UNIT 2:

Transmission Media – principles, issues and examples; Wired Media – Coaxial, UTP, STP,
Fiber Optic Cables; Wireless Media – HF, VHF, UHF, Microwave, Ku Band; Network
topologies; Data Link Layer – design issues, example protocols (Ethernet, WLAN, Bluetooth);
Switching Techniques;

What is Transmission media?

o Transmission media is a communication channel that carries the information
from the sender to the receiver. Data is transmitted through the
electromagnetic signals.
o The main functionality of the transmission media is to carry the information in
the form of bits through LAN(Local Area Network).
o It is a physical path between transmitter and receiver in data communication.
o In a copper-based network, the bits in the form of electrical signals.
o In a fibre based network, the bits in the form of light pulses.
o In OSI(Open System Interconnection) phase, transmission media supports the
Layer 1. Therefore, it is considered to be as a Layer 1 component.
o The electrical signals can be sent through the copper wire, fibre optics,
atmosphere, water, and vacuum.
o The characteristics and quality of data transmission are determined by the
characteristics of medium and signal.
o Transmission media is of two types are wired media and wireless media. In
wired media, medium characteristics are more important whereas, in wireless
media, signal characteristics are more important.
o Different transmission media have different properties such as bandwidth,
delay, cost and ease of installation and maintenance.
o The transmission media is available in the lowest layer of the OSI reference
model, i.e., Physical layer.

Some factors need to be considered for designing the transmission

media:

o Bandwidth: All the factors are remaining constant, the greater the bandwidth
of a medium, the higher the data transmission rate of a signal.
o Transmission impairment: When the received signal is not identical to the
transmitted one due to the transmission impairment. The quality of the signals
will get destroyed due to transmission impairment.
 o Interference: An interference is defined as the process of disrupting a signal
when it travels over a communication medium on the addition of some
unwanted signal.

What is Wired Communication Media?

Wired communication media are also known as Guided media and are a
type of Transmission media. This type of communication is the most stable
which is why it is considered better than wireless. These connections are
less prone to other outer interferences. In wired communication media,
wire is used to transfer data from source to destination. Wired
communication media is not better for public use but can be used for
professional purposes as it more relies on wires and ports which is not the
case with wireless networks, data can be accessed from anywhere. Also,
the connection speed of wired media is more as compared to wireless. The
whole setup of wired media is also expensive as the larger the distances
more no. of cables and ports would be required and fiber optic cables are
usually expensive.
The diagram given below shows the transmission media its types and its
subtypes.

Twisted pair cable

As the name suggests these are two twisted pairs of cables or wires made
up of insulated copper. These are twisted together in such a way that they
run parallelly one wire is used for the transmission of data and the other
wire is used for ground. Usually, these wires or cables are 1mm in
diameter. The twisted-pair cable is made up of 2 copper wires (insulated)
arranged in a spiral pattern. Noise interference is more often the problem
in these cables but it can be handled by increasing the number of turns per
foot of twisted pair cable.
Working of twisted-pair cables: The twisted-pair cable has an outer
jacket that keeps the wires together, a shield for the protection of the
cable, color-coded plastic insulation to uniquely identify each conductor,
and twisting of wires to cancel the electromagnetic waves that create noise
interferences during the transmission of data. When current flows through
the cable then a small circular magnetic field is created around the wire.
For the connection between two devices connectors are needed at both
ends like RJ45 for computer connection.

Types of Twisted pair cables are:-

 Unshielded Twisted pair (UTP)
 Shielded Twisted pair (STP)
Unshielded Twisted pair (UTP)
UTP cables are the most common twisted pair cables that are used in
computer networks as well as in telecommunication. These cables are
made up of 4 color-coded copper wires twisted together to cancel the
disturbances from outer sources and electromagnetic interference. There
are different categories of UTP cables used for telecommunication and
other purposes. For example, some are used for telephone line services
with good speed and some offer 4mbps to 16mbps speed some provide
20mbps speed and it is enough for communication for longer distances.
Connectors: The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (Here, RJ stands for
registered jack), (There are two types of RJ45 male and RJ45 female cable).
RJ45 is a keyed connector, which means that the connector can be
connected in only one way. Its cables are mostly used on an ethernet
connection. For example, Computers, Modems, Printers, and various
network storage devices.
Merits
 These cables are cheaper.
 The maintenance cost is low.
 It doesn’t require any ground wire.
Demerits
 The transmission rate of data is slow.
 Noise is high in these cables.
Shielded Twisted pair cables (STP)
In comparison, UTP’s Shielded twisted pair cables are costlier and consist of
metal foil sometimes made up of insulated conductors. Metal foils help to
improve the quality of the wire which otherwise will be affected by noise.
These cables are used to reduce crosstalk and the interference caused due
to electromagnetic waves. The company that first introduced these STP
cables was IBM. These cables are used for both Analog and digital
transmissions.
Merits
 The transmission rate of data is fast.
 Noise is slow in these cables.
Demerits
 These cables are costlier.
 The maintenance cost is higher.
 It requires ground wire.
Applications
Some applications of Twisted pair cables:
1. Telephone systems: To provide voice and data channels.
2. LANs use twisted-pair cables.
3. The DSL lines used by telephone companies also use unshielded
twisted pair cables to provide extremely high data rate
connections.

Co-axial cable

The most common type of transmission media that is used in various

applications like tv wires and ethernet connection setup also. This is a form
of transmission media that consists of two conductors kept parallel to each
other. It has a central core conductor of a solid copper wire enclosed in an
insulating sheet and the middle core conductor is made up of copper mesh
and lastly an outer metallic wrap that helps in noise cancellation. The
whole cable is covered and protected by a plastic cover.
It is considered better than twisted-pair cables because of the higher
frequency range. Coaxial cables are best suited for shorter distances as
there are higher chances of data loss in more distances for fiber optic
cables are best as fibers are capable of higher data transfer and with
greater speed as compared to coaxial cables. Cost and maintenance are
also less, unlike fiber optic cables. And the durability of these cables is
more.
The various types of coaxial cables:
1. Triaxial Coaxial Cable
2. RG-49Coaxial Cable
3. RG-11 Coaxial Cable
4. RG-6Coaxial Cable
5. Hardline cable
6. Rigid Coaxial Cable
7. Semi-Rigid Coaxial Cable
8. Formable Coaxial Cable
9. Flexible Coaxial Cable
Working of Coaxial Cables: Coaxial cables are made up of copper wires
for carrying higher frequency signals this wire is covered with an insulated
foil cover whenever current flows it maintains a constant distance between
the conductor and the next layer and then a shielded wire that prevents
the interference of noise in between the transmission and at last the plastic
cover that protects the whole cable from any outer disturbances. Hence, a
coaxial cable carries a signal in a way that when the current enters the
center copper wire as well as the metal shield. The metal conductors at
that point generate a magnetic field. The insulators help the signals not to
come in contact with each other, they also the signal from outside
magnetic fields. In this way, the signal is carried over larger distances
without much loss.

Coaxial Cable Standards: These cables are categorized by their radio

government (RG) ratings and each RG number denotes a unique set of
physical specifications. Example,
RG-59 75 ohm Cable TV
RG-58 50 ohm Thin Ethernet
Application
Some applications of Coaxial cables:
1. Digital telephone networks
2. Analog telephone networks
3. Cable TV networks
4. Ethernet LANs
Merits
The cost of coaxial cables is less as compared to fiber optic cables.
 It has a higher data transmission rate.
 It can be used in both analog and digital transmissions.
 Higher-frequency applications can use coaxial cables for better
performance.
Demerits
 For long distances, the cost of these cables will be higher.
 The size of these cables is usually bulky because of various layers
of metal as well as copper and plastic.
 The data transmission over long distances is poor.

Fiber-optic cables
Also known as optic fiber cables are highly efficient and advanced data
transmission cables that allow the transfer of data in a very large volume.
Fiber optic cables allow data transmission with the help of electrical
signals. These are thin pipes made up of glass or plastic known as optic
fibers and data or information flows via light in these cables. With higher
bandwidth and high-quality performance optic fiber cables are best suited
for long-distance data transfer and communication.
Types of Fibre-Optic Cables;
 Single-mode Fibres: It is capable of one-way transmission with a
rate of almost 50 times more than multimode fibers. Used in small-
scale companies and in local area networks also.
 Multimode Fibres: It has higher bandwidth and cable of two-way
transmission capable of higher data transmission. Used in local
area networks, corporate sectors, and private networks also.
Working of fiber-optic cable: Fiber optic cables carry information via
light so at the transmitting side the light source is first encoded with data
or information and then the data starts flowing in the core of the fiber optic
cable in a completely bouncing manner with a complete internal reflection
then there is cladding that helps the light to remain inside the cable after
reaching the receiver side the data is then decoded like the original. So
basically fiber optic is a form of transmission media for the transfer of data
via light with higher bandwidth and a higher rate of transmission.
It consists of five major parts named core, Cladding, Coating,
Strengthening, and Outer jacket.
Here, the Core is a thin part of the glass of the optic fiber cable and
cladding is the insulation around the core coating is the protective layer for
the optical fiber the strengthening part allows protection to the core and at
last outer jacket for the whole optic fiber tube.

Application
Some applications of Fibre-optic cables.
 One of the most popular and important uses of Fibre -optic cables is
the INTERNET.
  Television broadcasting These cables are very much suitable for
transmitting signals for high-definition televisions because of their
greater bandwidth and speed.
 In surgical operations in medicine, these cables are used in various
fields of medicine and research purposes as their cost is low as
compared to other cables.
 It is used in industries and in defense services also these cables are
of great use.
Merits
Long durability: These have long durability of almost 100 years.

 Low cost: Due to the cheaper cost these cables are in high demand
usually of more use.
 Greater bandwidth and speed: Higher speed and great bandwidth
help in faster and even smoother data transmission.
 Light signals: In the same fiber cable light signals of one fiber and
the other do not interfere with each other which is not the case with
other cables.
Demerits
 Delicacy: Fibre-optic cables are more delicate as compared with
copper wires. If bent too much these cables can be damaged easily.
 Installation Cost: The installation process is cost-effective as it
requires machines and a specialist team for the setup of the fiber
cables.
 Low power: Since data flows via light in these cables power supply
is limited, and for high-power emitters cost would be more.

Comparison of Wired Communication Media

Fiber optic
Properties Twisted Pair Co-axial Cable
cable

Cost Inexpensive Twice or Thrice than twisted pair Expensive

Installation Easy Easy Difficult

Attenuatio
More More Very Less
n

EMI Effect Maximum Minimum No effect

Bandwidth 1 to 100 Mbps/100m 500 Mbps/100m Gega bps/km

Signal Type Electrical Electrical Light Signals
Wireless Communication

Wireless communication is also referred to as Unguided Media or

Unbounded transmission media. In this mode, no physical medium is
required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals. In wireless
communication, we can transfer our message through the air, water or
vacuum i.e. Infrared, Radio wave, Microwave wave. So, we don’t worry
about the cables or any material to transfer messages, as we can send out
a message without and medium.
Wireless communication has advantages and also have disadvantages like
it is less secure if we talk about security.
Features
 No physical medium is required for transmission.
 It can carry signals through air, water, or vacuum.
 It can travel large distances but it is also less secure.

Microwaves

Microwaves are a line of sight transmission, meaning both the antennas

sending and receiving should be properly aligned. Also, the distance
covered by the signal is directly proportional to the height of the antenna.
Microwaves have a frequency Range between 1GHz – 300GHz. Basically,
we used Microwaves in mobile phones communication and television
distribution.
Unlike radio waves, they are unidirectional, as they can move in only one
direction, and therefore it is used in point-to-point communication or
unicast communication such as radar and satellite.
Uses:
Microwaves are used in mobile phones communication and television
distribution.
Advantage and Disadvantage:
If we talk about the advantages of microwaves then we say that it is a very
fast way of communication, that can carry 25000 voice channels at the
same time. Also, it is a wireless communication medium so there is no need
of digging and spreading wires.
Now demerits of microwaves are the first expense, their installation and
maintenance are very expensive. that turns this into a very expensive
mode of communication. Moreover, Microwaves are also not very effective
in bad weather conditions.
Network Topology
In Computer Network ,there are various ways through which different
components are connected to one another. Network Topology is the way that
defines the structure, and how these components are connected to each other.
Types of Network Topology
The arrangement of a network that comprises nodes and connecting lines via
sender and receiver is referred to as Network Topology. The various network
topologies are:
 Point to Point Topology
 Mesh Topology
 Star Topology
 Bus Topology
 Ring Topology
 Tree Topology
 Hybrid Topology

Point to Point Topology

Point-to-Point Topology is a type of topology that works on the functionality of

the sender and receiver. It is the simplest communication between two nodes,
in which one is the sender and the other one is the receiver. Point-to-Point
provides high bandwidth.

Point to Point Topology

Mesh Topology

In a mesh topology, every device is connected to another device via a

particular channel. In Mesh Topology, the protocols used are AHCP (Ad Hoc
Configuration Protocols), DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), etc.
 Mesh Topology

Figure 1: Every device is connected to another via dedicated channels. These

channels are known as links.
 Suppose, the N number of devices are connected with each other in a
mesh topology, the total number of ports that are required by each
device is N-1. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices connected to each other,
hence the total number of ports required by each device is 4. The total
number of ports required = N * (N-1).
 Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each other in a
mesh topology, then the total number of dedicated links required to
connect them is NC2 i.e. N(N-1)/2. In Figure 1, there are 5 devices
connected to each other, hence the total number of links required is
5*4/2 = 10.
Advantages of Mesh Topology
 Communication is very fast between the nodes.
 Mesh Topology is robust.
 The fault is diagnosed easily. Data is reliable because data is
transferred among the devices through dedicated channels or links.
 Provides security and privacy.
Drawbacks of Mesh Topology
 Installation and configuration are difficult.
 The cost of cables is high as bulk wiring is required, hence suitable for
less number of devices.
 The cost of maintenance is high.
A common example of mesh topology is the internet backbone, where various
internet service providers are connected to each other via dedicated channels.
This topology is also used in military communication systems and aircraft
navigation systems.
For more, refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Mesh Topology.

Star Topology

In Star Topology, all the devices are connected to a single hub through a cable.
This hub is the central node and all other nodes are connected to the central
node. The hub can be passive in nature i.e., not an intelligent hub such as
broadcasting devices, at the same time the hub can be intelligent known as an
active hub. Active hubs have repeaters in them. Coaxial cables or RJ-45 cables
are used to connect the computers. In Star Topology, many popular Ethernet
LAN protocols are used as CD(Collision Detection), CSMA (Carrier Sense
Multiple Access), etc.

Star Topology

Figure 2: A star topology having four systems connected to a single point of

connection i.e. hub.
Advantages of Star Topology
 If N devices are connected to each other in a star topology, then the
number of cables required to connect them is N. So, it is easy to set up.
 Each device requires only 1 port i.e. to connect to the hub, therefore
the total number of ports required is N.
 It is Robust. If one link fails only that link will affect and not other than
that.
 Easy to fault identification and fault isolation.
 Star topology is cost-effective as it uses inexpensive coaxial cable.
Drawbacks of Star Topology
 If the concentrator (hub) on which the whole topology relies fails, the
whole system will crash down.
 The cost of installation is high.
 Performance is based on the single concentrator i.e. hub.
A common example of star topology is a local area network (LAN) in an office
where all computers are connected to a central hub. This topology is also used
in wireless networks where all devices are connected to a wireless access point.
For more, refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Star Topology.

Bus Topology

Bus Topology is a network type in which every computer and network device is
connected to a single cable. It is bi-directional. It is a multi-point connection
and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the topology crashes.
In Bus Topology, various MAC (Media Access Control) protocols are followed by
LAN ethernet connections like TDMA, Pure Aloha, CDMA, Slotted Aloha, etc.
 Bus Topology

Figure 3: A bus topology with shared backbone cable. The nodes are
connected to the channel via drop lines.
Advantages of Bus Topology
 If N devices are connected to each other in a bus topology, then the
number of cables required to connect them is 1, known as backbone
cable, and N drop lines are required.
 Coaxial or twisted pair cables are mainly used in bus-based networks
that support up to 10 Mbps.
 The cost of the cable is less compared to other topologies, but it is
used to build small networks.
 Bus topology is familiar technology as installation and troubleshooting
techniques are well known.
 CSMA is the most common method for this type of topology.
Drawbacks of Bus Topology
 A bus topology is quite simpler, but still, it requires a lot of cabling.
 If the common cable fails, then the whole system will crash down.
 If the network traffic is heavy, it increases collisions in the network. To
avoid this, various protocols are used in the MAC layer known as Pure
Aloha, Slotted Aloha, CSMA/CD, etc.
 Adding new devices to the network would slow down networks.
 Security is very low.
A common example of bus topology is the Ethernet LAN, where all devices are
connected to a single coaxial cable or twisted pair cable. This topology is also
used in cable television networks. For more, refer to the Advantages and
Disadvantages of Bus Topology.

Ring Topology

In a Ring Topology, it forms a ring connecting devices with exactly two

neighboring devices. A number of repeaters are used for Ring topology with a
large number of nodes, because if someone wants to send some data to the
last node in the ring topology with 100 nodes, then the data will have to pass
through 99 nodes to reach the 100th node. Hence to prevent data loss
repeaters are used in the network.
The data flows in one direction, i.e. it is unidirectional, but it can be made
bidirectional by having 2 connections between each Network Node, it is
called Dual Ring Topology. In-Ring Topology, the Token Ring Passing protocol is
used by the workstations to transmit the data.
 Ring Topology

Figure 4: A ring topology comprises 4 stations connected with each forming a

ring.
The most common access method of ring topology is token passing.
 Token passing: It is a network access method in which a token is
passed from one node to another node.
 Token: It is a frame that circulates around the network.
Operations of Ring Topology
1. One station is known as a monitor station which takes all the
responsibility for performing the operations.
2. To transmit the data, the station has to hold the token. After the
transmission is done, the token is to be released for other stations to
use.
3. When no station is transmitting the data, then the token will circulate
in the ring.
4. There are two types of token release techniques: Early token
release releases the token just after transmitting the data
and Delayed token release releases the token after the
acknowledgment is received from the receiver.
Advantages of Ring Topology
 The data transmission is high-speed.
 The possibility of collision is minimum in this type of topology.
 Cheap to install and expand.
 It is less costly than a star topology.
Drawbacks of Ring Topology
 The failure of a single node in the network can cause the entire
network to fail.
 Troubleshooting is difficult in this topology.
 The addition of stations in between or the removal of stations can
disturb the whole topology.
 Less secure.
For more, refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Ring Topology.
Tree Topology
This topology is the variation of the Star topology. This topology has a
hierarchical flow of data. In Tree Topology, protocols like DHCP and SAC
(Standard Automatic Configuration ) are used.

Tree Topology

Figure 5: In this, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub
which contains the repeater. This data flow from top to bottom i.e. from the
central hub to the secondary and then to the devices or from bottom to top i.e.
devices to the secondary hub and then to the central hub. It is a multi-point
connection and a non-robust topology because if the backbone fails the
topology crashes.
Advantages of Tree Topology
 It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it
decreases the distance that is traveled by the signal to come to the
devices.
 It allows the network to get isolated and also prioritize from different
computers.
 We can add new devices to the existing network.
 Error detection and error correction are very easy in a tree
topology.
Drawbacks of Tree Topology
 If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
 The cost is high because of the cabling.
 If new devices are added, it becomes difficult to reconfigure.
A common example of a tree topology is the hierarchy in a large organization.
At the top of the tree is the CEO, who is connected to the different departments
or divisions (child nodes) of the company. Each department has its own
hierarchy, with managers overseeing different teams (grandchild nodes). The
team members (leaf nodes) are at the bottom of the hierarchy, connected to
their respective managers and departments.
For more, refer to the Advantages and Disadvantages of Tree Topology.

Hybrid Topology

This topological technology is the combination of all the various types of

topologies we have studied above. Hybrid Topology is used when the nodes are
free to take any form. It means these can be individuals such as Ring or Star
topology or can be a combination of various types of topologies seen above.
Each individual topology uses the protocol that has been discussed earlier.

Hybrid Topology

Figure 6: The above figure shows the structure of the Hybrid topology. As seen
it contains a combination of all different types of networks.
Advantages of Hybrid Topology
 This topology is very flexible.
 The size of the network can be easily expanded by adding new
devices.
Drawbacks of Hybrid Topology
 It is challenging to design the architecture of the Hybrid Network.
 Hubs used in this topology are very expensive.
 The infrastructure cost is very high as a hybrid network requires a lot
of cabling and network devices.
A common example of a hybrid topology is a university campus network. The
network may have a backbone of a star topology, with each building connected
to the backbone through a switch or router. Within each building, there may be
a bus or ring topology connecting the different rooms and offices. The wireless
access points also create a mesh topology for wireless devices. This hybrid
topology allows for efficient communication between different buildings while
providing flexibility and redundancy within each building.
Data Link Layer


The data link layer is the second layer from the bottom in the OSI (Open
System Interconnection) network architecture model. It is responsible for the
node-to-node delivery of data. Its major role is to ensure error-free
transmission of information. DLL is also responsible for encoding, decode and
organizing the outgoing and incoming data. This is considered the most
complex layer of the OSI model as it hides all the underlying complexities of
the hardware from the other above layers.

Sub-layers of the Data Link Layer :

The data link layer is further divided into two sub-layers, which are as follows:

Logical Link Control (LLC)

This sublayer of the data link layer deals with multiplexing, the flow of data
among applications and other services, and LLC is responsible for providing
error messages and acknowledgments as well.
Media Access Control (MAC)
MAC sublayer manages the device’s interaction, responsible for addressing
frames, and also controls physical media access.

The data link layer receives the information in the form of packets from the
Network layer, it divides packets into frames and sends those frames bit-by-bit
to the underlying physical layer.
Functions of the Data-link Layer
There are various benefits of data link layer s let’s look into it.

Framing
The packet received from the Network layer is known as a frame in the Data
link layer. At the sender’s side, DLL receives packets from the Network layer
and divides them into small frames, then, sends each frame bit-by-bit to
the physical layer. It also attaches some special bits (for error control and
addressing) at the header and end of the frame. At the receiver’s end, DLL
takes bits from the Physical layer organizes them into the frame, and sends
them to the Network layer.

Addressing
The data link layer encapsulates the source and destination’s MAC address/
physical address in the header of each frame to ensure node-to-node delivery.
MAC address is the unique hardware address that is assigned to the device
while manufacturing.

Error Control
Data can get corrupted due to various reasons like noise, attenuation, etc. So,
it is the responsibility of the data link layer, to detect the error in the
transmitted data and correct it using error
detection and correction techniques respectively. DLL adds error detection
bits into the frame’s header, so that receiver can check received data is
correct or not. It adds reliability to phyiscal layer by adding mechansims to
detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames.

Flow Control
If the receiver’s receiving speed is lower than the sender’s sending speed,
then this can lead to an overflow in the receiver’s buffer and some frames
may get lost. So, it’s the responsibility of DLL to synchronize the sender’s and
receiver’s speeds and establish flow control between them.

Access Control
When multiple devices share the same communication channel there is a high
probability of collision, so it’s the responsibility of DLL to check which device
has control over the channel and CSMA/CD and CSMA/CA can be used to avoid
collisions and loss of frames in the channel.

Protocols in Data link layer

There are various protocols in the data link layer , which are as follows:
1. Synchronous Data Link Protocol (SDLC)
2. High-Level Data Link Protocol (HDLC)
3. Serial Line Interface Protocol (SLIP) for encoding
4. Point to Point Protocol (PPP)
5. Link Access Procedure (LAP)
6. Link Control Protocol (LCP)
7. Network Control Protocol (NCP)

Q.1:What is the purpose of framing in the Data Link Layer?

Answer:
Framing involves encapsulating data into frames with headers and trailers,
allowing the receiver to identify the start and end of each frame and to
distinguish between different frames.

Q.2:What is MAC address in the Data Link Layer?

Answer:
MAC (Media Access Control) address is a unique hardware address assigned to
network interfaces at the Data Link Layer. It is used to identify devices on a
network.

Q.3:What is the difference between a MAC address and an IP

address?
Answer:
A MAC address is a hardware address associated with a network interface
card, while an IP address is a logical address used for routing data packets in
a network. MAC addresses are used at the Data Link Layer, and IP addresses
are used at the Network Layer.

1. Synchronous Data Link Protocol (SDLC) –

SDLC is basically a communication protocol of computer. It usually
supports multipoint links even error recovery or error correction also.
It is usually used to carry SNA (Systems Network Architecture) traffic
and is present precursor to HDLC. It is also designed and developed
by IBM in 1975. It is also used to connect all of the remote devices to
mainframe computers at central locations may be in point-to-point
(one-to-one) or point-to-multipoint (one-to-many) connections. It is
also used to make sure that the data units should arrive correctly and
with right flow from one network point to next network point.

2. High-Level Data Link Protocol (HDLC) –

HDLC is basically a protocol that is now assumed to be an umbrella
under which many Wide Area protocols sit. It is also adopted as a part
of X.25 network. It was originally created and developed by ISO in
1979. This protocol is generally based on SDLC. It also provides best-
effort unreliable service and also reliable service. HDLC is a bit-
oriented protocol that is applicable for point-to-point and multipoint
communications both.

3. Serial Line Interface Protocol (SLIP) –

SLIP is generally an older protocol that is just used to add a framing
byte at end of IP packet. It is basically a data link control facility that
is required for transferring IP packets usually among Internet Service
Providers (ISP) and a home user over a dial-up link. It is an
encapsulation of the TCP/IP especially designed to work with over
serial ports and several router connections simply for communication.
It is some limitations like it does not provide mechanisms such as
error correction or error detection.
4. Point to Point Protocol (PPP) –
PPP is a protocol that is basically used to provide same functionality
 as SLIP. It is most robust protocol that is used to transport other types
of packets also along with IP Packets. It can also be required for dial-
up and leased router-router lines. It basically provides framing method
to describe frames. It is a character-oriented protocol that is also used
for error detection. It is also used to provides two protocols i.e. NCP
and LCP. LCP is used for bringing lines up, negotiation of options,
bringing them down whereas NCP is used for negotiating network-
layer protocols. It is required for same serial interfaces like that of
HDLC.

5. Link Control Protocol (LCP) –

It was originally developed and created by IEEE 802.2. It is also used
to provide HDLC style services on LAN (Local Area Network). LCP is
basically a PPP protocol that is used for establishing, configuring,
testing, maintenance, and ending or terminating links for transmission
of data frames.

6. Link Access Procedure (LAP) –

LAP protocols are basically a data link layer protocols that are
required for framing and transferring data across point-to-point links.
It also includes some reliability service features. There are basically
three types of LAP i.e. LAPB (Link Access Procedure Balanced), LAPD
(Link Access Procedure D-Channel), and LAPF (Link Access Procedure
Frame-Mode Bearer Services). It is actually originated from IBM SDLC,
which is being submitted by IBM to the ISP simply for standardization.

7. Network Control Protocol (NCP) –

NCP was also an older protocol that was implemented by ARPANET. It
basically allows users to have access to use computers and some of
the devices at remote locations and also to transfer files among two
or more computers. It is generally a set of protocols that is forming a
part of PPP. NCP is always available for each and every higher-layer
protocol that is supported by PPP. NCP was replaced by TCP/IP in the
1980s.

Design issues with data link layer are :

1. Services provided to the network layer –
The data link layer act as a service interface to the network layer. The principle
service is transferring data from network layer on sending machine to the
network layer on destination machine. This transfer also takes place via DLL
(Data link-layer).
(f)
It provides three types of services:
1. Unacknowlwdged and connectionless services.
2. Acknowledged and connectionless services.
3. Acknowledged and connection-oriented services
Unacknowledged and connectionless services.
 Here the sender machine sends the independent frames without any
acknowledgement from the sender.
 There is no logical connection established.
Acknowledged and connectionless services.
 There is no logical connection between sender and receiver
established.
 Each frame is acknowledged by the receiver.
 If the frame didn’t reach the receiver in a specific time interval it has
to be sent again.
 It is very useful in wireless systems.
Acknowledged and connection-oriented services
 A logical connection is established between sender and receiver
before data is trimester.
 Each frame is numbered so the receiver can ensure all frames have
arrived and exactly once.

2. Frame synchronization –
The source machine sends data in the form of blocks called frames to the
destination machine. The starting and ending of each frame should be
identified so that the frame can be recognized by the destination machine.
3. Flow control –
Flow control is done to prevent the flow of data frame at the receiver end. The
source machine must not send data frames at a rate faster than the capacity
of destination machine to accept them.
4. Error control –
Error control is done to prevent duplication of frames. The errors introduced
during transmission from source to destination machines must be detected
and corrected at the destination machine.

Ethernet – Ethernet is most popular wired networking technology. It is widely used for
connecting computers in a Personal Area Network (PAN), Home Area Network (HAN),
Local Area Network (LAN), Wide Area Network (WAN) and Metropolitan Area Network
(MAN). It is based on IEEE 802.3 standard. Within an IOT system, Ethernet can be used
to connect stationary or fixed IOT devices. Like, it can be used to connect sensor
networks in an industry, appliance control circuits in a home automation system or
IOT devices in an office automation system.
The data transfer rate in Ethernet can be up to 10 Giga Bits per Second (Gbit/s) for
cat-6 cables. The data speed over Ethernet depends on the cable type and can be
limited by the network administrator. There may be fiber optic, co-axial or twisted pair
cables used for Ethernet networking. The Ethernet has very low latency which makes
it suitable for mission critical IOT applications where devices may be co-located or
located in a long range.

Bluetooth :
Bluetooth is a PAN (Personal Area Network) or it is a short-range wireless
communication network for exchanging data between the connected devices
through that network. It is very cheaper in price and effective in a
performance point of view for short-range distance. It is a 2.4GHz network
that works well for personal wireless network communication. It provides a
data transfer rate of 3 Mbps in a range of 50m to 150m. Nowadays Bluetooth
is almost present in all smartphones and it is highly used in wearable devices
connected with the mobile applications.

WLAN :
The data link layer within 802.11 consists of two sublayers: Logical Link
Control (LLC) and Media Access Control (MAC). 802.11 uses the same 802.2
LLC and 48-bit addressing as other 802 LANs, allowing for very simple
bridging from wireless to IEEE wired networks, but the MAC is unique to
WLANs.

What is Switching?
In computer networking, Switching is the process of transferring data packets
from one device to another in a network, or from one network to another, using
specific devices called switches. A computer user experiences switching all
the time for example, accessing the Internet from your computer device,
whenever a user requests a webpage to open, the request is processed through
switching of data packets only.
Switching takes place at the Data Link layer of the OSI Model. This means that
after the generation of data packets in the Physical Layer, switching is the
immediate next process in data communication.

What is a Network Switching?

A switch is a dedicated piece of computer hardware that facilitates the process
of switching i.e., incoming data packets and transferring them to their
destination. A switch works at the Data Link layer of the OSI Model. A switch
primarily handles the incoming data packets from a source computer or
network and decides the appropriate port through which the data packets will
reach their target computer or network.
A switch decides the port through which a data packet shall pass with the help
of its destination MAC(Media Access Control) Address. A switch does this
effectively by maintaining a switching table, (also known as forwarding table).
A network switch is more efficient than a network Hub or repeater because it
maintains a switching table, which simplifies its task and reduces congestion on
a network, which effectively improves the performance of the network.

Process of Switching
The switching process involves the following steps:
Frame Reception: The switch receives a data frame or packet from a
computer connected to its ports.
 MAC Address Extraction: The switch reads the header of the data
frame and collects the destination MAC Address from it.
 MAC Address Table Lookup: Once the switch has retrieved the MAC
Address, it performs a lookup in its Switching table to find a port that
leads to the MAC Address of the data frame.
 Forwarding Decision and Switching Table Update: If the switch
matches the destination MAC Address of the frame to the MAC address
in its switching table, it forwards the data frame to the respective port.
However, if the destination MAC Address does not exist in its
forwarding table, it follows the flooding process, in which it sends the
data frame to all its ports except the one it came from and records all
the MAC Addresses to which the frame was delivered. This way, the
switch finds the new MAC Address and updates its forwarding table.
 Frame Transition: Once the destination port is found, the switch
sends the data frame to that port and forwards it to its target
computer/network.
Types of Switching
There are three types of switching methods:
 Message Switching
 Circuit Switching
 Packet Switching
 Datagram Packet Switching
 Virtual Circuit Packet Switching
Let us now discuss them individually:
Message Switching: This is an older switching technique that has become
obsolete. In message switching technique, the entire data block/message is
forwarded across the entire network thus, making it highly inefficient.
Circuit Switching: In this type of switching, a connection is established
between the source and destination beforehand. This connection receives the
complete bandwidth of the network until the data is transferred completely.
This approach is better than message switching as it does not involve sending
data to the entire network, instead of its destination only.
Packet Switching: This technique requires the data to be broken down into
smaller components, data frames, or packets. These data frames are then
transferred to their destinations according to the available resources in the
network at a particular time.
This switching type is used in modern computers and even the Internet. Here,
each data frame contains additional information about the destination and
other information required for proper transfer through network components.
Datagram Packet Switching: In Datagram Packet switching, each data
frame is taken as an individual entity and thus, they are processed separately.
Here, no connection is established before data transmission occurs. Although
this approach provides flexibility in data transfer, it may cause a loss of data
frames or late delivery of the data frames.
Virtual-Circuit Packet Switching: In Virtual-Circuit Packet switching, a
logical connection between the source and destination is made before
transmitting any data. These logical connections are called virtual circuits. Each
data frame follows these logical paths and provides a reliable way of
transmitting data with less chance of data loss.