubs and intelligent hubs came into use.

 Passive Hubs − Passive hubs connects nodes in a star configuration by collecting

wiring from nodes. They broadcast signals onto the network without amplifying
or regenerating them. As they cannot extend the distance between nodes, they limit
the size of the LAN.

 Active Hubs − Active hubs amplify and regenerate the incoming electrical signals
before broadcasting them. They have their own power supply and serves both as a
repeater as well as connecting centre. Due to their regenerating capabilities, they
can extend the maximum distance between nodes, thus increasing the size of LAN.
  Intelligent Hubs − Intelligent hubs are active hubs that provide additional network
management facilities. They can perform a variety of functions of more intelligent
network devices like network management, switching, providing flexible data rates
etc.

Bridge :
Bridges are used to connect two subnetworks that use interchangeable protocols. It combines
two LANs to form an extended LAN.

Working of Bridges
A bridge accepts all the packets and amplifies all of them to the other side.
The bridges are intelligent devices that allow the passing of only selective packets from
them.
A bridge only passes those packets addressed from a node in one network to another node
in the other network.

A bridge performs in the following aspect −

 A bridge receives all the packets or frame from both LAN (segment) A and B.
  A bridge builds a table of addresses from which it can identify that the packets are sent from
which LAN (or segment) to which LAN.

Types of Bridges
There are generally two types of bridges which are as follows −

Transparent Bridges
It is also called learning bridges.
Bridge construct its table of terminal addresses on its own as it implements connecting
two LANs.
It facilitates the source location to create its table.
It is self-updating. It is a plug and plays bridge.

Source Routing Bridge

This sending terminal means the bridges that the frames should stay. This type of bridge is
used to prevent looping problem.

Uses of Bridges
The main uses of bridges are −

 Bridges are used to divide large busy networks into multiple smaller and interconnected
networks to improve performance.
 Bridges also can increase the physical size of a network.
 Bridges are also used to connect a LAN segment through a synchronous modem relation to
another LAN segment at a remote area.

Switch

Switches are networking devices operating at layer 2 or a data link layer of the OSI
model.
They connect devices in a network and use packet switching to send, receive or forward
data packets or data frames over the network.
A switch has many ports, to which computers are plugged in.
When a data frame arrives at any port of a network switch, it examines the destination
address, performs necessary checks and sends the frame to the corresponding device(s).
It supports unicast, multicast as well as broadcast communications.

Features of Switches
 A switch operates in the layer 2, i.e. data link layer of the OSI model.
 It is an intelligent network device that can be conceived as a multiport network bridge.
 It uses MAC addresses (addresses of medium access control sublayer) to send data
packets to selected destination ports.
 It uses packet switching technique to receive and forward data packets from the source
to the destination device.
 It supports unicast (one-to-one), multicast (one-to-many) and broadcast (one-to-all)
communications.
 Transmission mode is full duplex, i.e. communication in the channel occurs in both the
directions at the same time.
 Switches are active devices, equipped with network software and network management
capabilities.
 Switches can perform some error checking before forwarding data to the destined port.
 The number of ports is higher – 24/48.

Types of Switches
There are variety of switches that can be broadly categorised into 4 types −
  Unmanaged Switch − These are inexpensive switches commonly used in home
networks and small businesses.
o They can be set up by simply plugging in to the network, after which they
instantly start operating.
o When more devices needs to be added, more switches are simply added by this
plug and play method.
o They are referred to as unmanaged since they do not require to be
configured or monitored.

 Managed Switch − These are costly switches that are used in organisations with
large and complex networks, since they can be customized to augment the
functionalities of a standard switch.
o The augmented features may be QoS (Quality of Service) like higher security
levels, better precision control and complete network management.
o Despite their cost, they are preferred in growing organizations due to their
scalability and flexibility.
o Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) is used for configuring
managed switches.

 LAN Switch − Local Area Network (LAN) switches connects devices in the internal
LAN of an organization.
o They are also referred as Ethernet switches or data switches.
o These switches are particularly helpful in reducing network congestion or
bottlenecks.
o They allocate bandwidth in a manner so that there is no overlapping of data
packets in a network.

 PoE Switch − Power over Ethernet (PoE) switches are used in PoE Gogabit Ethernets.
o PoE technology combine data and power transmission over the same cable
so that devices connected to it can receive both electricity as well as data
over the same line.
o PoE switches offer greater flexibility and simplifies the cabling connections.

Router
Router is a particular type of device used to connect two or more subnets that cannot be
similar.
These devices support connectedness between two LANs or two WANs over the large
geographical range.
The routers evaluate the best route from a sender to a receiver.
They operate at the OSI model’s network layer.
Routers are generally a mixture of hardware and software.
The hardware includes physical interfaces to various networks, while the software
consists of operating system and routing protocol.
They use both logical and physical transmitting to link two or more logically separated
networks.
The figure shows three types of LANs connected by a single router.

For this, each network to be connected is allocated a logical address, and then these logical
segments are combined by the router in a large network.
They use the store and forward technique to transmit the message, i.e., receive messages,
check their destination and send the needed LAN message.

Types of Routers
There are various types of routers that are as follows −

Central Router
Central router is a router that acts as the backbone of a network. It connects many LANs.

Local Router
The local router has limitations to operate within the limits of its LAN driver’s cable length
limitations.

Remote Router
A remote router uses modems or remote connections to connect the LANs beyond its
device driver limitations.

Internal Router
Internal router is a part of the network file server, and it routes the data accordingly.

External Router
The external router is located in a workstation on the network.

Peripheral Router
The peripheral router link single LANs to a central router or sometimes to another
peripheral router.

Gateway

A gateway is a network node that forms a passage between two networks operating with
different transmission protocols.
The most common type of gateways, the network gateway operates at layer 3, i.e. network
layer of the OSI (open systems interconnection) model.
However, depending upon the functionality, a gateway can operate at any of the seven
layers of OSI model.
It acts as the entry – exit point for a network since all traffic that flows across the networks
should pass through the gateway. Only the internal traffic between the nodes of a LAN
does not pass through the gateway.
Features of Gateways
 Gateway is located at the boundary of a network and manages all data that inflows or
outflows from that network.
 It forms a passage between two different networks operating with different transmission
protocols.
 A gateway operates as a protocol converter, providing compatibility between the
different protocols used in the two different networks.
 The feature that differentiates a gateway from other network devices is that it can
operate at any layer of the OSI model.
 It also stores information about the routing paths of the communicating networks.
 When used in enterprise scenario, a gateway node may be supplemented as proxy server
or firewall.
 A gateway is generally implemented as a node with multiple NICs (network interface
cards) connected to different networks. However, it can also be configured using
software.

Types of Gateways
On basis of direction of data flow, gateways are broadly divided into two categories −
 Unidirectional Gateways − They allow data to flow in only one direction. Changes
made in the source node are replicated in the destination node, but not vice versa. They
can be used as archiving tools.
 Bidirectional Gateways − They allow data to flow in both directions. They can be
used as synchronization tools.

On basis of functionalities, there can be a variety of gateways, the prominent among them are
as follows −
 Network Gateway − This is the most common type of gateway that provides an
interface between two dissimilar networks operating with different protocols.
Whenever the term gateway is mentioned without specifying the type, it indicates a
network gateway.

 Cloud Storage Gateway − It is a network node or server that translates storage

requests with different cloud storage service API calls, such as SOAP (Simple Object
Access Protocol) or REST (REpresentational State Transfer).It facilitates integration
of private cloud storage into applications without necessitating transfer of the
applications into any public cloud, thus simplifying data communication.

 Internet-To-Orbit Gateway (I2O) − It connects devices on the Internet to satellites

and spacecraft orbiting the earth. Two prominent I2O gateways are Project
HERMES and Global Educational Network for Satellite Operations (GENSO).

 IoT Gateway − IoT gateways assimilates sensor data from IoT (Internet of Things)
devices in the field and translates between sensor protocols before sending it to the
cloud network. They connect IoT devices, cloud network and user applications.

 VoIP Trunk Gateway − It facilitates data transmission between plain old telephone
service (POTS) devices like landline phones and fax machines, with VoIP (voice over
Internet Protocol) network.