8.2 Hydropower Engineering

NEPAL ENGINEERING COUNCIL
LICENSE EXAMINATION PREPARATION COURSE

FOR
CIVIL ENGINEERS
on
Hydropower Engineering
Prepared by : Er. Babu Ram Karki

8. HYDROPOWER
7/31/2024Council Registration Examination [as per Civil Engineering

Nepal Engineering Hydropower Engineering
Syllabus (ACiE)] 2
-Er. Mani Shrestha
8.2 Power and Energy Potential Study
8.2.1 Power and energy potentials
8.2.2 Methods of fixing installed capacity of plants
8.2.3 Types of hydropower plants on various basis
8.2.4 Components of different types of hydropower projects
8.2.5 Reservoir and their regulation
7/31/2024 Hydropower Engineering 3

Hydropower study data requirements:
1. Hydrological data.
Avg. Precipitation:
Thiessen polygon method
Isohyets method
Simple arithmetic mean method.
Run off/discharge:
Hydrograph, flow duration curve, mass curve.
Infiltration ( – index, w – index), evaporation.

2. Geological Data: Fault, fold, rock strata, joint.
3. Topography (catchment area, contour)
4. Socio-economic data area
5. Power Market Data
6. Sediment data

Gross Head:
• a difference of water level in the headrace and tailrace
• for storage plant, difference between water level in reservoir and tailrace
• for ROR, level difference between point of diversion of water into the plant
and point where water is returned back to river
Net Head (Effective Head)

• actual head available for the plant
• for impulse turbine, Net head= Gross head – sum of all head losses
• for reaction turbine, Net head= Gross head- sum of all head loss + Suction
pressure head

Flow Duration Curve:
• Graphical representation between discharge in y-axis and % of time in
x-axis.
• What is Q40?
• Q30 is less or greater
than Q60?
Use:
• Planning and design
Of HPP

Based on the availability of discharge:
Firm power:
The net power continuously available from a plant to consumer at any time is
called firm power. It is also called Primary power. It is available 100% of the time.
It corresponds to minimum stream flow. Firm power can be increased by
pondage.
Secondary Power:
The excess power available over firm power is called secondary power. It is also
called surplus or non-firm power. It is available only in periods of high flow in
river.



Classification of energy
Based on the availability of discharge:
Firm energy:
Maximum continuous energy available for a plant under the most adverse hydraulic
conditions. Energy corresponding to firm power is called firm energy.
Secondary energy
The area of power duration curve gives energy. Its unit is watt.sec or KWh or GWh.
Secondary power= Design Power- Firm Power
Secondary Energy= Total Energy – Firm Energy

Power Demand is also called Load demand. Different types of load are:
1. Average load
2. Peak Load
3. Base Load
Load Curve

Some Basic Formula to keep in mind
• Load Factor= Average Load / Peak Load (≤1)
• Plant or Capacity Factor= Average Load/ Plant capacity (0.25-0.7)
• Utilization factor or plant use factor= Peak load/ Installed Capacity (0.4-0.9)
• Power Factor= Actual Power / Apparent Power(0.8-0.9)
• Diversity factor= Sum of maximum demand of individual consumers/

Simultaneous maximum demand on power station (>1)

• Demand Factor=Maximum demand on the power station/ Connected load
(<1)
• Q) A generating station has a connected load of 50 MW and a maximum demand of

30 MW. Determine the demand factor of the power station.
• Demand factor= Maximum demand / Connected load =30/50 =0.6
• Reserve Factor= 1/ Utilization factor
• Relationship between LF, CF, and UF
• CF=LF*UF
Q) If peak load on a power plant having a capacity of 100 MW is 70 MW during

a given week and energy produced is 5880000 KWh, the capacity factor for the
plant for the week will be
a) 35% b) 50% c) 70% d) 65%

Some Important Information
• If peak load is equal to installed capacity of plant, then load factor is
equal to plant or capacity factor
• The capacity factor for hydroelectric plant generally varies from 0.25
to 0.75.
• Utilization factor commonly varies from 0.4 to 0.9
• Power factor can never be greater than 1
• Diversity factor is always greater than 1
• Flow duration curve is also called as Discharge- Frequency curve.

8.2.2 Method of Fixing Installed Capacity
• The Design Discharge (Q) is decided based on the different percentile of
exceedance of flow. Currently, NEA has set a criterion of fixing design discharge
corresponding to a minimum of 40% probability of exceedance in order for a run-
off-river hydropower project to be eligible for PPA.
In Nepal for projects up to 25MW, the installed

capacity is fixed based on Q40, but for projects
greater than 25MW, the installed capacity is fixed
based on optimization study.

There are 2 methods:
1. Marginal Cost and Benefit Approach:
2. Optimization Approach:
1. Marginal Cost and Benefit Approach

Project installed capacity is determined by comparing marginal costs and
benefits and keeping fixed costs as same.
2. Optimization Approach:
Flow duration curves are studied and alternative project costs and benefits are
studied to find the optimum capacity which becomes the installed capacity

Economic Plant Capacity
▪ Marginal cost and benefit approach may be used to fix the installed capacity of
plant.
▪ Economic installed capacity can be obtained by equating the marginal cost and
benefits for the project.Where,
Marginal benefit= total energy generated annually * energy rate
=1kw*x%*1year*energy rate per MWhr=1/1000*365*24*rate
= 8.76 * x% * energy rate per MWhr
Marginal cost= annual variable cost+ operation and Maintenance cost
= + O&M cost

8.2.3 Types of Hydropower Plant
(A) Based on installed capacity:
According to prof. Emil Mosony:
i. Midget: < 100 Kw
ii. Low capacity: 100 to 1000 Kw
iii. Medium: 1 mw – 10 Mw
iv. High: > 10 Mw
According to Dandekar and Sharma:
• Micro upto 5000kw
• Medium capacity 5mw to 100 mw
• High -101mw to 1000mw
• Super capacity- > 1000 MW

But, in context of Nepal:
i. Micro hydro : < 100 KW
ii. Mini hydro : 100KW – 1000 KW
iii. Small hydro : 1 MW – 25 MW
iv. Medium hydro: 25 MW – 100 MW
v. Large hydro: greater than 100 MW

(B) Functional basis
• Isolated (micro and mini hydro of rural area)
• Grid connected plant

(C) Based on storage capacity:
i) Run off river(RoR) type plants:
Run-of-river hydroelectricity (ROR) or run-of-the-river hydroelectricity is a type
of hydroelectric generation plant whereby little or no water storage is provided.
Eg. Khimti, Bhotekoshi, Sunkoshi etc
ii) Peaking RoR type plants:

Keeping view of increased load during the peak hours RoR plants may be
constructed with pondage which can regulate daily/weekly hydrograph to run the
plant under full capacity.
Eg. Kaligandaki A, Marsyangdi, Middle Marsyangdi, Upper Tamakoshi

iii) Storage type:
Regulate the hydrograph of river

by 1 or more seasons. Dam is
constructed to create the storage
reservoir that develops necessary
heads for powerhouse.
Eg. Kulekhani HPP-60MW
Fig: Kulekhani II storage hydropower

iv) Pumped storage:
• Used when natural annual run-off is insufficient to satisfy the conventional
hydroelectric installation (RoR, PRoR).
• Have reservoir at head and tail water which causes the water in u/s reservoir by
pumping water from d/s reservoir using cheaper source of energy during off
peak.
• Same water is utilized again and again.

D) Based on head
According (Mosonyi, Nava k.
i. Low head plant: < 50m
ii. Medium head plant: 50 – 300m
iii. High head plant: >300m
According to Ludin
i. Low head: < 15 m
ii. Medium head:15–50 m
iii. High head: > 50 m

• But, in context of Nepal:
i. Very low head- upto 15m, propeller turbine, Kaplan turbine
ii. Low head- 15-60m, Kaplan or Francis turbine
iii. Medium head 60-150m, Francis turbine
iv. High head 150-350m, Pelton or francis
v. Very high head- greater than 350m, pelton turbine

8.2.4 Components of Hydropower Plant

The major components of a hydroelectric plant are as follows.
1. Diversion Structure/Reservoir structure
2. Intake
3. Spillway
4. Gravel Trap
5. Settling Basin
6. Headrace Conveyance
7. Surge tank / Fore bay

8. Penstock
9. Anchor Block
10. Support Piers
10. Trash rack
11. Turbine
12. Draft tube
13. Tailrace

Diversion Structure: It is a structure that diverts water from the natural course of a
river or stream to the intake of a hydropower project. Its primary function is to
redirect water into the intake structure of the hydropower project.
Intake: It is a structure that collects water from the diversion structure and passes
it on to the penstock. Its primary function is to regulate the flow of water to the
hydropower plant and to prevent debris from entering the penstock.
Gravel Trap: It is a structure located upstream of the intake that removes gravel
and other debris from the water before it enters the intake. Its primary function is
to prevent damage to the intake and downstream components.

Settling Basin: It is a structure located downstream of the intake that slows down
the velocity of water and allows sediment and other heavy particles to settle to
the bottom. Its primary function is to remove sediment and other solids from the
water before it enters the powerhouse.
Headrace Conveyance: It is a system of channels or pipes that transport water from

the intake to the fore bay. Its primary function is to convey water from the intake
to the fore bay.
Fore bay: It is a small reservoir located upstream of the powerhouse that receives
water from the headrace conveyance system. Its primary function is to regulate
the flow of water to the powerhouse and to provide a constant head of water for
the turbines.

Surge Tank/Head Tank: It is a structure that absorbs pressure fluctuations in the
penstock caused by sudden changes in the flow of water. Its primary function is to
protect the penstock and other downstream components from damage.
Penstock: It is a large pipe that carries water from the forebay to the turbines in the
powerhouse. Its primary function is to deliver water to the turbines with high
pressure and velocity.
Anchor Block/Support Piers: It is a foundation structure that supports the penstock

and prevents it from moving or shifting due to external forces. Its primary
function is to anchor the penstock to the ground and provide stability.

Powerhouse: It is a building that houses the turbines, generators, and
other electrical equipment. Its primary function is to convert the
energy of falling water into electrical energy.
Tailrace: It is a channel or pipe that carries water from the powerhouse

to the river or stream downstream. Its primary function is to release
water back to the river or stream while maintaining the ecological
balance and preventing erosion.

8.2.5 Reservoirs and their Regulation
• Reservoir is most commonly an enlarged natural or artificial lake
created using a dam to store water. It has normally uncontrolled
inflow but largely controlled outflow.
• The volume of water that can be stored in the particular reservoir is

called reservoir capacity. It is calculated using topographical map,
plotting area vs elevation by measuring contour elevation

Fig: Phokshundo Lake

• Efficient operation and management of reservoir
• Controls inflows and outflows from the reservoir
Purpose of Dam/Reservoir:
Dam is generally most suitable in hilly area where deep valleys are available
which gives a deep storage of water. The stored water on its upstream side
serves various purposes such as:
1. Flood Mitigation
2. Irrigation
3. Water Supply
4. Navigation
5. Fishery and wild life Preservation
6. Hydro-electric Power Generation
7. Recreation

Functions of Regulation of reservoir
1. Ensure a steady water supply to the hydropower plant
2. Control downstream flooding
3. Meet downstream water demands
4. Maintain ecological balance
5. Optimize hydropower production
6. Control sedimentation
7. Provide recreational opportunities

Location site for reservoir
The following are the things that should be considered while locating
site for the reservoir,
• Located in an area of minimum percolation and maximum runoff
• Leakage in the area should be minimum to minimize the grouting
works
• Should not be located in highly permeable rocks like shale, slates,
gneisses, granite, etc
• Location should have a watertight rock base

• To reduce the length of the dam, a narrow opening of the basin is
essential
• Road accessibility to the site, to minimize construction cost
• Location should be free from objectionable minerals
• Location area should provide sufficient water depth with a smaller
water area.
• Heavy silt-laden tributaries should not lead their discharge to the
reservoir.
• Less submergence of habitat area, fertile land.

Determining Storage Capacity
Reservoir capacity is the volume of water that can be stored in the
particular reservoir. The methods used to determine reservoir
capacity are:
1. By contour map
2. By mass curve of inflow and demand

1. By contour map
A contour maps with areas A1, A2, A3,…. ,An
enclosed by the successive contours can
be determined with a planimeter. The
capacity may be measured by taking
contour at equal interval and totaling by
trapezoidal or simpson’s rule

2. By mass curve of inflow and demand
A mass curve is the plot of accumulated flow in
the stream with time. It is also known as
Ripple Curve.
A mass curve is prepared from the flood

hydrograph of inflow for large number of
consecutive years.
The maximum vertical intercept between the

mass curve gives the reservoir capacity.

Reservoir Losses
1. Evaporation losses
2. Absorption losses
3. Reservoir leakage or percolation losses
Life of a reservoir:
• The term life of reservoir denotes the period during which whole or specified fraction of its total
or active capacity is lost. Life of the reservoir is mainly governed by sedimentation rather than
structural life.
• The deposition of sediments gradually reduces the available storage capacity of the reservoir.

i) Bank Storage: When the reservoir is filled, a certain amount of water seeps into the
permeable reservoir bank. This water comes out when the reservoir gets depleted.
This volume of water is known as bank storage.
ii) Useful storage: The volume of water stored in the reservoir between normal and
minimum pool level is called useful storage.
iii) Surcharge Storage: The volume of water stored between the maximum pool level and
normal pool level is called surcharge storage.
iv) Valley Storage: Before the construction of the dam, a variable amount of water is
stored in the stream channel is called valley storage. After construction of the dam,
storage increases and there is a net increase in the storage is equal to the storage
capacity of a reservoir minus natural valley storage.
Effective storage for flood mitigation = Live Storage + Surcharge Storage – Valleys Storage


Trap efficiency (η):
• The reservoir trap efficiency is defined as the ratio of deposited
sediment to the total sediment inflow for a given period within the
reservoirs economic life time
• It is the percentage of sediment deposited in the reservoir measured
even inspite of taking precautions and to control its deposition.
➢ η = Trap efficiency = Sediment deposited /Total sediment inflow
Most of the reservoirs trap 95 to 100% of sediment load flowing into

them.
Capacity inflow ratio(CIR):
It is the ratio of the reservoir capacity to the total inflow of water in it.
ie, capacity inflow ratio = capacity/inflow
It has found that the trap efficiency is the function of Capacity inflow
ratio.
Trap efficiency (η) = f (capacity/inflow)

8.2.6 Load Analysis to the System
Load Curve chart illustrating variation in load over a specific time
- May be daily, monthly, and seasonally varying load curve
Load factor gives idea of cost per unit power generation

= average load/maximum demand
If the plant is in operation for T hours,

Load Factor = Average Load x T hours / (Maximum Demand x T hours)
Higher value of load factor higher average load or less maximum demand.

8.2.6 Load Analysis to the System
Average Load / Average Demand:
The average of loads occurring on the power station in given period (day or month
or year) is known as average load or average demand.
Daily Average Load = No. of units (kWh)generated in a day / 24 hours
Monthly Average Load = No. of units (kWh) generated in a month/Number of hours

in a month
Yearly Average Load = No. of units (kWh) generated in a year / 365*24 hours

Lets move to
Multiple Choice Questions

8.2 Multiple Choice Questions
1. Which type of hydropower plant uses a dam to create a reservoir to store water for
electricity generation?
a) Reservoir plant
b) Run-of-river plant
c) Pumped-storage plant
d) Tidal plant
2. Which type of hydropower plant uses the difference in water levels between high tide
and low tide to generate electricity?
a) Tidal plant
b) Reservoir plant
c) Run-of-river plant
d) Pumped-storage plant

3. Which type of hydropower plant is most commonly used for small-scale electricity
generation in rural areas?
a) Micro hydropower plant
b) Reservoir plant
c) Tidal plant
4. Which type of hydropower plant is designed to operate continuously, with little or no

fluctuation in output?
a) Base load plant
b) Peaking plant
c) Intermediate load plant

5. The minimum power which a hydropower plant can generate throughout
the year is called as ________________
a) power plant capacity
b) power plant load
c) firm power
d) water power
6. Hydroelectric power plant is

a) Non-renewable source of energy
b) Conventional source of energy
c) Non-conventional source of energy
d) Continuous source of energy

7. What is the name of the process where water is pumped back into a reservoir
when electricity demand is low?
a) Pumped storage
b) Tidal storage
c) Wave storage
d) Solar storage
8. What is the most common type of hydropower facility in ?

a) Run-of-river
b) Reservoir
c) Tidal
d) Wave

9. The primary power at a hydro plant is determined considering
(a) 100% available flow
(b) minimum stream flow
(c) Available pondage
(d) all of above
10. Which of the following plant has minimum running cost

a) Diesel plant
b) Nuclear
c) Hydro
d) Steam

11. Which of the following is not a requirement for site selection of hydroelectric
power plant?
a) Availability of water
b) Large catchment area
c) Rocky land
d) Sedimentation
12. For high head hydro-electric plants, the turbine used is _________
a) Pelton wheel
b) Francis
c) Kaplan
d) All of the above

13. The gross head minus the losses in friction, trash rack and other minor losses in
penstocks is called
(a) Available head
(b) minimum head
(c) Effective head
(d) none of above
14. The ratio of maximum power utilized to the maximum power available is
a) power factor
b) plant use factor
c) reserve capacity
d) capacity factor
Note: The utilization factor(Plant use factor) is the ratio of the maximum power utilized to
the maximum power available

15. The net amount of power which is continuously available from a plant without
any break is known as
a) firm power
b) secondary power
c) power factor
d) utilization factor
16. The value of power factor is generally.

a) equal to unity
b) less than unity
c) greater than unity
d) equal to zero

17. To ensure maximum overall plant efficiency, the rated head should be equal to
a) Design head
b) Gross head
c) Operating head
d) Effective head
18. If the peak load for a power plant equals the plant capacity then the ratio of the
capacity factor to load factor will be
a) 1
b) o
c) < 1
d) > 1

19. The ratio of sediment deposited in the reservoir to the total volume of sediment
carried by the river is
a. Trap efficiency
b. Sedimentation
c. Capacity Inflow ratio
d. Life of reservoir
20. The volume of water stored between normal reservoir level and maximum reservoir
level is
a. Useful Storage
b. Live Storage
c. Surcharge Storage
d. Dead Storage

21. The effective storage of a flood control reservoir is
a. The storage volume of flood water above the maximum reservoir level
b. The amount of water supplied from reservoir in a particular interval of time
c. The live storage plus the surcharge storage minus the valley storage
d. The storage between minimum and maximum reservoir levels under operating
conditions
22. The correct sequence in direction of flow of water for installation in a hydropower plant
is
a. Reservoir, surge tank, penstock, turbine
b. Reservoir, penstock, turbine, surge tank
c. Reservoir, surge tank, turbine penstock
d. Reservoir , penstock, surge tank, turbine

23. The annual depreciation of a hydro power plant is about
a) 0.5% to 1.5%
b) 10% to 15%
c) 15% to 20%
d) 20% to 25%
Answer: 0.5% to 1.5%
24. Which of the following method is utilized for fixing installed capacity of Hydropower
plant?
a) Demand Supply Approach
b) Rule curve Approach
c) Mass Analysis Approach
d) Marginal Cost Benefit Approach

25. Which stage of hydropower development involves detailed engineering design,
procurement, and construction?
a) Pre-feasibility stage
b) Feasibility stage
c) Operation and maintenance stage
d) Construction stage
26. Which act provides for the establishment of the Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA)?
a) Electricity Authority Act Nepal Electricity Authority (NEA) was created on August 16,
b) Hydropower Act 1985 (Bhadra 1, 2042) under the Nepal Electricity Authority Act.
c) Energy Act 1984, through the merger of the Department of Electricity of
d) Renewable Energy Act Ministry of Water Resources, Nepal Electricity Corporation and
related Development Boards.

27. Which factor determines the head available for power generation in a hydropower
plant?
a) The difference in elevation between the water source and the turbine
b) The distance between the water source and the turbine
c) The size of the penstock
d) The diameter of the turbine blades
28. What is the highest elevation of water level that can be maintained in the reservoir
without any spillway discharge either with gated or non-gated spillway?
a) Normal Water level
b) Minimum Water level
c) Weighted average level
d) Operating head

29. The load on a hydel plant varies from a minimum of 10,000 kW to a maximum of
35,000 kW. Two turbo-generators of capacities 20,000 kW each have been installed.
Calculate Plant factor.
a) 50%
b) 51%
c) 56%
d) 59%
30. If the peak load on a power plant having a capacity of 100 MW is 70 MW during a given
week and the energy is 58, 80,000 KWH, the capacity factor for the plant for the week
will be
a) 35%
b) 50%
c) 70%
d) 65%

31. During a certain week a power plant turns out 84,00,000 kWh and the peak load during
the week is 100,000 kW. What is the load factor during the week?
a) 40%
b) 45%
c) 50%
d) 60%
32. Calculate utilization factor if the maximum power utilized is 40,000 kW and two turbo
generators installed each of capacity 23,000 kW.
a) 73%
b) 87%
c) 57.5%
d) 63%

33. Determine the trap efficiency of reservoir if over a period of 10 years, the total
sediment flowing into the river was 25000m3 while the total sediment that reached the
downstream of river was just 5000m3.
a. 60%
b. 20%
c. 80%
d. None of the above
34. A hydroelectric generating station is supplied from a reservoir of capacity 6 million m³
at a head of 170 m. Determine the potential energy stored in this water.
a. 10˄10 J
b. 10 ˄ 9 J
c. 10 ˄ 8 J
d. 10 ˄ 12 J

35. The maximum power output of a hydropower plant is 5 MW, and its load factor is 0.8.
What is the average power output of the plant?
a) 4 MW
b) 4.5 MW
c) 5 MW
d) 6 MW
36. In a hydropower plant of installed capacity 100MW, 42GWh energy is produced in one
month What is the approx. capacity factor of that plant?
a) 56%
b) 58%
c) 60%
d) 64%

THANK YOU

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NEPAL ENGINEERING COUNCIL

LICENSE EXAMINATION PREPARATION COURSE

Prepared by : Er. Babu Ram Karki

7/31/2024Council Registration Examination [as per Civil Engineering

7/31/2024 Hydropower Engineering 3

7/31/2024 Hydropower Engineering 4

3. Topography (catchment area, contour)

4. Socio-economic data area

5. Power Market Data

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Net Head (Effective Head)

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• Load Factor= Average Load / Peak Load (≤1)

• Plant or Capacity Factor= Average Load/ Plant capacity (0.25-0.7)

• Power Factor= Actual Power / Apparent Power(0.8-0.9)

• Diversity factor= Sum of maximum demand of individual consumers/

7/31/2024 Hydropower Engineering 13

• Q) A generating station has a connected load of 50 MW and a maximum demand of

Q) If peak load on a power plant having a capacity of 100 MW is 70 MW during

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In Nepal for projects up to 25MW, the installed

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1. Marginal Cost and Benefit Approach

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ii) Peaking RoR type plants:

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Regulate the hydrograph of river

Eg. Kulekhani HPP-60MW

Fig: Kulekhani II storage hydropower

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Headrace Conveyance: It is a system of channels or pipes that transport water from

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Anchor Block/Support Piers: It is a foundation structure that supports the penstock

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Tailrace: It is a channel or pipe that carries water from the powerhouse

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• The volume of water that can be stored in the particular reservoir is

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Fig: Phokshundo Lake