Learn Julia Programming

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hope you never stop learning.
TABLE OF CONTENT
OVERVIEW
ENVIRONMENT SETUP
BASIC SYNTAX
ARRAYS
TUPLES
INTEGERS AND FLOATING-POINT NUMBERS
RATIONAL AND COMPLEX NUMBERS
BASIC OPERATORS
BASIC MATHEMATICAL FUNCTIONS
STRINGS
FUNCTIONS
FLOW CONTROL
DICTIONARIES AND SETS
DATE & TIME
FILES I/O
META PROGRAMMING
PLOTTING
DATA FRAMES
WORKING WITH DATASETS
MODULES AND PACKAGES
WORKING WITH GRAPHICS
NETWORKING
DATABASES
Overview
What is Julia Programming Language?

One of the facts about scientific programming is that it requires high
performance flexible dynamic programming language. Unfortunately, to a
great extent, the domain experts have moved to slower dynamic
programming languages. There can be many good reasons for using such
dynamic programming languages and, in fact, their use cannot be diminished
as well. On the flip side, what can we expect from modern language design
and compiler techniques? Some of the expectations are as follows −
It should eradicate the performance trade-off.
It should provide the domain experts a single environment that is
productive enough for prototyping.
It should provide the domain experts a single environment that is
efficient enough for deploying performance-intensive
applications.
The Julia programming language fulfills these expectations. It is a general
purpose high-performance flexible programming language which can be
used to write any application. It is well-suited for scientific and numerical
computing.
History of Julia
Let us see the history of Julia programming language in the following points
−
Jeff Bezanson, Stefan Karpinski, Viral B. Shah, and Alan
Edelman has started to work on Julia in 2009.
The developer’s team of above four has launched a website on
14th February 2012. This website had a blog post primarily
explaining the mission of Julia programming language.
Later in April 2012, Stefan Karpinski, in an interview with a
magazine named InfoWorld, gave the name “Julia” for their
programming language.
In 2014, the annual academic conference named ‘The
JuliaCon’ for Julia; users and developers has been started and
since then it was regularly held every year.
In August 2014, Julia Version 0.3 was released for use.
In October 2015, Julia Version 0.4 was released for use.
In October 2016, Julia Version 0.5 was released for use.
In June 2017 Julia Version 0.6 was released for use.
Julia Version 0.7 and Version 1.0 were both released on the same
date 8th August 2018. Among them Julia version 0.7 was
particularly useful for testing packages as well as for the users
who wants to upgrade to version 1.0.
Julia versions 1.0.x are the oldest versions which are still
supported.
In January 2019, Julia Version 1.1 was released for use.
In November 2019, Julia Version 1.3 was released for use.
In March 2020, Julia Version 1.4 was released for use.
Features of Julia
Following are some of the features and capabilities offered by Julia −
Julia provides us unobtrusive yet a powerful and dynamic type
system.
With the help of multiple dispatch, the user can define function
behavior across many combinations of arguments.
It has powerful shell that makes Julia able to manage other
processes easily.
The user can cam call C function without any wrappers or any
special APIs.
Julia provides an efficient support for Unicode.
It also provides its users the Lisp-like macros as well as other
metaprogramming processes.
It provides lightweight green threading, i.e., coroutines.
It is well-suited for parallelism and distributed computation.
The coding done in Julia is fast because there is no need of
vectorization of code for performance.
It can efficiently interface with other programming languages
such as Python, R, and Java. For example, it can interface with
Python using PyCall, with R using RCall, and with Java using
JavaCall.
The Scope of Julia
Jeff Bezanson, Stefan Karpinski, Viral B. Shah, and Alan Edelman, the core
designers and developers of Julia, have made it clear that Julia was explicitly
designed to bridge the following gap in the existing software toolset in the
technical computing discipline −
Prototyping − Prototyping is one such problem in technical computing
discipline that needs a high-level and flexible programming language so that
the developer should not worry about the low-level details of computation
and the programming language itself.
Performance − The actual computation needs maximum performance. The
production version of a programming language should be often written in
“Fortran” or “C” programming language.
Speed − Another important issue in technical domain is the speed. Before
Julia, the programmers need to have mastery on both high-level
programming (for writing code in Matlab, R, or, Python for prototyping) and
low-level programming (writing performance-sensitive parts of programs, to
speed up the actual computation, in statistically complied languages such as
C or Fortran).
Julia programming language gives the practitioners a possibility of writing
high-performance programs that uses computer resources such as CPU and
memory as effectively as C or Fortran. In this sense, Julia reduces the need
for a low-level programming language. The recent advances in Julia, LLVM
JIT (Low Level Virtual Machine Just in Time) compiler technology proves
that working in one environment that has expressive capabilities and pure
speed is possible.
Comparison with other languages
One of the goals of data scientists is to achieve expressive capabilities and
pure speed that avoids the need to go for ‘C’ programming language. Julia
provides the programmers a new era of technical computing where they can
develop libraries in a high-level programming language.
Following is the detailed comparison of Julia with the most used
programming languages — Matlab, R, and Python −
MATLAB − The syntax of Julia is similar to MATLAB, however it is a
much general purpose language when compared to MATLAB. Although
most of the names of functions in Julia resemble OCTAVE (the open source
version of MATLAB), the computations are extremely different. In the field
of linear algebra, Julia has equally powerful capabilities as that of
MATLAB, but it will not give its users the same license fee issues. In
comparison to OCTAVE, Julia is much faster as well. MATLAB.Jl is the
package with the help of which Julia provides an interface to MATLAB.
Python − Julia compiles the Python-like code into machine code that gives
the programmer same performance as C programming language. If we
compare the performance of Julia and Python, Julia is ahead with a factor of
10 to 30 times. With the help of PyCall package, we can call Python
functions in Julia.
R − As we know, in statistical domain, R is one of the best development
languages, but with a performance increase of a factor of 10 to 1,000 times,
Julia is as usable as R in statistical domain. MATLAB is not a fit for doing
statistics and R is not a fit for doing linear algebra, but Julia is perfect for
doing both statistics and linear algebra. On the other hand, if we compare
Julia’s type system with R, the former has much richer type system.
Environment Setup
To install Julia, we need to download binary Julia platform in executable
form which you can download from the
link https://julialang.org/downloads/. On the webpage, you will find Julia
in 32-bit and 64-bit format for all three major platforms, i.e. Linux,
Windows, and Macintosh (OS X). The current stable release which we are
going to use is v1.5.1.
Installing Julia
Let us see how we can install Julia on various platforms −
Linux and FreeBSD installation

The command set given below can be used to download the latest version of
Julia programming language into a directory, let’s say Julia-1.5.1 −
wget https://julialang-s3.julialang.org/bin/linux/x64/1.5/julia-1.5.1-linux-
x86_64.tar.gz
tar zxvf julia-1.5.1-linux-x86_64.tar.gz
Once installed, we can do any of the following to run Julia −
Use Julia’s full path, <Julia directory>/bin/Julia to invoke Julia
executable. Here <Julia directory> refers to the directory where
Julia is installed on your computer.
You can also create a symbolic link to Julia programming
language. The link should be inside a folder which is on your
system PATH.
You can add Julia’s bin folder with full path to system PATH
environment variable by editing
the ~/.bashrc or ~/.bash_profile file. It can be done by opening
the file in any of the editors and adding the line given below:
export PATH="$PATH:/path/to/<Julia directory>/bin"
Windows installation
Once you downloaded the installer as per your windows specifications, run
the installer. It is recommended to note down the installation directory which
looks like C:\Users\Ga\AppData\Local\Programs\Julia1.5.1.
To invoke Julia programming language by simply typing Julia in cmd, we
must add Julia executable directory to system PATH. You need to follow the
following steps according to your windows specifications −
On Windows 10
First open Run by using the shortcut Windows key + R.
Now, type rundll32 sysdm.cpl, EditEnvironmentVariables and
press enter.
We will now find the row with “Path” under “User Variable” or
“System Variable”.
Now click on edit button to get the “Edit environment variable”
UI.
Now, click on “New” and paste in the directory address we have
noted while installation
(C:\Users\Ga\AppData\Local\Programs\Julia1.5.1\bin).
Finally click OK and Julia is ready to be run from command line
by typing Julia.
On Windows 7 or 8
First open Run by using the shortcut Windows key + R.
Now, type rundll32 sysdm.cpl, EditEnvironmentVariables and
press enter.
We will now find the row with “Path” under “User Variable” or
“System Variable”.
Click on edit button and we will get the “Edit environment
variable” UI.
Now move the cursor to the end of this field and check if there is
semicolon at the end or not. If not found, then add a semicolon.
Once added, we need to paste in the directory address we have
noted while installation
(C:\Users\Ga\AppData\Local\Programs\Julia1.5.1\bin).
Finally click OK and Julia is ready to be run from command line
by typing Julia.
macOS installation
On macOS, a file named Julia-<version>.dmg will be given. This file
contains Julia-<version>.app and you need to drag this file to Applications
Folder Shortcut. One other way to run Julia is from the disk image by
opening the app.
If you want to run Julia from terminal, type the below given command −
ln -s /Applications/Julia-1.5.app/Contents/Resources/julia/bin/julia
/usr/local/bin/julia
This command will create a symlink to the Julia version we have chosen.
Now close the shell profile page and quit terminal as well. Now once again
open the Terminal and type julia in it and you will be with your version
of Julia programming language.
Building Julia from source

To build Julia from source rather than binaries, we need to follow the below
given steps. Here we will be outlining the procedure for Ubuntu OS.
Download the source code from GitHub
at https://github.com/JuliaLang/julia.
Compile it and you will get the latest version. It will not give us
the stable version.
If you do not have git installed, use the following command to
install the same −
sudo apt-get -f install git
Using the following command, clone the Julia sources −
git clone git://github.com/JuliaLang/julia.git
The above command will download the source code into a julia directory
and that is in current folder.
Now, by using the command given below, install GNU compilation tools
g++, gfortran, and m4 −
sudo apt-get install gfortran g++ m4
Once installation done, start the compilation process as follows −
cd Julia
make
After this, successful build Julia programming language will start up with
the ./julia command.
Julia’s working environment
REPL (read-eval-print loop) is the working environment of Julia. With the
help of this shell we can interact with Julia’s JIT (Just in Time) compiler to
test and run our code. We can also copy and paste our code
into .jl extension, for example, first.jl. Another option is to use a text editor
or IDE. Let us have a look at REPL below −
After clicking on Julia logo, we will get a prompt with julia> for writing our
piece of code or program. Use exit() or CTRL + D to end the session. If you
want to evaluate the expression, press enter after input.
Packages
Almost all the standard libraries in Julia are written in Julia itself but the rest
of the Julia’s code ecosystem can be found in Packages which
are Git repositories. Some important points about Julia packages are given
below −
Packages provide reusable functionality that can be easily used by
other Julia projects.
Julia has built-in package manager named pkg.jl for package
installation.
The package manager handles installation, removal, and updates
of packages.
The package manager works only if the packages are in REPL.
Installing packages
Step 1 − First open the Julia command line.
Step 2 − Now open the Julia package management environment by pressing,
]. You will get the following console −
You can check https://juliaobserver.com/packages to see which packages
we can install on Julia.
Adding a package
For adding a package in Julia environment, we need to use addcommand
with the name of the package. For example, we will be adding the package
named Graphs which is uses for working with graphs in Julia.
Removing a package
For removing a package from Julia, we need to use rm command with the
name of the of the package. For example, we will be removing the package
named Graphs as follows −
Updating a package
To update a Julia package, either you can use update command, which will
update all the Julia packages, or you can use up command along with the
name of the package, which will update specific package.
Testing a package
Use test command to test a Julia package. For example, below we have
tested JSON package −
Installing IJulia
To install IJulia, use add IJulia command in Julia package environment. We
need to make sure that you have preinstalled Anaconda on your machine.
Once it gets installed, open Jupyter notebook and choose Julia1.5.1 as
follows −
Now you will be able to write Julia programs using IJulia as follows −
Installing Juno
Juno is a powerful IDE for Julia programming language. It is free, and to
install follow the steps given below −
Step 1 − First we need to install Julia on our system.
Step 2 − Now you need to install Atom from here. It must be
updated(version 1.41+).
Step 3 − In Atom, go to settings and then install panel. It will install Juno for
you.
Step 4 − Start working in Juno by opening REPL with Juno > open REPL
command.
Basic Syntax
The simplest first Julia program (and of many other programming languages
too) is to print hello world. The script is as follows −
If you have added Julia to your path, the same script can be saved in a file
say hello.jl and can be run by typing Julia hello.jl at command prompt.
Alternatively the same can also be run from Julia REPL by
typing include(“hello.jl”). This command will evaluate all valid expressions
and return the last output.
Variables
What can be the simplest definition of a computer program? The simplest
one may be that a computer program is a series of instructions to be executed
on a variety of data.
Here the data can be the name of a person, place, the house number of a
person, or even a list of things you have made. In computer programming,
when we need to label such information, we give it a name (say A) and call
it a variable. In this sense, we can say that a variable is a box containing
data.
Let us see how we can assign data to a variable. It is quite simple, just type
it. For example,
student_name = “Ram”
roll_no = 15
marks_math = 9.5
Here, the first variable i.e. student_name contains a string, the second
variable i.e. roll_no contains a number, and the third variable
i.e. marks_math contains a floating-point number. We see, unlike other
programming languages such as C++, Python, etc.,in Julia we do not have to
specify the type of variables because it can infer the type of object on the
right side of the equal sign.
Stylistic Conventions and Allowed Variable Names

Following are some conventions used for variables names −
The names of the variables in Julia are case sensitive. So, the
variables student_name and Student_name would not be same.
The names of the variables in Julia should always start with a
letter and after that we can use anything like digits, letters,
underscores, etc.
In Julia, generally lower-case letter is used with multiple words
separated by an underscore.
We should use clear, short, and to the point names for variables.
Some of the valid Julia variable names are student_name,
roll_no, speed, current_time.
Comments
Writing comments in Julia is quite same as Python. Based on the usage,
comments are of two types −
Single Line Comments

In Julia, the single line comments start with the symbol of # (hashtag) and it
lasts till the end of that line. Suppose if your comment exceeds one line then
you should put a # symbol on the next line also and can continue the
comment. Given below is the code snippet showing single line comment −
Example
julia> #This is an example to demonstrate the single lined comments.
julia> #Print the given name
Multi-line Comments
In Julia, the multi-line comment is a piece of text, like single line comment,
but it is enclosed in a delimiter #= on the start of the comment and enclosed
in a delimiter =# on the end of the comment. Given below is the code snippet
showing multi-line comment −
Example
julia> #= This is an example to demonstrate the multi-line comments that
tells us about tutorialspoint.com. At this website you can browse the best
resource for Online Education.=#
julia> print(www.tutorialspoint.com)
Arrays
An Array is an ordered set of elements which are often specified with
squared brackets having comma-separated items. We can create arrays that
are −
Full or empty
Hold values of different types
Restricted to values of a specific type
In Julia, arrays are actually mutable type collections which are used for lists,
vectors, tables, and matrices. That is why the values of arrays in Julia can be
modified with the use of certain pre-defined keywords. With the help
of push! command you can add new element in array. Similarly, with the
help of splice! function you can add elements in an array at a specified
index.
Creating Simple 1D Arrays
Following is the example showing how we can create a simple 1D array −
julia> arr = [1,2,3]
3-element Array{Int64,1}:
1
2
3
The above example shows that we have created a 1D array with 3 elements
each of which is a 64-bit integer. This 1D array is bound to the variable arr.
Uninitialized array
We can also specify the type and the dimension of an array by using the
below syntax −
Array{type}(dims)
Following is an example of uninitialized array −
julia> array = Array{Int64}(undef, 3)
0
0
0
julia> array = Array{Int64}(undef, 3, 3, 3)
3×3×3 Array{Int64,3}:
[:, :, 1] =
8 372354944 328904752
3 331059280 162819664
32 339708912 1
[:, :, 2] =
331213072 3 331355760
1 328841776 331355984
-1 328841680 2
[:, :, 3] =
1 0 339709232
164231472 328841872 347296224
328841968 339709152 16842753
Here we placed the type in curly braces and the dimensions in parentheses.
We use undef which means that particular array has not been initialized to
any known value and thats why we got random numbers in the output.
Arrays of anything
Julia gives us the freedom to create arrays with elements of different types.
Let us see the example below in which we are going to create array of an
odd mixture — numbers, strings, functions, constants −
julia> [1, "TutorialsPoint.com", 5.5, tan, pi]
5-element Array{Any,1}:
1
"TutorialsPoint.com"
5.5
tan (generic function with 12 methods)
π = 3.1415926535897...
Empty Arrays
Just like creating an array of specific type, we can also create empty arrays
in Julia. The example is given below −
julia> A = Int64[]
Int64[]
julia> A = String[]
String[]
Creating 2D arrays & matrices
Leave out the comma between elements and you will be getting 2D arrays in
Julia. Below is the example given for single row, multi-column array −
julia> [1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10]
1×10 Array{Int64,2}:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Here, 1×10 is the first row of this array.
To add another row, just add a semicolon(;). Let us check the below example
−
julia> [1 2 3 4 5 ; 6 7 8 9 10]
1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10
Here, it becomes 2×5 array.
Creating arrays using range objects
We can create arrays using range objects in the following ways −
Collect() function
First useful function to create an array using range objects is collect(). With
the help of colon(:) and collect() function, we can create an array using range
objects as follows −
julia> collect(1:5)
1
2
3
4
5
We can also create arrays with floating point range objects −
julia> collect(1.5:5.5)
5-element Array{Float64,1}:
1.5
2.5
3.5
4.5
5.5
Let us see a three-piece version of a range object with the help of which you
can specify a step size other than 1.
The syntax for the same is given below −
start:step:stop.
Below is an example to build an array with elements that go from 0 to 50 in
steps of 5 −
julia> collect(0:5:50)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
ellipsis(…) or splat operator

Instead of using collect() function, we can also use splat operator or
ellipsis(…) after the last element. Following is an example −
julia> [0:10...]
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
range() function
Range() is another useful function to create an array with range objects. It
goes from start value to end value by taking a specific step value.
For example, let us see an example to go from 1 to 150 in exactly 15 steps −
julia> range(1, length=15, stop=150)
1.0:10.642857142857142:150.0
Or you can use range to take 10 steps from 1, stopping at or before 150:
julia> range(1, stop=150, step=10)
1:10:141
We can use range() with collect() to build an array as follows −
julia> collect(range(1, length=15, stop=150))
1.0
11.642857142857142
22.285714285714285
32.92857142857143
43.57142857142857
54.214285714285715
64.85714285714286
75.5
86.14285714285714
96.78571428571429
107.42857142857143
118.07142857142857
128.71428571428572
139.35714285714286
150.0
Creating arrays using comprehensions and
generators
Another useful way to create an array is to use comprehensions. In this way,
we can create array where each element can produce using a small
computation. For example, we can create an array of 10 elements as follows
−
julia> [n^2 for n in 1:10]
1
4
9
16
25
36
49
64
81
100
We can easily create a 2-D array also as follows −
julia> [n*m for n in 1:10, m in 1:10]
10×10 Array{Int64,2}:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
4 8 12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
6 12 18 24 30 36 42 48 54 60
7 14 21 28 35 42 49 56 63 70
8 16 24 32 40 48 56 64 72 80
9 18 27 36 45 54 63 72 81 90
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Similar to comprehension, we can use generator expressions to create an
array −
julia> collect(n^2 for n in 1:5)
1
4
9
16
25
Generator expressions do not build an array to first hold the values rather
they generate the values when needed. Hence they are more useful than
comprehensions.
Populating an Array
Following are the functions with the help of which you can create and fill
arrays with specific contents −
zeros (m, n)
This function will create matrix of zeros with m number of rows and n
number of columns. The example is given below −
julia> zeros(4,5)
4×5 Array{Float64,2}:
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
We can also specify the type of zeros as follows −
julia> zeros(Int64,4,5)
00000
00000
00000
0000
ones (m, n)
This function will create matrix of ones with m number of rows and n
number of columns. The example is given below −
julia> ones(4,5)
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
rand (m, n)
As the name suggests, this function will create matrix of random
numbers with m number of rows and n number of columns. The example is
given below −
julia> rand(4,5)
0.514061 0.888862 0.197132 0.721092 0.899983
0.503034 0.81519 0.061025 0.279143 0.204272
0.687983 0.883176 0.653474 0.659005 0.970319
0.20116 0.349378 0.470409 0.000273225 0.83694
randn(m, n)
As the name suggests, this function will create m*n matrix of normally
distributed random numbers with mean=0 and standard deviation(SD)=1.
julia> randn(4,5)
-0.190909 -1.18673 2.17422 0.811674 1.32414
0.837096 -0.0326669 -2.03179 0.100863 0.409234
-1.24511 -0.917098 -0.995239 0.820814 1.60817
-1.00931 -0.804208 0.343079 0.0771786 0.361685
fill()
This function is used to fill an array with a specific value. More specifically,
it will create an array of repeating duplicate value.
julia> fill(100,5)
100
100
100
100
100
julia> fill("tutorialspoint.com",3,3)
3×3 Array{String,2}:
"tutorialspoint.com" "tutorialspoint.com" "tutorialspoint.com"
fill!()
It is similar to fill() function but the sign of exclamation (!) is an indication
or warning that the content of an existing array is going to be changed. The
example is given below:
julia> ABC = ones(5)
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
julia> fill!(ABC,100)
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
julia> ABC
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
Array Constructor
The function Array(), we have studied earlier, can build array of a specific
type as follows −
julia> Array{Int64}(undef, 5)
294967297
8589934593
8589934594
8589934594
0
As we can see from the output that this array is uninitialized. The odd-
looking numbers are memories’ old content.
Arrays of arrays
Following example demonstrates creating arrays of arrays −
julia> ABC = Array[[3,4],[5,6]]
2-element Array{Array,1}:
[3, 4]
[5, 6]
It can also be created with the help of Array constructor as follows −
julia> Array[1:5,6:10]
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5]
[6, 7, 8, 9, 10]
Copying arrays
Suppose you have an array and want to create another array with similar
dimensions, then you can use similar() function as follows −
julia> A = collect(1:5);
Here we have hide the values with the help of semicolon(;)
julia> B = similar(A)
164998448
234899984
383606096
164557488
396984416
Here the dimension of array A are copied but not values.
Matrix Operations
As we know that a two-dimensional (2D) array can be used as a matrix so all
the functions that are available for working on arrays can also be used as
matrices. The condition is that the dimensions and contents should permit. If
you want to type a matrix, use spaces to make rows and semicolon(;) to
separate the rows as follows −
julia> [2 3 ; 4 5]
23
45
Following is an example to create an array of arrays (as we did earlier) by
placing two arrays next to each other −
julia> Array[[3,4],[5,6]]
[3, 4]
[5, 6]
Below we can see what happens when we omit the comma and place
columns next to each other −
julia> [[3,4] [5,6]]
35
46
Accessing the contents of arrays
In Julia, to access the contents/particular element of an array, you need to
write the name of the array with the element number in square bracket.
Below is an example of 1-D array −
julia> arr = [5,10,15,20,25,30,35,40,45,50]
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
julia> arr[4]
20
In some programming languages, the last element of an array is referred to
as -1. However, in Julia, it is referred to as end. You can find the last
element of an array as follows −
julia> arr[end]
50
And the second last element as follows −
julia> arr[end-1]
45
To access more than one element at a time, we can also provide a bunch of
index numbers as shown below −
julia> arr[[2,5,6]]
10
25
30
We can access array elements even by providing true and false −
julia> arr[[true, false, true, true,true, false, false, true, true, false]]
5
15
20
25
40
45
Now let us access the elements of 2-D.
julia> arr2 = [10 11 12; 13 14 15; 16 17 18]
10 11 12
13 14 15
16 17 18
julia> arr2[1]
10
The below command will give 13 not 11 as we were expecting.
julia> arr2[2]
13
To access row1, column2 element, we need to use the command below −
julia> arr2[1,2]
11
Similarly, for row1 and column3 element, we have to use the below
command −
julia> arr2[1,3]
12
We can also use getindex() function to obtain elements from a 2-D array −
julia> getindex(arr2,1,2)
11
julia> getindex(arr2,2,3)
15
Adding Elements
We can add elements to an array in Julia at the end, at the front and at the
given index using push!(), pushfirst!() and splice!() functions respectively.
At the end
We can use push!() function to add an element at the end of an array. For
example,
julia> push!(arr,55)
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
Remember we had 10 elements in array arr. Now push!() function added
the element 55 at the end of this array.
The exclamation(!) sign represents that the function is going to change the
array.
At the front
We can use pushfirst!() function to add an element at the front of an array.
For example,
julia> pushfirst!(arr,0)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
At a given index
We can use splice!() function to add an element into an array at a given
index. For example,
julia> splice!(arr,2:5,2:6)
5
10
15
20
julia> arr
0
2
3
4
5
6
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
Removing Elements
We can remove elements at last position, first position and at the given
index, from an array in Julia, using pop!(), popfirst!() and splice!
() functions respectively.
Remove the last element

We can use pop!() function to remove the last element of an array. For
example,
julia> pop!(arr)
55
julia> arr
0
2
3
4
5
6
25
30
35
40
45
50
Removing the first element

We can use popfirst!() function to remove the first element of an array. For
example,
julia> popfirst!(arr)
0
julia> arr
2
3
4
5
6
25
30
35
40
45
50
Removing element at given position

We can use splice!() function to remove the element from a given position
of an array. For example,
julia> splice!(arr,5)
6
julia> arr
2
3
4
5
25
30
35
40
45
50
Tuples
Similar to an array, tuple is also an ordered set of elements. Tuples work in
almost the same way as arrays but there are following important differences
between them −
An array is represented by square brackets whereas a tuple is
represented by parentheses and commas.
Tuples are immutable.
Creating tuples
We can create tuples as arrays and most of the array’s functions can be used
on tuples also. Some of the example are given below −
julia> tupl=(5,10,15,20,25,30)
(5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30)
julia> tupl
(5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30)
julia> tupl[3:end]
(15, 20, 25, 30)
julia> tupl = ((1,2),(3,4))
((1, 2), (3, 4))
julia> tupl[1]
(1, 2)
julia> tupl[1][2]
2
We cannot change a tuple:
julia> tupl[2]=0
ERROR: MethodError: no method matching setindex!
(::Tuple{Tuple{Int64,Int64},Tuple{Int64,Int64}}, ::Int64, ::Int64)
Stacktrace:
[1] top-level scope at REPL[7]:1
Named tuples
A named tuple is simply a combination of a tuple and a dictionary because −
A named tuple is ordered and immutable like a tuple and
Like a dictionary in named tuple, each element has a unique key
which can be used to access it.
In next section, let us see how we can create named tuples −
Creating named tuples
You can create named tuples in Julia by −
Providing keys and values in separate tuples
Providing keys and values in a single tuple
Combining two existing named tuples
Keys and values in separate tuples

One way to create named tuples is by providing keys and values in separate
tuples.
Example
julia> names_shape = (:corner1, :corner2)
(:corner1, :corner2)
julia> values_shape = ((100, 100), (200, 200))
((100, 100), (200, 200))
julia> shape_item2 = NamedTuple{names_shape}(values_shape)
(corner1 = (100, 100), corner2 = (200, 200))
We can access the elements by using dot(.) syntax −
julia> shape_item2.corner1
(100, 100)
julia> shape_item2.corner2
(200, 200)
Keys and values in a single tuple

We can also create named tuples by providing keys and values in a single
tuple.
Example
julia> shape_item = (corner1 = (1, 1), corner2 = (-1, -1), center = (0, 0))
(corner1 = (1, 1), corner2 = (-1, -1), center = (0, 0))
We can access the elements by using dot(.) syntax −
julia> shape_item.corner1
(1, 1)
julia> shape_item.corner2
(-1, -1)
julia> shape_item.center
(0, 0)
julia> (shape_item.center,shape_item.corner2)
((0, 0), (-1, -1))
We can also access all the values as with ordinary tuples as follows −
julia> c1, c2, center = shape_item
julia> c1
(1, 1)
Combining two named tuples

Julia provides us a way to make new named tuples by combining two named
tuples together as follows −
Example
julia> colors_shape = (top = "red", bottom = "green")
(top = "red", bottom = "green")
julia> shape_item = (corner1 = (1, 1), corner2 = (-1, -1), center = (0, 0))
julia> merge(shape_item, colors_shape)
(corner1 = (1, 1), corner2 = (-1, -1), center = (0, 0), top = "red", bottom =
"green")
Named tuples as keyword arguments
If you want to pass a group of keyword arguments to a function, named tuple
is a convenient way to do so in Julia. Following is the example of a function
that accepts three keyword arguments −
julia> function ABC(x, y, z; a=10, b=20, c=30)
println("x = $x, y = $y, z = $z; a = $a, b = $b, c = $c")
end
ABC (generic function with 1 method)
It is also possible to define a named tuple which contains the names as well
values for one or more keywords as follows −
julia> options = (b = 200, c = 300)
(b = 200, c = 300)
In order to pass the named tuples to the function we need to use; while
calling the function −
julia> ABC(1, 2, 3; options...)
x = 1, y = 2, z = 3; a = 10, b = 200, c = 300
The values and keyword can also be overridden by later function as follows
−
julia> ABC(1, 2, 3; b = 1000_000, options...)
x = 1, y = 2, z = 3; a = 10, b = 200, c = 300
julia> ABC(1, 2, 3; options..., b= 1000_000)
x = 1, y = 2, z = 3; a = 10, b = 1000000, c = 300
Integers and Floating-Point Numbers
In any programming language, there are two basic building blocks of
arithmetic and computation. They are integers and floating-point values.
Built-in representation of the values of integers and floating-point are
called numeric primitives. On the other hand, their representation as
immediate values in code are called numeric literals.
Following are the example of integer and floating-point literals −
100 is an integer literal
100.50 is a floating-point literal
Their built-in memory representations as objects is numeric
primitives.
Integers
Integer is one of the primitive numeric types in Julia. It is represented as
follows −
julia> 100
100
julia> 123456789
123456789
We can check the default type of an integer literal, which depends on
whether our system is 32-bit or 64-bit architecture.
julia> Sys.WORD_SIZE
64
julia> typeof(100)
Int64
Integer types
The table given below shows the integer types in Julia −
Type Signed? Number Smallest Largest

of bits value value
Int8 ✓ 8 -2^7 2^7 – 1
UInt8 8 0 2^8 – 1
Int16 ✓ 16 -2^15 2^15 – 1

UInt16 16 0 2^16 – 1
Int32 ✓ 32 -2^31 2^31 – 1
UInt32 32 0 2^32 – 1
Int64 ✓ 64 -2^63 2^63 – 1
UInt64 64 0 2^64 – 1
Int128 ✓ 128 -2^127 2^127 –

1
UInt128 128 0 2^128 –

1
Bool N/A 8 false (0) true (1)
Overflow behavior
In Julia, if the maximum representable value of a given type exceeds, then it
results in a wraparound behavior. For example −
julia> A = typemax(Int64)
9223372036854775807
julia> A + 1
-9223372036854775808
julia> A + 1 == typemin(Int64)
true
It is recommended to explicitly check for wraparound produced by overflow
especially where overflow is possible. Otherwise use BigInt type
in Arbitrary Precision Arithmetic.
Below is an example of overflow behavior and how we can resolve it −
julia> 10^19
-8446744073709551616
julia> big(10)^19
10000000000000000000
Division errors
Integer division throws a DivideError in the following two exceptional
cases −
Dividing by zero
Dividing the lowest negative number
The rem (remainder) and mod (modulus) functions will throw
a DivideError whenever their second argument is zero. The example are
given below −
julia> mod(1, 0)
ERROR: DivideError: integer division error
Stacktrace:
[1] div at .\int.jl:260 [inlined]
[2] div at .\div.jl:217 [inlined]
[3] div at .\div.jl:262 [inlined]
[4] fld at .\div.jl:228 [inlined]
[5] mod(::Int64, ::Int64) at .\int.jl:252
julia> rem(1, 0)
ERROR: DivideError: integer division error
Stacktrace:
[1] rem(::Int64, ::Int64) at .\int.jl:261
Floating-point numbers
Another primitive numeric types in Julia is floating-point numbers. It is
represented (using E-notation when needed) as follows −
julia> 1.0
1.0
julia> 0.5
0.5
julia> -1.256
-1.256
julia> 2e11
2.0e11
julia> 3.6e-5
3.6e-5
All the above results are Float64. If we would like to enter Float32 literal,
they can be written by writing f in the place of e as follows −
julia> 0.5f-5
5.0f-6
julia> typeof(ans)
Float32
julia> 1.5f0
1.5f0
julia> typeof(ans)
Float32
Floating-point types
The table given below shows the floating-point types in Julia −
Type Precision Number of bits
Float16 half 16
Float32 single 32
Float64 double 64
Floating-point zeros
There are two kind of floating-point zeros, one is positive zero and other is
negative zero. They are same but their binary representation is different. It
can be seen in the example below −
julia> 0.0 == -0.0
true
julia> bitstring(0.0)
"0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000"
julia> bitstring(-0.0)
"1000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000"
Special floating-point values
The table below represents three specified standard floating-point values.
These floating-point values do not correspond to any point on the real
number line.
Float16 Float32 Float64 Name Description
Inf16 Inf32 Inf positive It is the value

infinity greater than all
finite floating-
point values
-Inf16 -Inf32 -Inf negative It is the value

infinity less than all
finite floating-
point values
NaN16 NaN32 NaN not a It is a value

number not == to any
floating-point
value
(including
itself)
We can also apply typemin and typemax functions as follows −

julia> (typemin(Float16),typemax(Float16))
(-Inf16, Inf16)
(-Inf32, Inf32)
(-Inf, Inf)
Machine epsilon
Machine epsilon is the distance between two adjacent representable floating-
point numbers. It is important to know machine epsilon because most of the
real numbers cannot be represented exactly with floating-point numbers.
In Julia, we have eps() function that gives us the distance between 1.0 and
the next larger representable floating-point value. The example is given
below −
julia> eps(Float32)
1.1920929f-7
julia> eps(Float64)
2.220446049250313e-16
Rounding modes
As we know that the number should be rounded to an appropriate
representable value if it does not have an exact floating-point representation.
Julia uses the default mode called RoundNearest. It rounds to the nearest
integer, with ties being rounded to the nearest even integer. For example,
julia> BigFloat("1.510564889",2,RoundNearest)
1.5
Rational and Complex Numbers
In this chapter, we shall discuss rational and complex numbers.
Rational Numbers
Julia represents exact ratios of integers with the help of rational number
type. Let us understand about rational numbers in Julia in further sections −
Constructing rational numbers

In Julia REPL, the rational numbers are constructed by using the operator //.
Below given is the example for the same −
julia> 4//5
4//5
You can also extract the standardized numerator and denominator as follows
−
julia> numerator(8//9)
8
julia> denominator(8//9)
9
Converting to floating-point numbers

It is very easy to convert the rational numbers to floating-point numbers.
Check out the following example −
julia> float(2//3)
0.6666666666666666
Converting rational to floating-point numbers does not loose the following
identity for any integral values of A and B. For example:
julia> A = 20; B = 30;
julia> isequal(float(A//B), A/B)
true
Complex Numbers
As we know that the global constant im, which represents the principal
square root of -1, is bound to the complex number. This binding in Julia
suffice to provide convenient syntax for complex numbers because Julia
allows numeric literals to be contrasted with identifiers as coefficients.
julia> 2+3im
2 + 3im
Performing Standard arithmetic operations

We can perform all the standard arithmetic operations on complex numbers.
The example are given below −
julia> (2 + 3im)*(1 - 2im)
8 - 1im
julia> (2 + 3im)/(1 - 2im)
-0.8 + 1.4im
julia> (2 + 3im)+(1 - 2im)
3 + 1im
julia> (2 + 3im)-(1 - 2im)

1 + 5im
julia> (2 + 3im)^2
-5 + 12im
julia> (2 + 3im)^2.6
-23.375430842463754 + 15.527174176755075im
julia> 2(2 + 3im)
4 + 6im
julia> 2(2 + 3im)^-2.0
-0.059171597633136105 - 0.14201183431952663im
Combining different operands

The promotion mechanism in Julia ensures that combining different kind of
operators works fine on complex numbers. Let us understand it with the help
of the following example −
julia> 2(2 + 3im)
4 + 6im
julia> (2 + 3im)-1
1 + 3im
julia> (2 + 3im)+0.7
2.7 + 3.0im
julia> (2 + 3im)-0.7im
2.0 + 2.3im
julia> 0.89(2 + 3im)
1.78 + 2.67im
julia> (2 + 3im)/2
1.0 + 1.5im
julia> (2 + 3im)/(1-3im)
-0.7000000000000001 + 0.8999999999999999im
julia> 3im^3
0 - 3im
julia> 1+2/5im
1.0 - 0.4im
Functions to manipulate complex values

In Julia, we can also manipulate the values of complex numbers with the
help of standard functions. Below are given some example for the same −
julia> real(4+7im) #real part of complex number
4
julia> imag(4+7im) #imaginary part of complex number
7
julia> conj(4+7im) # conjugate of complex number
4 - 7im
julia> abs(4+7im) # absolute value of complex number

8.06225774829855
julia> abs2(4+7im) #squared absolute value
65
julia> angle(4+7im) #phase angle in radians
1.0516502125483738
Let us check out the use of Elementary Functions for complex numbers in
the below example −
julia> sqrt(7im) #square root of imaginary part
1.8708286933869707 + 1.8708286933869707im
julia> sqrt(4+7im) #square root of complex number
2.455835677350843 + 1.4251767869809258im
julia> cos(4+7im) #cosine of complex number
-358.40393224005317 + 414.96701031076253im
julia> exp(4+7im) #exponential of complex number
41.16166839296141 + 35.87025288661357im
julia> sinh(4+7im) #Hyperbolic sine value of complex number
20.573930095756726 + 17.941143007955223im
Basic Operators
In this chapter, we shall discuss different types of operators in Julia.
Arithmetic Operators
In Julia, we get all the basic arithmetic operators across all the numeric
primitive types. It also provides us bitwise operators as well as efficient
implementation of comprehensive collection of standard mathematical
functions.
Following table shows the basic arithmetic operators that are supported on
Julia’s primitive numeric types −
Expression Name Description
+x unary It is the identity operation.

plus
-x unary It maps values to their

minus additive inverses.
x+y binary It performs addition.

plus
x-y binary It performs subtraction.

minus
x*y times It performs multiplication.
x/y divide It performs division.

x÷y integer Denoted as x / y and
divide truncated to an integer.
x\y inverse It is equivalent to y / x.

divide
x^y power It raises x to the yth power.
x%y remainder It is equivalent to rem(x,y).
!x negation It is negation on bool types

and changes true to false and
vice versa.
The promotion system of Julia makes these arithmetic operations work

naturally and automatically on the mixture of argument types.
Example
Following example shows the use of arithmetic operators −
julia> 2+20-5
17
julia> 3-8
-5
julia> 50*2/10
10.0
julia> 23%2
1
julia> 2^4
16
Bitwise Operators
Following table shows the bitwise operators that are supported on Julia’s
primitive numeric types −
Sl.No Expression Name Name
1 ∼x bitwise not
2 x&y bitwise and
3 x|y bitwise or
4 x⊻y bitwise xor (exclusive or)
5 x >>> y logical shift right
6 x >> y arithmetic shift right
7 x << y logical/arithmetic shift

left
Example
Following example shows the use of bitwise operators −
julia> ∼1009
-1010
julia> 12&23
4
julia> 12 & 23
4
julia> 12 | 23
31
julia> 12 ⊻ 23
27
julia> xor(12, 23)
27
julia> ∼UInt32(12)
0xfffffff3
julia> ∼UInt8(12)
0xf3
Updating Operators
Each arithmetic as well as bitwise operator has an updating version which
can be formed by placing an equal sign (=) immediately after the operator.
This updating operator assigns the result of the operation back into its left
operand. It means that a +=1 is equal to a = a+1.
Following is the list of the updating versions of all the binary arithmetic and
bitwise operators −
+=
-=
*=
/=
\=
÷=
%=
^=
&=
|=
⊻=
>>>=
>>=
<<=
Example
Following example shows the use of updating operators −
julia> A = 100
100
julia> A +=100
200
julia> A
200
Vectorized “dot” Operators
For each binary operation like ^, there is a corresponding “dot”(.) operation
which is used on the entire array, one by one. For instance, if you would try
to perform [1, 2, 3] ^ 2, then it is not defined and not possible to square an
array. On the other hand, [1, 2, 3] .^ 2 is defined as computing the vectorized
result. In the same sense, this vectorized “dot” operator can also be used
with other binary operators.
Example
Following example shows the use of “dot” operator −
julia> [1, 2, 3].^2
1
4
9
Numeric Comparisons Operators
Following table shows the numeric comparison operators that are supported
on Julia’s primitive numeric types −
Sl.No Operator Name
1 == Equality
2 !=,≠ inequality
3 < less than
4 <=, ≤ less than or equal to
5 > greater than
6 >=, ≥ greater than or equal to
Example
Following example shows the use of numeric comparison operators −
julia> 100 == 100
true
julia> 100 == 101
false
julia> 100 != 101
true
julia> 100 == 100.0
true
julia> 100 < 500
true
julia> 100 > 500

false
julia> 100 >= 100.0
true
julia> -100 <= 100
true
julia> -100 <= -100
true
julia> -100 <= -500
false
julia> 100 < -10.0
false
Chaining Comparisons
In Julia, the comparisons can be arbitrarily chained. In case of numerical
code, the chaining comparisons are quite convenient. The && operator for
scalar comparisons and & operator for elementwise comparison allows
chained comparisons to work fine on arrays.
Example
Following example shows the use of chained comparison −
julia> 100 < 200 <= 200 < 300 == 300 > 200 >= 100 == 100 < 300 != 500
true
In the following example, let us check out the evaluation behavior of
chained comparisons −
julia> M(a) = (println(a); a)
M (generic function with 1 method)
julia> M(1) < M(2) <= M(3)
2
1
3
true
julia> M(1) > M(2) <= M(3)
2
1
false
Operator Precedence & Associativity
From highest precedence to lowest, the following table shows the order and
associativity of operations applied by Julia −
Category Operators Associativity
Syntax followed by :: Left
Exponentiation ^ Right
Unary +-√ Right
Bitshifts << >> >>> Left
Fractions // Left
Multiplication * / % & \ ÷ Left
Addition +-|⊻ Left
Syntax : .. Left
Syntax |> Left

Syntax <| Right
Comparisons > < >= <= == === != Non-

!== <: associative
Control flow && followed by || Right

followed by ?
Pair => Right
Assignments = += -= *= /= //= \= Right

^= ÷= %= |= &= ⊻=
<<= >>= >>>=
We can also use Base.operator_precedence function to check the numerical

precedence of a given operator. The example is given below −
julia> Base.operator_precedence(:-), Base.operator_precedence(:+),
Base.operator_precedence(:.)
(11, 11, 17)
Basic Mathematical Functions
Let us try to understand basic mathematical functions with the help of
example in this chapter.
Numerical Conversions
In Julia, the user gets three different forms of numerical conversion. All the
three differ in their handling of inexact conversions. They are as follows −
T(x) or convert(T, x) − This notation converts x to a value of T. The result
depends upon following two cases −
T is a floating-point type − In this case the result will be the
nearest representable value. This value could be positive or
negative infinity.
T is an integer type − The result will raise an InexactError if
and only if x is not representable by T.
x%T − This notation will convert an integer x to a value of integer type T
corresponding to x modulo 2^n. Here n represents the number of bits in T. In
simple words, this notation truncates the binary representation to fit.
Rounding functions − This notation takes a type T as an optional argument
for calculation. Eg − Round(Int, a) is shorthand for Int(round(a)).
Example
The example given below represent the various forms described above −
julia> Int8(110)
110
julia> Int8(128)
ERROR: InexactError: trunc(Int8, 128)
Stacktrace:
[1] throw_inexacterror(::Symbol, ::Type{Int8}, ::Int64) at .\boot.jl:558
[2] checked_trunc_sint at .\boot.jl:580 [inlined]
[3] toInt8 at .\boot.jl:595 [inlined]
[4] Int8(::Int64) at .\boot.jl:705
julia> Int8(110.0)
110
julia> Int8(3.14)
ERROR: InexactError: Int8(3.14)
Stacktrace:
[1] Int8(::Float64) at .\float.jl:689
julia> Int8(128.0)
ERROR: InexactError: Int8(128.0)
Stacktrace:
[1] Int8(::Float64) at .\float.jl:689
julia> 110%Int8
110
julia> 128%Int8
-128
julia> round(Int8, 110.35)
110
julia> round(Int8, 127.52)
ERROR: InexactError: trunc(Int8, 128.0)
Stacktrace:
[1] trunc at .\float.jl:682 [inlined]
[2] round(::Type{Int8}, ::Float64) at .\float.jl:367
Rounding functions
Following table shows rounding functions that are supported on Julia’s
Function Description Return

type
round(x) This function will round x to typeof(x)

the nearest integer.
round(T, This function will round x to T

x) the nearest integer.
floor(x) This function will round x typeof(x)

towards -Inf returns the nearest
integral value of the same type
as x. This value will be less
than or equal to x.
floor(T, This function will round x T

x) towards -Inf and converts the
result to type T. It will throw an
InexactError if the value is not
representable.
floor(T, This function will round x T
x) towards -Inf and converts the
representable.
ceil(x) This function will round x typeof(x)

towards +Inf and returns the
nearest integral value of the
same type as x. This value will
be greater than or equal to x.
ceil(T, x) This function will round x T

towards +Inf and converts the
representable.
trunc(x) This function will round x typeof(x)

towards zero and returns the
nearest integral value of the
same type as x. The absolute
value will be less than or equal
to x.
trunc(T, This function will round x T
x) towards zero and converts the
representable.
Example
The example given below represent the rounding functions −
julia> round(3.8)
4.0
julia> round(Int, 3.8)
4
julia> floor(3.8)
3.0
julia> floor(Int, 3.8)
3
julia> ceil(3.8)
4.0
julia> ceil(Int, 3.8)
4
julia> trunc(3.8)
3.0
julia> trunc(Int, 3.8)
3
Division functions
Following table shows the division functions that are supported on Julia’s
Sl.No Function & Description
1 div(x,y), x÷y
It is the quotation from Euclidean division. Also called
truncated division. It computes x/y and the quotient will be
rounded towards zero.
2 fld(x,y)
It is the floored division. The quotient will be rounded towards -
Inf i.e. largest integer less than or equal to x/y. It is shorthand
for div(x, y, RoundDown).
3 cld(x,y)
It is ceiling division. The quotient will be rounded towards +Inf
i.e. smallest integer less than or equal to x/y. It is shorthand for
div(x, y, RoundUp).
4 rem(x,y)
remainder; satisfies x == div(x,y)*y + rem(x,y); sign matches x
5 mod(x,y)
It is modulus after flooring division. This function satisfies the
equation x == fld(x,y)*y + mod(x,y). The sign matches y.
6 mod1(x,y)
This is same as mod with offset 1. It returns r∈(0,y] for y>0 or
r∈[y,0) for y<0, where mod(r, y) == mod(x, y).
7 mod2pi(x)
It is modulus with respect to 2pi. It satisfies 0 <= mod2pi(x) <
2pi
8 divrem(x,y)
It is the quotient and remainder from Euclidean division. It
equivalents to (div(x,y),rem(x,y)).
9 fldmod(x,y)
It is the floored quotation and modulus after division. It is
equivalent to (fld(x,y),mod(x,y))
10 gcd(x,y...)
It is the greatest positive common divisor of x, y,...
11 lcm(x,y...)
It represents the least positive common multiple of x, y,...
Example
The example given below represent the division functions −
julia> div(11, 4)
2
julia> div(7, 4)
1
julia> fld(11, 4)
2
julia> fld(-5,3)
-2
julia> fld(7.5,3.3)
2.0
julia> cld(7.5,3.3)
3.0
julia> mod(5, 0:2)

2
julia> mod(3, 0:2)
0
julia> mod(8.9,2)
0.9000000000000004
julia> rem(8,4)
0
julia> rem(9,4)
1
julia> mod2pi(7*pi/5)
4.39822971502571
julia> divrem(8,3)
(2, 2)
julia> fldmod(12,4)
(3, 0)
julia> fldmod(13,4)
(3, 1)
julia> mod1(5,4)
1
julia> gcd(6,0)
6
julia> gcd(1//3,2//3)
1//3
julia> lcm(1//3,2//3)
2//3
Sign and Absolute value functions
Following table shows the sign and absolute value functions that are
supported on Julia’s primitive numeric types −
Sl.No Function & Function
1 abs(x)
It the absolute value of x. It returns a positive value with the
magnitude of x.
2 abs2(x)
It returns the squared absolute value of x.
3 sign(x)
This function indicates the sign of x. It will return -1, 0, or +1.
4 signbit(x)
This function indicates whether the sign bit is on (true) or off
(false). In simple words, it will return true if the value of the
sign of x is -ve, otherwise it will return false.
5 copysign(x,y)
It returns a value Z which has the magnitude of x and the same
sign as y.
6 flipsign(x,y)
It returns a value with the magnitude of x and the sign of x*y.
The sign will be flipped if y is negative. Example: abs(x) =
flipsign(x,x).
Example
The example given below represent the sign and absolute value functions −
julia> abs(-7)
7
julia> abs(5+3im)
5.830951894845301
julia> abs2(-7)
49
julia> abs2(5+3im)
34
julia> copysign(5,-10)
-5
julia> copysign(-5,10)
5
julia> sign(5)
1
julia> sign(-5)
-1
julia> signbit(-5)
true
julia> signbit(5)
false
julia> flipsign(5,10)
5
julia> flipsign(5,-10)
-5
Power, Logs, and Roots
Following table shows the Power, Logs, and Root functions that are
supported on Julia’s primitive numeric types −
Sl.No Function & Description
1 sqrt(x), √x
It will return the square root of x. For negative real arguments, it
will throw DomainError.
2 cbrt(x), ∛x
It will return the cube root of x. It also accepts the negative
values.
3 hypot(x,y)
It will compute the hypotenuse √| |2+| |2of right-angled triangle
with other sides of length x and y. It is an implementation of an
improved algorithm for hypot(a,b) by Carlos and F.Borges.
4 exp(x)
It will compute the natural base exponential of x i.e.
5 expm1(x)
It will accurately compute −1 for x near zero.
6 ldexp(x,n)
It will compute ∗ 2 efficiently for integer values of n.
7 log(x)
It will compute the natural logarithm of x. For negative real
arguments, it will throw DomainError.
8 log(b,x)
It will compute the base b logarithm of x. For negative real
9 log2(x)
It will compute the base 2 logarithm of x. For negative real
10 log10(x)
It will compute the base 10 logarithm of x. For negative real
11 log1p(x)
It will accurately compute the log(1+x) for x near zero. For
negative real arguments, it will throw DomainError.
12 exponent(x)
It will calculate the binary exponent of x.
13 significand(x)
It will extract the binary significand (a.k.a. mantissa) of a
floating-point number x in binary representation. If x = non-zero
finite number, it will return a number of the same type on the
interval [1,2), else x will be returned.
Example
The example given below represent the Power, Logs, and Roots functions −
julia> sqrt(49)
7.0
julia> sqrt(-49)
ERROR: DomainError with -49.0:
sqrt will only return a complex result if called with a complex argument. Try
sqrt(Complex(x)).
Stacktrace:
[1] throw_complex_domainerror(::Symbol, ::Float64) at .\math.jl:33
[2] sqrt at .\math.jl:573 [inlined]
[3] sqrt(::Int64) at .\math.jl:599
julia> cbrt(8)
2.0
julia> cbrt(-8)
-2.0
julia> a = Int64(5)^10;
julia> hypot(a, a)
1.3810679320049757e7
julia> exp(5.0)
148.4131591025766
julia> expm1(10)
22025.465794806718
julia> expm1(1.0)
1.718281828459045
julia> ldexp(4.0, 2)
16.0
julia> log(5,2)
0.43067655807339306
julia> log(4,2)
0.5
julia> log(4)
1.3862943611198906
julia> log2(4)
2.0
julia> log10(4)
0.6020599913279624
julia> log1p(4)
1.6094379124341003
julia> log1p(-2)
ERROR: DomainError with -2.0:
log1p will only return a complex result if called with a complex argument.
Try log1p(Complex(x)).
Stacktrace:
[1] throw_complex_domainerror(::Symbol, ::Float64) at .\math.jl:33
[2] log1p(::Float64) at .\special\log.jl:356
[3] log1p(::Int64) at .\special\log.jl:395
julia> exponent(6.8)
2
julia> significand(15.2)/10.2
0.18627450980392157
julia> significand(15.2)*8
15.2
Trigonometric and hyperbolic functions
Following is the list of all the standard trigonometric and hyperbolic
functions −
sin cos tan cot sec csc
sinh cosh tanh coth sech csch
asin acos atan acot asec acsc
asinh acosh atanh acoth asech acsch
sinc cosc
Julia also provides two additional functions namely sinpi(x) and cospi(x) for
accurately computing sin(pi*x) and cos(pi*x).
If you want to compute the trigonometric functions with degrees, then suffix
the functions with d as follows −
sind cosd tand cotd secd cscd
asind acosd atand acotd asecd acscd
Some of the example are given below −
julia> cos(56)
0.853220107722584
julia> cosd(56)
0.5591929034707468
Strings
A string may be defined as a finite sequence of one or more characters. They
are usually enclosed in double quotes. For example: “This is Julia
programming language”. Following are important points about strings −
Strings are immutable, i.e., we cannot change them once they are
created.
It needs utmost care while using two specific characters − double
quotes(“), and dollar sign($). It is because if we want to include
a double quote character in the string then it must precede with a
backslash; otherwise we will get different results because then the
rest of the string would be interpreted as Julia code. On the other
hand, if we want to include a dollar sign then it must also precede
with a backslash because dollar sign is used in string
interpolation./p>
In Julia, the built-in concrete type used for strings as well as
string literals is String which supports full range
of Unicode characters via the UTF-8 encoding.
All the string types in Julia are subtypes of the abstract
type AbstractString. If you want Julia to accept any string type,
you need to declare the type as AbstractString.
Julia has a first-class type for representing single character. It is
called AbstractChar.
Characters
A single character is represented with Char value. Char is a 32-bit primitive
type which can be converted to a numeric value (which represents Unicode
code point).
julia> 'a'
'a': ASCII/Unicode U+0061 (category Ll: Letter, lowercase)
julia> typeof(ans)
Char
We can convert a Char to its integer value as follows −
julia> Int('a')
97
julia> typeof(ans)
Int64
We can also convert an integer value back to a Char as follows −
julia> Char(97)
'a': ASCII/Unicode U+0061 (category Ll: Letter, lowercase)
With Char values, we can do some arithmetic as well as comparisons. This
can be understood with the help of following example −
julia> 'X' < 'x'
true
julia> 'X' <= 'x' <= 'Y'
false
julia> 'X' <= 'a' <= 'Y'
false
julia> 'a' <= 'x' <= 'Y'
false
julia> 'A' <= 'X' <= 'Y'
true
julia> 'x' - 'b'
22
julia> 'x' + 1
'y': ASCII/Unicode U+0079 (category Ll: Letter, lowercase)
Delimited by double quotes or triple double quotes

As we discussed, strings in Julia can be declared using double or triple
double quotes. For example, if you need to add quotations to a part in a
string, you can do so using double and triple double quotes as shown below
−
julia> str = "This is Julia Programming Language.\n"
"This is Julia Programming Language.\n"
julia> """See the "quote" characters"""
"See the \"quote\" characters"
Performing arithmetic and other operations with

end
Just like a normal value, we can perform arithmetic as well as other
operations with end. Check the below given example −
julia> str[end-1]
'.': ASCII/Unicode U+002E (category Po: Punctuation, other)
julia> str[end÷2]
'g': ASCII/Unicode U+0067 (category Ll: Letter, lowercase)
Extracting substring by using range indexing

We can extract substring from a string by using range indexing. Check the
below given example −
julia> str[6:9]
"is J"
Using SubString
In the above method, the Range indexing makes a copy of selected part of
the original string, but we can use SubString to create a view into a string as
given in the below example −
julia> substr = SubString(str, 1, 4)
"This"
julia> typeof(substr)
SubString{String}
Unicode and UTF-8
Unicode characters and strings are fully supported by Julia programming
language. In character literals, Unicode \u and \U escape sequences as well
as all the standard C escape sequences can be used to represent Unicode
code points. It is shown in the given example −
julia> s = "\u2200 x \u2203 y"
"∀ x ∃ y"
Another encoding is UTF-8, a variable-width encoding, that is used to
encode string literals. Here the variable-width encoding means that all the
characters are not encoded in the same number of bytes, i.e., code units. For
example, in UTF-8 −
ASCII characters (with code points less than 080(128) are
encoded, using a single byte, as they are in ASCII.
On the other hand, the code points 080(128) and above are
encoded using multiple bytes (up to four per character).
The code units (bytes for UTF-8), which we have mentioned above, are
String indices in Julia. They are actually the fixed-width building blocks that
are used to encode arbitrary characters. In other words, every index into a
String is not necessarily a valid index. You can check out the example below
−
julia> s[1]
'∀': Unicode U+2200 (category Sm: Symbol, math)
julia> s[2]
ERROR: StringIndexError("∀ x ∃ y", 2)
Stacktrace:
[1] string_index_err(::String, ::Int64) at .\strings\string.jl:12
[2] getindex_continued(::String, ::Int64, ::UInt32) at .\strings\string.jl:220
[3] getindex(::String, ::Int64) at .\strings\string.jl:213
[4] top-level scope at REPL[106]:1,
String Concatenation
Concatenation is one of the most useful string operations. Following is an
example of concatenation −
julia> A = "Hello"
"Hello"
julia> B = "Julia Programming Language"
"Julia Programming Language"
julia> string(A, ", ", B, ".\n")
"Hello, Julia Programming Language.\n"
We can also concatenate strings in Julia with the help of *. Given below is
the example for the same −
julia> A = "Hello"
"Hello"
julia> A * ", " * B * ".\n"
Interpolation
It is bit cumbersome to concatenate strings using concatenation. Therefore,
Julia allows interpolation into strings and reduce the need for these verbose
calls to strings. This interpolation can be done by using dollar sign ($). For
example −
julia> A = "Hello"
"Hello"
julia> "$A, $B.\n"
Julia takes the expression after $ as the expression whose whole value is to
be interpolated into the string. That’s the reason we can interpolate any
expression into a string using parentheses. For example −
julia> "100 + 10 = $(100 + 10)"
"100 + 10 = 110"
Now if you want to use a literal $ in a string then you need to escape it with
a backslash as follows −
julia> print("His salary is \$5000 per month.\n")
His salary is $5000 per month.
Triple-quoted strings
We know that we can create strings with triple-quotes as given in the below
example −
julia> """See the "quote" characters"""
"See the \"quote\" characters"
This kind of creation has the following advantages −
Triple-quoted strings are dedented to the level of the least-intended line,
hence this becomes very useful for defining code that is indented. Following
is an example of the same −
julia> str = """
This is,
Julia Programming Language.
"""
" This is,\n Julia Programming Language.\n"
The longest common starting sequence of spaces or tabs in all lines is known
as the dedentation level but it excludes the following −
The line following “””
The line containing only spaces or tabs
julia> """ This
is
Julia Programming Language"""
" This\nis\n Julia Programming Language"
Common String Operations
Using string operators provided by Julia, we can compare two strings, search
whether a particular string contains the given sub-string, and
join/concatenate two strings.
Standard Comparison operators

By using the following standard comparison operators, we can
lexicographically compare the strings −
julia> "abababab" < "Tutorialspoint"
false
julia> "abababab" > "Tutorialspoint"
true
julia> "abababab" == "Tutorialspoint"
false
julia> "abababab" != "Tutorialspoint"
true
julia> "100 + 10 = 110" == "100 + 10 = $(100 + 10)"
true
Search operators
Julia provides us findfirst and findlast functions to search for the index of a
particular character in string. You can check the below example of both
these functions −
julia> findfirst(isequal('o'), "Tutorialspoint")
4
julia> findlast(isequal('o'), "Tutorialspoint")
11
Julia also provides us findnext and findprev functions to start the search for
a character at a given offset. Check the below example of both these
functions −
julia> findnext(isequal('o'), "Tutorialspoint", 1)
4
julia> findnext(isequal('o'), "Tutorialspoint", 5)
11
julia> findprev(isequal('o'), "Tutorialspoint", 5)
4
It is also possible to check if a substring is found within a string or not. We
can use occursin function for this. The example is given below −
julia> occursin("Julia", "This is, Julia Programming.")
true
julia> occursin("T", "Tutorialspoint")
true
julia> occursin("Z", "Tutorialspoint")
false
The repeat() and join() functions

In the perspective of Strings in Julia, repeat and join are two useful
functions. Example below explains their use −
julia> repeat("Tutorialspoint.com ", 5)
"Tutorialspoint.com Tutorialspoint.com Tutorialspoint.com
Tutorialspoint.com Tutorialspoint.com "
julia> join(["TutorialsPoint","com"], " . ")
"TutorialsPoint . com"
Non-standard String Literals
Literal is a character or a set of characters which is used to store a variable.
Raw String Literals

Raw String literals are another useful non-standard string literal. They,
without interpolation or unescaping can be expressed in the form
of raw”…”. They create ordinary String objects containing enclosed
contents same as entered without interpolation or unescaping.
Example
julia> println(raw"\\ \\\"")
\\ \"
Byte Array Literals

Byte array literals is one of the most useful non-standard string literals. It has
the following rules −
ASCII characters as well as escapes will produce a single byte.
Octal escape sequence as well as \x will produce the byte
corresponding to the escape value.
The Unicode escape sequence will produce a sequence of bytes
encoding.
All these three rules are overlapped in one or other sense.
Example
julia> b"DATA\xff\u2200"
8-element Base.CodeUnits{UInt8,String}:
0x44
0x41
0x54
0x41
0xff
0xe2
0x88
0x80
The above resulting byte array is not a valid UTF-8 string as you can see
below −
julia> isvalid("DATA\xff\u2200")
false
Version Number Literals

Version Number literals are another useful non-standard string literal. They
can be the form of v”…”. VNL create objects namely VersionNumber.
These objects follow the specifications of semantic versioning.
Example
We can define the version specific behavior by using the following
statement −
julia> if v"1.0" <= VERSION < v"0.9-"
# you need to do something specific to 1.0 release series
end
Regular Expressions
Julia has Perl-compatible Regular Expressions, which are related to strings
in the following ways −
RE are used to find regular patterns in strings.
RE are themselves input as strings. It is parsed into a state
machine which can then be used efficiently to search patterns in
strings.
Example
julia> r"^\s*(?:#|$)"
r"^\s*(?:#|$)"
julia> typeof(ans)
Regex
We can use occursin as follows to check if a regex matches a string or not −
julia> occursin(r"^\s*(?:#|$)", "not a comment")
false
julia> occursin(r"^\s*(?:#|$)", "# a comment")
true
Functions
Function, the building blocks of Julia, is a collected group of instructions
that maps a tuple of argument values to a return value. It acts as the
subroutines, procedures, blocks, and other similar structures concepts found
in other programming languages.
Defining Functions
There are following three ways in which we can define functions −
When there is a single expression in a function, you can define it by writing
the name of the function and any arguments in parentheses on the left side
and write an expression on the right side of an equal sign.
Example
julia> f(a) = a * a
f (generic function with 1 method)
julia> f(5)
25
julia> func(x, y) = sqrt(x^2 + y^2)
func (generic function with 1 method)
julia> func(5, 4)
6.4031242374328485
If there are multiple expressions in a function, you can define it as shown
below −
function functionname(args)
expression
expression
expression
...
expression
end
Example
julia> function bills(money)
if money < 0
return false
else
return true
end
end
bills (generic function with 1 method)
julia> bills(50)
true
julia> bills(-50)
false
If a function returns more than one value, we need to use tuples.
Example
julia> function mul(x,y)
x+y, x*y
end
mul (generic function with 1 method)
julia> mul(5, 10)
(15, 50)
Optional Arguments
It is often possible to define functions with optional arguments i.e. default
sensible values for functions arguments so that the function can use that
value if specific values are not provided. For example −
julia> function pos(ax, by, cz=0)
println("$ax, $by, $cz")
end
pos (generic function with 2 methods)
julia> pos(10, 30)
10, 30, 0
julia> pos(10, 30, 50)
10, 30, 50
You can check in the above output that when we call this function without
supplying third value, the variable cz defaults to 0.
Keyword Arguments
Some functions which we define need a large number of arguments but
calling such functions can be difficult because we may forget the order in
which we have to supply the arguments. For example, check the below
function −
function foo(a, b, c, d, e, f)
...
end
Now, we may forget the order of arguments and the following may happen −
foo(“25”, -5.6987, “hello”, 56, good, ‘ABC’)
or
foo(“hello”, 56, “25”, -5.6987, ‘ABC’, good)
Julia provides us a way to avoid this problem. We can use keywords to label
arguments. We need to use a semicolon after the function’s unlabelled
arguments and follow it with one or more keyword-value pair as follows −
julia> function foo(a, b ; c = 10, d = "hi")
println("a is $a")
println("b is $b")
return "c => $c, d => $d"
end
foo (generic function with 1 method)
julia> foo(100,20)
a is 100
b is 20
"c => 10, d => hi"
julia> foo("Hello", "Tutorialspoint", c=pi, d=22//7)
a is Hello
b is Tutorialspoint
"c => π, d => 22//7"
It is not necessary to define the keyword argument at the end or in the
matching place, it can be written anywhere in the argument list. Following is
an example −
julia> foo(c=pi, d =22/7, "Hello", "Tutorialspoint")
a is Hello
b is Tutorialspoint
"c => π, d => 3.142857142857143"
Anonymous Functions
It is waste of time thinking a cool name for your function. Use Anonymous
functions i.e. functions with no name instead. In Julia, such functions can be
used in number of places such as map() and in list comprehensions.
The syntax of anonymous functions uses the symbol ->. You can check the
below example −
A -> A^3 + 3A - 3
The above function is an anonymous function that takes an argument A and
returns A^3 + 3A – 3.
It can be used with map() function whose first argument is a function and
we can define an one-off function that exists just for one particular map()
operation. The example is given below −
julia> map(A -> A^3 + 3A - 3, [10,3,-2])
1027
33
-17
Once the map() function finishes, the function and argument both will
disappear −
julia> A
ERROR: UndefVarError: A not defined
Recursive Functions
In Julia, the functions can be nested. It is demonstrated in the example given
below −
julia> function add(x)
Y=x*2
function add1(Y)
Y += 1
end
add1(Y)
end
add (generic function with 1 method)
julia> d = 10
10
julia> add(d)
21
In the same way, a function in Julia can be recursive also. It means the
function can call itself. Before getting into details, we first need to test a
condition in code which can be done with the help of ternary operator “?”. It
takes the form expr ? a : b. It is called ternary because it takes three
arguments. Here the expr is a condition, if it is true then a will be evaluated
otherwise b. Let us use this in the following recursive definition −
julia> sum(x) = x > 1 ? sum(x-1) + x : x
sum (generic function with 1 method)
The above statement calculates the sum of all the integers up to and
including a certain number. But in this recursion ends because there is a base
case, i.e., when x is 1, this value is returned.
The most famous example of recursion is to calculate the nth Fibonacci
number which is defined as the sum of two previous Fibonacci numbers.
Let us understand it with the below given example −
julia> fib(x) = x < 2 ? x : fib(x-1) + fib(x-2)
fib (generic function with 1 method)
Therefore while using recursion, we need to be careful to define a base case
to stop calculation.
Map
Map may be defined as a function that takes the following form −
map(func, coll)
Here, func is a function applied successively to each element of
collection coll. Map generally contains the anonymous function and returns
a new collection. The example is given below −
julia> map(A -> A^3 + 3A - 3, [10,3,-2])
1027
33
-17
Filter
Filter may be defined as a function that takes the following form −
filter(function, collection)
Filter function returns a copy of collection and removes elements for which
the function is false. The example is given below −
julia> array = Int[1,2,3]
1
2
3
julia> filter(x -> x % 2 == 0, array)
2
Generic Functions
In Julia, we saw that all the functions are inherently defined as Generic. It
means that the functions can be used for different types of their arguments.
In simple words, whenever the function will be called with arguments of a
new type, the Julia compiler will generate a separate version of that function.
On the other hand, a function for a specific combination of arguments types
is called a Method. So, in order to define a new method for a function,
which is called overloading, we need to use the same function name but with
different arguments types.
Multiple dispatch
Julia has a mechanism called Multiple Dispatch, which neither Python nor
C++ implements. Under this mechanism, Julia will do a lookup in the vtable
at runtime (whenever a function is called) to find which existing method it
should call based on the types of all its arguments.
Let us understand the concept of multiple dispatch with the help of an
example in which we will define a function that takes 2 arguments returning
a string. But in some methods we will annotate the types of both arguments
or single argument.
julia> foo(A, B) = "base case"
julia> foo(A::Number, B::Number) = "A and B are both numbers"
foo (generic function with 2 methods)
julia> foo(A::Number, B) = "A is a number"
julia> foo(A, B::Number) = "B is a number"
julia> foo(A::Integer, B::Integer) = "A and B are both integers"
We have seen that this returns foo with 5 methods. When A and B have no
types(as in base case), then their type is any.
From the following, we can see how the appropriate method will be chosen
−
julia> foo(4.5, 20)
"A and B are both numbers"
julia> foo(20, "Hello")
"A is a number"
julia> foo(50, 100)
"A and B are both integers"
julia> foo("Hello", [100,200])
"base case"
The advantage of multiple dispatch is that it will never result in error
because if no other method is matched, the base case method will be
invoked, for sure.
Flow Control
As we know that each line of a program in Julia is evaluated in turn hence it
provides many of the control statements (familiar to other programming
languages) to control and modify the flow of evaluation.
Following are different ways to control the flow in Julia programming
language −
Ternary and compound expressions
Boolean switching expressions
If elseif else end (conditional evaluation)
For end (iterative evaluation)
While end (iterative conditional evaluation)
Try catch error throw (exception handling)
Do blocks
Ternary expressions
It takes the form expr ? a : b. It is called ternary because it takes three
arguments. The expr is a condition and if it is true then a will be evaluated
otherwise b. Example for this is given below −
julia> A = 100
100
julia> A < 20 ? "Right" : "wrong"

"wrong"
julia> A > 20 ? "Right" : "wrong"
"Right"
Boolean Switching expressions
As the name implies, the Boolean switching expression allows us to evaluate
an expression if the condition is met, i.e., the condition is true. There are two
operators to combine the condition and expression −
The && operator (and)

If this operator is used in the Boolean switching expression, the second
expression will be evaluated if the first condition is true. If the first condition
is false, the expression will not be evaluated and only the condition will be
returned.
Example
julia> isodd(3) && @warn("An odd Number!")
┌ Warning: An odd Number!
└ @ Main REPL[5]:1
julia> isodd(4) && @warn("An odd Number!")
false
The || operator (or)

If this operator is used in the Boolean switching expression, the second
expression will be evaluated only if the first condition is false. If the first
condition is true, then there is no need to evaluate the second expression.
Example
julia> isodd(3) || @warn("An odd Number!")
true
julia> isodd(4) || @warn("An odd Number!")
┌ Warning: An odd Number!
└ @ Main REPL[8]:1
If, elseif and else
We can also use if, elseif, and else for conditions execution. The only
condition is that all the conditional construction should finish with end.
Example
julia> fruit = "Apple"
"Apple"
julia> if fruit == "Apple"
println("I like Apple")
elseif fruit == "Banana"
println("I like Banana.")
println("But I prefer Apple.")
else
println("I don't know what I like")
end
I like Apple
julia> fruit = "Banana"
"Banana"
julia> if fruit == "Apple"
println("I like Apple")
elseif fruit == "Banana"
println("I like Banana.")
println("But I prefer Apple.")
else
println("I don't know what I like")
end
I like Banana.
But I prefer Apple.
for loops
Some of the common example of iteration are −
working through a list or
set of values or
from a start value to a finish value.
We can iterate through various types of objects like arrays, sets, dictionaries,
and strings by using “for” loop (for…end construction). Let us understand
the syntax with the following example −
julia> for i in 0:5:50
println(i)
end
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
In the above code, the variable ‘i’ takes the value of each element in the
array and hence will step from 0 to 50 in steps of 5.
Example (Iterating over an array)

In case if we iterate through array, it is checked for change each time
through the loop. One care should be taken while the use of ‘push!’ to make
an array grow in the middle of a particular loop.
julia> c = [1]
julia> 1-element Array{Int64,1}:
1
julia> for i in c
push!(c, i)
@show c
sleep(1)
end
c = [1,1]
c = [1,1,1]
c = [1,1,1,1]
...
Note − To exit the output, press Ctrl+c.
Loop variables
Loop variable is a variable that steps through each item. It exists only inside
the loop. It disappears as soon as the loop finishes.
Example
julia> for i in 0:5:50
println(i)
end
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
julia> i
ERROR: UndefVarError: i not defined
Example
Julia provides global keyword for remembering the value of the loop
variable outside the loop.
julia> for i in 1:10
global hello
if i % 3 == 0
hello = i
end
end
julia> hello
9
Variables declared inside a loop
Similar to Loop Variable, the variables declared inside a loop won’t exist
once the loop is finished.
Example
julia> for x in 1:10
y = x^2
println("$(x) squared is $(y)")
end
Output
1 squared is 1
2 squared is 4
3 squared is 9
4 squared is 16
5 squared is 25
6 squared is 36
7 squared is 49
8 squared is 64
9 squared is 81
10 squared is 100
julia> y
ERROR: UndefVarError: y not defined
Continue Statement
The Continue statement is used to skip the rest of the code inside the loop
and start the loop again with the next value. It is mostly used in the case
when on a particular iteration you want to skip to the next value.
Example
julia> for x in 1:10
if x % 4 == 0
continue
end
println(x)
end
Output
1
2
3
5
6
7
9
10
Comprehensions
Generating and collecting items something like [n for n in 1:5] is called
array comprehensions. It is sometimes called list comprehensions too.
Example
julia> [X^2 for X in 1:5]
1
4
9
16
25
We can also specify the types of elements we want to generate −
Example
julia> Complex[X^2 for X in 1:5]
5-element Array{Complex,1}:
1 + 0im
4 + 0im
9 + 0im
16 + 0im
25 + 0im
Enumerated arrays
Sometimes we would like to go through an array element by element while
keeping track of the index number of every element of that array. Julia has
enumerate() function for this task. This function gives us an iterable version
of something. This function will produce the index number as well as the
value at each index number.
Example
julia> arr = rand(0:9, 4, 4)
7658
8694
6307
2324
julia> [x for x in enumerate(arr)]
4×4 Array{Tuple{Int64,Int64},2}:
(1, 7) (5, 6) (9, 5) (13, 8)
(2, 8) (6, 6) (10, 9) (14, 4)
(3, 6) (7, 3) (11, 0) (15, 7)
(4, 2) (8, 3) (12, 2) (16, 4)
Zipping arrays
Using the zip() function, you can work through two or more arrays at the
same time by taking the 1st element of each array first and then the 2nd one
and so on.
Following example demonstrates the usage of zip() function −
Example
julia> for x in zip(0:10, 100:110, 200:210)
println(x)
end
(0, 100, 200)
(1, 101, 201)
(2, 102, 202)
(3, 103, 203)
(4, 104, 204)
(5, 105, 205)
(6, 106, 206)
(7, 107, 207)
(8, 108, 208)
(9, 109, 209)
(10, 110, 210)
Julia also handle the issue of different size arrays as follows −
julia> for x in zip(0:15, 100:110, 200:210)
println(x)
end
(0, 100, 200)
(1, 101, 201)
(2, 102, 202)
(3, 103, 203)
(4, 104, 204)
(5, 105, 205)
(6, 106, 206)
(7, 107, 207)
(8, 108, 208)
(9, 109, 209)
(10, 110, 210)
julia> for x in zip(0:10, 100:115, 200:210)
println(x)
end
(0, 100, 200)
(1, 101, 201)
(2, 102, 202)
(3, 103, 203)
(4, 104, 204)
(5, 105, 205)
(6, 106, 206)
(7, 107, 207)
(8, 108, 208)
(9, 109, 209)
(10, 110, 210)
Nested loops
Nest a loop inside another one can be done with the help of using a comma
(;) only. You do not need to duplicate the for and end keywords.
Example
julia> for n in 1:5, m in 1:5
@show (n, m)
end
(n, m) = (1, 1)
(n, m) = (1, 2)
(n, m) = (1, 3)
(n, m) = (1, 4)
(n, m) = (1, 5)
(n, m) = (2, 1)
(n, m) = (2, 2)
(n, m) = (2, 3)
(n, m) = (2, 4)
(n, m) = (2, 5)
(n, m) = (3, 1)
(n, m) = (3, 2)
(n, m) = (3, 3)
(n, m) = (3, 4)
(n, m) = (3, 5)
(n, m) = (4, 1)
(n, m) = (4, 2)
(n, m) = (4, 3)
(n, m) = (4, 4)
(n, m) = (4, 5)
(n, m) = (5, 1)
(n, m) = (5, 2)
(n, m) = (5, 3)
(n, m) = (5, 4)
(n, m) = (5, 5)
While loops
We use while loops to repeat some expressions while a condition is true. The
construction is like while…end.
Example
julia> n = 0
0
julia> while n < 10
println(n)
global n += 1
end
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
Exceptions
Exceptions or try…catch construction is used to write the code that checks
for the errors and handles them elegantly. The catch phrase handles the
problems that occur in the code. It allows the program to continue rather
than grind to a halt.
Example
julia> str = "string";
julia> try
str[1] = "p"
catch e
println("the code caught an error: $e")
println("but we can easily continue with execution...")
end
the code caught an error: MethodError(setindex!, ("string", "p", 1),
0x0000000000006cba)
but we can easily continue with execution...
Do block
Do block is another syntax form similar to list comprehensions. It starts at
the end and work towards beginning.
Example
julia> Prime_numbers = [1,2,3,5,7,11,13,17,19,23];
julia> findall(x -> isequal(19, x), Prime_numbers)
9
As we can see from the above code that the first argument of the find()
function. It operates on the second. But with a do block we can put the
function in a do…end block construction.
julia> findall(Prime_numbers) do x
isequal(x, 19)
end
9
Dictionaries and Sets
Many of the functions we have seen so far are working on arrays and tuples.
Arrays are just one type of collection, but Julia has other kind of collections
too. One such collection is Dictionary object which
associates keys with values. That is why it is called an ‘associative
collection’.
To understand it better, we can compare it with simple look-up table in
which many types of data are organized and provide us the single piece of
information such as number, string or symbol called the key. It doesn’t
provide us the corresponding data value.
Creating Dictionaries
The syntax for creating a simple dictionary is as follows −
Dict(“key1” => value1, “key2” => value2,,…, “keyn” => valuen)
In the above syntax, key1, key2…keyn are the keys and value1, value2,…
valuen are the corresponding values. The operator => is the Pair() function.
We can not have two keys with the same name because keys are always
unique in dictionaries.
Example
julia> first_dict = Dict("X" => 100, "Y" => 110, "Z" => 220)
Dict{String,Int64} with 3 entries:
"Y" => 110
"Z" => 220
"X" => 100
We can also create dictionaries with the help of comprehension syntax. The
example is given below −
Example
julia> first_dict = Dict(string(x) => sind(x) for x = 0:5:360)
Dict{String,Float64} with 73 entries:
"320" => -0.642788
"65" => 0.906308
"155" => 0.422618
"335" => -0.422618
"75" => 0.965926
"50" => 0.766044
⋮ => ⋮
Keys
As discussed earlier, dictionaries have unique keys. It means that if we
assign a value to a key that already exists, we will not be creating a new one
but modifying the existing key. Following are some operations on
dictionaries regarding keys −
Searching for a key

We can use haskey() function to check whether the dictionary contains a key
or not −
julia> first_dict = Dict("X" => 100, "Y" => 110, "Z" => 220)
"Y" => 110
"Z" => 220
"X" => 100
julia> haskey(first_dict, "Z")
true
julia> haskey(first_dict, "A")
false
Searching for a key/value pair

We can use in() function to check whether the dictionary contains a
key/value pair or not −
julia> in(("X" => 100), first_dict)
true
julia> in(("X" => 220), first_dict)
false
Add a new key-value

We can add a new key-value in the existing dictionary as follows −
julia> first_dict["R"] = 400
400
julia> first_dict
"Y" => 110
"Z" => 220
"X" => 100
"R" => 400
Delete a key
We can use delete!() function to delete a key from an existing dictionary −
julia> delete!(first_dict, "R")
"Y" => 110
"Z" => 220
"X" => 100
Getting all the keys

We can use keys() function to get all the keys from an existing dictionary −
julia> keys(first_dict)
Base.KeySet for a Dict{String,Int64} with 3 entries. Keys:
"Y"
"Z"
"X"
Values
Every key in dictionary has a corresponding value. Following are some
operations on dictionaries regarding values −
Retrieving all the values

We can use values() function to get all the values from an existing
dictionary −
julia> values(first_dict)
Base.ValueIterator for a Dict{String,Int64} with 3 entries. Values:
110
220
100
Dictionaries as iterable objects

We can process each key/value pair to see the dictionaries are actually
iterable objects −
for kv in first_dict
println(kv)
end
"Y" => 110
"Z" => 220
"X" => 100
Here the kv is a tuple that contains each key/value pair.
Sorting a dictionary
Dictionaries do not store the keys in any particular order hence the output of
the dictionary would not be a sorted array. To obtain items in order, we can
sort the dictionary −
Example
julia> first_dict = Dict("R" => 100, "S" => 220, "T" => 350, "U" => 400,
"V" => 575, "W" => 670)
"S" => 220
"U" => 400
"T" => 350
"W" => 670
"V" => 575
"R" => 100
julia> for key in sort(collect(keys(first_dict)))
println("$key => $(first_dict[key])")
end
R => 100
S => 220
T => 350
U => 400
V => 575
W => 670
We can also use SortedDict data type from the DataStructures.ji Julia
package to make sure that the dictionary remains sorted all the times. You
can check the example below −
Example
julia> import DataStructures
julia> first_dict = DataStructures.SortedDict("S" => 220, "T" => 350, "U"
=> 400, "V" => 575, "W" => 670)
DataStructures.SortedDict{String,Int64,Base.Order.ForwardOrdering} with
5 entries:
"S" => 220
"T" => 350
"U" => 400
"V" => 575
"W" => 670
julia> first_dict["R"] = 100
100
julia> first_dict
DataStructures.SortedDict{String,Int64,Base.Order.ForwardOrdering} with
6 entries:
“R” => 100
“S” => 220
“T” => 350
“U” => 400
“V” => 575
“W” => 670
Word Counting Example
One of the simple applications of dictionaries is to count how many times
each word appears in text. The concept behind this application is that each
word is a key-value set and the value of that key is the number of times that
particular word appears in that piece of text.
In the following example, we will be counting the words in a file name
NLP.txtb(saved on the desktop) −
julia> f = open("C://Users//Leekha//Desktop//NLP.txt")
IOStream()
julia> wordlist = String[]
String[]
julia> for line in eachline(f)
words = split(line, r"\W")
map(w -> push!(wordlist, lowercase(w)), words)
end
julia> filter!(!isempty, wordlist)
984-element Array{String,1}:
"natural"
"language"
"processing"
"semantic"
"analysis"
"introduction"
"to"
"semantic"
"analysis"
"the"
"purpose"
……………………
……………………
julia> close(f)
We can see from the above output that wordlist is now an array of 984
elements.
We can create a dictionary to store the words and word count −
julia> wordcounts = Dict{String,Int64}()
Dict{String,Int64}()
julia> for word in wordlist
wordcounts[word]=get(wordcounts, word, 0) + 1
end
To find out how many times the words appear, we can look up the words in
the dictionary as follows −
julia> wordcounts["natural"]
1
julia> wordcounts["processing"]
1
julia> wordcounts["and"]
14
We can also sort the dictionary as follows −
julia> for i in sort(collect(keys(wordcounts)))
println("$i, $(wordcounts[i])")
end
1, 2
2, 2
3, 2
4, 2
5, 1
a, 28
about, 3
above, 2
act, 1
affixes, 3
all, 2
also, 5
an, 5
analysis, 15
analyze, 1
analyzed, 1
analyzer, 2
and, 14
answer, 5
antonymies, 1
antonymy, 1
application, 3
are, 11
…
…
…
…
To find the most common words we can use collect() to convert the
dictionary to an array of tuples and then sort the array as follows −
julia> sort(collect(wordcounts), by = tuple -> last(tuple), rev=true)
276-element Array{Pair{String,Int64},1}:
"the" => 76
"of" => 47
"is" => 39
"a" => 28
"words" => 23
"meaning" => 23
"semantic" => 22
"lexical" => 21
"analysis" => 15
"and" => 14
"in" => 14
"be" => 13
"it" => 13
"example" => 13
"or" => 12
"word" => 12
"for" => 11
"are" => 11
"between" => 11
"as" => 11
⋮
"each" => 1
"river" => 1
"homonym" => 1
"classification" => 1
"analyze" => 1
"nocturnal" => 1
"axis" => 1
"concept" => 1
"deals" => 1
"larger" => 1
"destiny" => 1
"what" => 1
"reservation" => 1
"characterization" => 1
"second" => 1
"certitude" => 1
"into" => 1
"compound" => 1
"introduction" => 1
We can check the first 10 words as follows −
julia> sort(collect(wordcounts), by = tuple -> last(tuple), rev=true)[1:10]
"the" => 76
"of" => 47
"is" => 39
"a" => 28
"words" => 23
"meaning" => 23
"semantic" => 22
"lexical" => 21
"analysis" => 15
"and" => 14
We can use filter() function to find all the words that start with a particular
alphabet (say ’n’).
julia> filter(tuple -> startswith(first(tuple), "n") && last(tuple) < 4,
collect(wordcounts))
"none" => 2
"not" => 3
"namely" => 1
"name" => 1
"natural" => 1
"nocturnal" => 1
Sets
Like an array or dictionary, a set may be defined as a collection of unique
elements. Following are the differences between sets and other kind of
collections −
In a set, we can have only one of each element.
The order of element is not important in a set.
Creating a Set
With the help of Set constructor function, we can create a set as follows −
julia> var_color = Set()
Set{Any}()
We can also specify the types of set as follows −
julia> num_primes = Set{Int64}()
Set{Int64}()
We can also create and fill the set as follows −
julia> var_color = Set{String}(["red","green","blue"])
Set{String} with 3 elements:
"blue"
"green"
"red"
Alternatively we can also use push!() function, as arrays, to add elements in
sets as follows −
julia> push!(var_color, "black")
"blue"
"green"
"black"
"red"
We can use in() function to check what is in the set −
julia> in("red", var_color)
true
julia> in("yellow", var_color)
false
Standard operations
Union, intersection, and difference are some standard operations we can do
with sets. The corresponding functions for these operations are union(),
intersect() and setdiff().
Union
In general, the union (set) operation returns the combined results of the two
statements.
Example
julia> color_rainbow =
Set(["red","orange","yellow","green","blue","indigo","violet"])
"indigo"
"yellow"
"orange"
"blue"
"violet"
"green"
"red"
julia> union(var_color, color_rainbow)
"indigo"
"yellow"
"orange"
"blue"
"violet"
"green"
"black"
"red"
Intersection
In general, an intersection operation takes two or more variables as inputs
and returns the intersection between them.
Example
julia> intersect(var_color, color_rainbow)
"blue"
"green"
"red"
Difference
In general, the difference operation takes two or more variables as an input.
Then, it returns the value of the first set excluding the value overlapped by
the second set.
Example
julia> setdiff(var_color, color_rainbow)
Set{String} with 1 element:
"black"
Some Functions on Dictionary
In the below example, you will see that the functions that work on arrays as
well as sets also works on collections like dictionaries −
julia> dict1 = Dict(100=>"X", 220 => "Y")
Dict{Int64,String} with 2 entries:
100 => "X"
220 => "Y"
julia> dict2 = Dict(220 => "Y", 300 => "Z", 450 => "W")
450 => "W"
220 => "Y"
300 => "Z"
Union
julia> union(dict1, dict2)
4-element Array{Pair{Int64,String},1}:
100 => "X"
220 => "Y"
450 => "W"
300 => "Z"
Intersect
julia> intersect(dict1, dict2)
220 => "Y"
Difference
julia> setdiff(dict1, dict2)
100 => "X"
Merging two dictionaries

julia> merge(dict1, dict2)
100 => "X"
450 => "W"
220 => "Y"
300 => "Z"
Finding the smallest element

julia> dict1
100 => "X"
220 => "Y"
julia> findmin(dict1)
("X", 100)
Date & Time
Julia has a standard package named Dates which provides us the following
two functions to work with Dates and Times −
Using Dates
Import Dates
The difference between these two functions is that if we use import
Dates function then we will have to explicitly prefix Dates with every
function, for example, Dates.dayofweek(dt). On the other hand, if we
use using Dates function then we do not have to add the prefix Dates
explicitly with every function because it will bring all exported Dates
function into main.
Relationship between Types
Julia use various types to store Dates, Times, and DateTimes. The diagram
below shows the relationship between these types −
Date, Time, and DateTimes
To work with Dates and Times, Julia has the following three datatypes −
Dates.Time − Accurate to nanosecond, this object represents a precise
moment of the day.
Dates.Date − As the name implies, it represents just a date.
Dates.DateTime − Accurate to a millisecond, this object represents
combination of a date and a time of day. It actually specifies an exact
moment in time.
Example
julia> rightnow = Dates.Time(Dates.now())
15:46:39.872
julia> My_Birthday = Dates.Date(1984,1,17)
1984-01-17
julia> armistice_date = Dates.DateTime(1990,11,11,11,11,11)
1990-11-11T11:11:11
julia> today_date = Dates.today()
2020-09-22
julia> Dates.now(Dates.UTC)
2020-09-22T10:18:32.008
julia> Dates.DateTime("20180629 120000", "yyyymmdd HHMMSS")
2018-06-29T12:00:00
julia> Dates.DateTime("19/07/2007 17:42", "dd/mm/yyyy HH:MM")
2007-07-19T17:42:00
Queries regrading Date and Time
After having the objects such as date/time or date, we can use the following
functions to extract the required information −
julia> Dates.year(My_Birthday)
1984
julia> Dates.month(My_Birthday)
1
julia> Dates.minute(now())
22
julia> Dates.hour(now())
19
julia> Dates.second(now())
19
julia> Dates.minute(rightnow)
46
julia> Dates.hour(rightnow)
15
julia> Dates.second(rightnow)
39
julia> Dates.dayofweek(My_Birthday)
2
julia> Dates.dayname(My_Birthday)
"Tuesday"
julia> Dates.yearmonthday(My_Birthday)
(1984, 1, 17)
julia> Dates.dayofweekofmonth(My_Birthday)
3
Date Arithmetic
It is also possible to do arithmetic on date/time as well as date objects. The
most common one is to find the difference between two such objects as
shown in the below example −
Example
julia> today_date - My_Birthday
13409 days
julia> datetimenow - armistice_date
943436237800 milliseconds
We can convert these differences in some unit as follows −
julia> Dates.Period(today_date - My_Birthday)
13409 days
julia> Dates.canonicalize(Dates.CompoundPeriod(datetimenow -
armistice_date))
1559 weeks, 6 days, 9 hours, 37 minutes, 17 seconds, 800 milliseconds
We can also add and subtract periods of time to date and date/time objects as
follows −
julia> My_Birthday + Dates.Year(20) + Dates.Month(6)
2004-07-17
In the above example, we have added 20 years and 6 months to my birth
date.
Range of Dates
Julia provides the facility to create range of dates by making iterable range
objects. In the example given below, we will be creating an iterator that
yields the first day of every month.
Example
julia> date_range =
Dates.Date(2000,1,1):Dates.Month(1):Dates.Date(2020,1,1)
Date("2000-01-01"):Month(1):Date("2020-01-01")
From the above range object, we can find out which of these fall on
weekdays. For this we need to create an anonymous function to filter()
which will test the day name against the given day names −
julia> weekdaysfromrange = filter(dy -> Dates.dayname(dy) != "Saturday"
&& Dates.dayname(dy) != "Sunday" , date_range)
171-element Array{Date,1}:
2000-02-01
2000-03-01
2000-05-01
2000-06-01
2000-08-01
2000-09-01
2000-11-01
2000-12-01
2001-01-01
2001-02-01
2001-03-01
2001-05-01
2001-06-01
⋮
2018-10-01
2018-11-01
2019-01-01
2019-02-01
2019-03-01
2019-04-01
2019-05-01
2019-07-01
2019-08-01
2019-10-01
2019-11-01
2020-01-01
Formatting of Dates
Following table gives the date formatting codes with the help of which we
can specify date formats −
Character Date/Time element
Y Year digit Ex. yyyy => 1984, yy => 84
m Month digit Ex. m => 7 or 07
u Month name Ex. Jun
U Month name Ex. January
e Day of week Ex. Mon
E Day of week Ex. Monday
d Day Ex. 1 or 01
H Hour digit Ex. HH => 00
M Minute digit Ex. MM => 00
S Second digit Ex. S => 00
s Millisecond digit Ex. .000

Example
julia> Dates.Date("Sun, 27 Sep 2020", "e, d u y")
2020-09-27
julia> Dates.DateTime("Sun, 27 Sep 2020 10:25:10", "e, d u y H:M:S")
2020-09-27T10:25:10
Rounding Dates and Times
As we know that the functions round(), floor(), and ceil() are usually used to
round numbers up or down. These functions can also be used to round dates
so that the dates can be adjusted forward or backward in time.
Example
julia> Dates.now()
2020-09-27T13:34:03.49
julia> Dates.format(round(Dates.DateTime(Dates.now()),
Dates.Minute(15)), Dates.RFC1123Format)
"Sun, 27 Sep 2020 13:30:00"
The ceil() function will adjust the dates/time forward as given below −
julia> My_Birthday = Dates.Date(1984,1,17)
1984-01-17
julia> ceil(My_Birthday, Dates.Month)
1984-02-01
julia> ceil(My_Birthday, Dates.Year)
1985-01-01
julia> ceil(My_Birthday, Dates.Week)
1984-01-23
Recurring Dates
If we want to find all the dates in a range of dates that satisfy some criteria, it
is called recurring dates. Let us understand with the help of following
example −
First, we need to create a Range of date as we did previously −
julia> date_range =
Dates.Date(2000,1,1):Dates.Month(1):Dates.Date(2020,1,1)
Date("2000-01-01"):Month(1):Date("2020-01-01")
Now we can use filter() function to find Sundays in a month −
julia> filter(d -> Dates.dayname(d) == "Sunday", date_range)
35-element Array{Date,1}:
2000-10-01
2001-04-01
2001-07-01
2002-09-01
2002-12-01
2003-06-01
2004-02-01
2004-08-01
2005-05-01
2006-01-01
2006-10-01
2007-04-01
2007-07-01
⋮
2013-12-01
2014-06-01
2015-02-01
2015-03-01
2015-11-01
2016-05-01
2017-01-01
2017-10-01
2018-04-01
2018-07-01
2019-09-01
2019-12-01
Unix time
Unix time is another type of timekeeping in which the count of the number
of seconds that have elapsed since the birth of Unix (beginning of the year
1970). We will never observe the end of Unix time because Julia store the
count in a 64-bit integer.
The time() function will return the Unix time value −
julia> using Dates
julia> time()
1.60206441103e9
The unix2datetime() function will convert a Unix time value to date/time
object −
julia> Dates.unix2datetime(time())
2020-09-10T09:54:52.894
Moments in time
DateTimes, in the field instant, are stored in milliseconds. We can obtain this
value by using Dates.value function as follows −
julia> moment=Dates.now()
2020-09-10T09:56:11.885
julia> Dates.value(moment)
63737767811885
julia> moment.instant
Dates.UTInstant{Millisecond}(Millisecond(63737767811885))
Time and Monitoring
Julia provides us @elapsed macro which will return the time (number of
seconds) an expression took to evaluate.
Example
julia> function foo(n)
for i in 1:n
x = sin(rand())
end
end
julia> @elapsed foo(100000000)
1.113577001
julia> @time foo(100000000)
1.134852 seconds
Files I/O
Reading from files

The functions namely open(), read(), and close() are the standard approach
for extracting information from text files.
Opening a text file

If you want to read text from a text file, you need to first obtain the file
handle. It can be done with the help of open() function as follows −
foo = open("C://Users//Leekha//Desktop//NLP.txt")
It shows that now foo is the Julia’s connection to the text file
namely NLP.txt on the disk.
Closing the file

Once we are done with the file, we should have to close the connection as
follows −
Close(foo)
In Julia, it is recommended to wrap any file-processing functions inside
a do block as follows −
open("NLP.txt") do file
# here you can work with the open file
end
The advantage of wrapping file-processing functions inside do block is that
the open file will be automatically closed when this block finishes.
An example to keep some of the information like total time to read the file
and total lines in the files −
julia> totaltime, totallines = open("C://Users//Leekha//Desktop//NLP.txt")
do foo
linecounter = 0
timetaken = @elapsed for l in eachline(foo)
linecounter += 1
end
(timetaken, linecounter)
end
(0.0001184, 87)
Reading a file all at once
With read() function, we can read the whole content of an open file at once,
for example −
ABC = read(foo, String)
Similarly, the below will store the contents of the file in ABC −
julia> ABC = open("C://Users//Leekha//Desktop//NLP.txt") do file
read(file, String)
end
We can also read in the whole file as an array. Use readlines() as follows −
julia> foo = open("C://Users//Leekha//Desktop//NLP.txt")
IOStream(<file C://Users//Leekha//Desktop//NLP.txt>)
julia> lines = readlines(foo)
"Natural Language Processing: Semantic Analysis "
""
"Introduction to semantic analysis:"
"The purpose of semantic analysis is to draw exact meaning, or you can say
dictionary meaning from the text. Semantic analyzer checks the text for
meaningfulness. "………………………………
Reading line by line
We can also process a file line by line. For this task, Julia provides a
function named eachline() which basically turns a source into an iterator.
julia> open("C://USers/Leekha//Desktop//NLP.txt") do file
for ln in eachline(file)
println("$(length(ln)), $(ln)")
end
end
47, Natural Language Processing: Semantic Analysis
0,
34, Introduction to semantic analysis:
…………………………………
If you want to keep a track of which line you are on while reading the file,
use the below given approach −
julia> open("C://Users//Leekha//Desktop//NLP.txt") do f
line = 1
while !eof(f)
x = readline(f)
println("$line $x")
line += 1
end
end
1 Natural Language Processing: Semantic Analysis
2
3 Introduction to semantic analysis:
4 The purpose of semantic analysis is to draw exact meaning, or you can say
dictionary meaning from the text. Semantic analyzer checks the text for
meaningfulness.
5 We know that lexical analysis also deals with the meaning of the words
then how semantic analysis is different from lexical analysis? The answer is
that Lexical analysis is based on smaller token but on the other side semantic
analysis focuses on larger chunks. That is why semantic analysis can be
divided into the following two parts:
6 Studying the meaning of individual word: It is the first part of the semantic
analysis in which the study of the meaning of individual words is performed.
This part is called lexical semantics.
7 Studying the combination of individual words: In this second part, the
individual words will be combined to provide meaning in sentences.
8 The most important task of semantic analysis is to get the proper meaning
of the sentence. For example, analyze the sentence “Ram is great.” In this
sentence, the speaker is talking either about Lord Ram or about a person
whose name is Ram. That is why the job, to get the proper meaning of the
sentence, of semantic analyzer is important.
9 Elements of semantic analysis:
10 Following are the elements of semantic analysis:……………………..
Path and File Names
The table below shows functions that are useful for working with filenames
−
Sl.No Functions & Working
1 cd(path)
This function changes the current directory.
2 pwd()
This function gets the current working directory.
3 readdir(path)
This function returns a list of the contents of a named directory,
or the current directory.
4 abspath(path)
This function adds the current directory's path to a filename to
make an absolute pathname.
5 joinpath(str, str, ...)

This function assembles a pathname from pieces.
6 isdir(path)
This function tells you whether the path is a directory.
7 splitdir(path)
This function splits a path into a tuple of the directory name and
file name.
8 splitdrive(path)
This function, on Windows, split a path into the drive letter part
and the path part. And, On Unix systems, the first component is
always the empty string.
9 splitext(path)
This function, if the last component of a path contains a dot,
split the path into everything before the dot and everything
including and after the dot. Otherwise, return a tuple of the
argument unmodified and the empty string.
10 expanduser(path)
This function replaces a tilde character at the start of a path with
the current user's home directory.
11 normpath(path)
This function normalizes a path, removing "." and ".." entries.
12 realpath(path)
This function canonicalizes a path by expanding symbolic links
and removing "." and ".." entries.
13 homedir()
This function gives the current user's home directory.
14 dirname(path)
This function gets the directory part of a path.
15 basename(path)
This function gets the file name part of a path.
Information about file
We can use stat(“pathname”) to get the information about a specific file.
Example
julia> for n in
fieldnames(typeof(stat("C://Users//Leekha//Desktop//NLP.txt")))
println(n, ": ",
getfield(stat("C://Users//Leekha//Desktop//NLP.txt"),n))
end
device: 3262175189
inode: 17276
mode: 33206
nlink: 1
uid: 0
gid: 0
rdev: 0
size: 6293
blksize: 4096
blocks: 16
mtime: 1.6017034024103658e9
ctime: 1.6017034024103658e9
Interacting with the file system
If you want to convert filenames to pathnames, you can
use abspath() function. We can map this over a list of files in a directory as
follows −
julia> map(abspath, readdir())
"C:\\Users\\Leekha\\.anaconda"
"C:\\Users\\Leekha\\.conda"
"C:\\Users\\Leekha\\.condarc"
"C:\\Users\\Leekha\\.config"
"C:\\Users\\Leekha\\.idlerc"
"C:\\Users\\Leekha\\.ipynb_checkpoints"
"C:\\Users\\Leekha\\.ipython"
"C:\\Users\\Leekha\\.julia"
"C:\\Users\\Leekha\\.jupyter"
"C:\\Users\\Leekha\\.keras"
"C:\\Users\\Leekha\\.kindle"…………………………
Writing to files
A function writedlm(), a function in the DelimitedFiles package can be
used to write the contents of an object to a text file.
Example
julia> test_numbers = rand(10,10)
0.457071 0.41895 0.63602 0.812757 0.727214 0.156181 0.023817
0.286904 0.488069 0.232787
0.623791 0.946815 0.757186 0.822932 0.791591 0.67814 0.903542
0.664997 0.702893 0.924639
0.334988 0.511964 0.738595 0.631272 0.33401 0.634704 0.175641
0.0679822 0.350901 0.0773231
0.838656 0.140257 0.404624 0.346231 0.642377 0.404291 0.888538
0.356232 0.924593 0.791257
0.438514 0.70627 0.642209 0.196252 0.689652 0.929208 0.19364 0.19769
0.868283 0.258201
0.599995 0.349388 0.22805 0.0180824 0.0226505 0.0838017 0.363375
0.725694 0.224026 0.440138
0.526417 0.788251 0.866562 0.946811 0.834365 0.173869 0.279936
0.80839 0.325284 0.0737317
0.0805326 0.507168 0.388336 0.186871 0.612322 0.662037 0.331884
0.329227 0.355914 0.113426
0.527173 0.0799835 0.543556 0.332768 0.105341 0.409124 0.61811
0.623762 0.944456 0.0490737
0.281633 0.934487 0.257375 0.409263 0.206078 0.720507 0.867653
0.571467 0.705971 0.11014
julia> writedlm("C://Users//Leekha//Desktop//testfile.txt", test_numbers)
Meta programming
Metaprogramming may be defined as the programming in which we write
Julia code to process and modify Julia code. With the help of Julia
metaprogramming tools, one can write Julia programming code that
modifies other parts of the source code file. These tools can even control
when the modified code runs.
Following are the execution stages of raw source code −
Stage 1 − Raw Julia code is parsed

In this stage the raw Julia code is converted into a form suitable for
evaluation. The output of this stage is AST i.e. Abstract Syntax Tree. AST is
a structure which contains all the code in an easy to manipulate format.
Stage 2 − Parsed Julia code is executed

In this stage, the evaluated Julia code is executed. When we type code in
REPL and press Return the two stages happens but they happen so quickly
that we don’t even notice. But with metaprogramming tools we can access
the Julia code between two stages, i.e. after code parsed but before its
evaluation.
Quoted expressions
As we discussed, with metaprogramming we can access the Julia code
between two stages. For this, Julia has ‘:’ colon prefix operator. With the
help of colon operator, Julia store an unevaluated but parsed expression.
Example
julia> ABC = 100
100
julia> :ABC
:ABC
Here, − ABC is quoted or unevaluated symbol for Julia i.e. ‘ABC ‘ is an
unevaluated symbol rather than having the value 100.
We can quote the whole expressions as below −
julia> :(100-50)
:(100 - 50)
Alternatively, we can also use quote…end keywords to enclose and quote an
expression as follows −
julia> quote
100 - 50
end
quote
#= REPL[43]:2 =#
100 - 50
end
Check this also:
julia> expression = quote
for x = 1:5
println(x)
end
end
quote
#= REPL[46]:2 =#
for x = 1:5
#= REPL[46]:3 =#
println(x)
end
end
julia> typeof(expression)
Expr
It shows that expression object is parsed, primed and ready to use.
Evaluated expressions
Once you parsed the expression, there is a way to evaluate the expression
also. We can use the function eval() for this purpose as follows −
julia> eval(:ABC)
100
julia> eval(:(100-50))
50
julia> eval(expression)
1
2
3
4
5
In the example, we have evaluated the expressions parsed in above section.
The Abstract Syntax Tree (AST)
As discussed above, Abstract Syntax Tree (AST) is a structure which
contains all the code in an easy to manipulate format. It is the output of
stage1. It allows us to easily process and modify the Julia code. We can
visualize the hierarchical nature of an expression with the help
of dump() function.
Example
julia> dump(:(1 * cos(pi/2)))
Expr
head: Symbol call
args: Array{Any}((3,))
1: Symbol *
2: Int64 1
3: Expr
head: Symbol call
1: Symbol cos
2: Expr
head: Symbol call
1: Symbol /
2: Symbol pi
3: Int64 2
Expression interpolation
Any Julia code which has string or expression is usually unevaluated but
with the help of dollar ($) sign (string interpolation operator), we can
evaluate some of the code. The Julia code will be evaluated and inserts the
resulting value into the string when the string interpolation operator is used
inside a string.
Example
julia> "the cosine of 1 is $(cos(1))"
"the cosine of 1 is 0.5403023058681398"
Similarly, we can use this string interpolation operator to include the results
of executing Julia code interpolated into unevaluated expression −
julia> quote ABC = $(cos(1) + tan(1)); end
quote
#= REPL[54]:1 =#
ABC = 2.097710030523042
end
Macros
We are now aware of creating and handling unevaluated expressions. In this
section, we will understand how we can modify them. Julia provides macro
that accepts an unevaluated expression as input and generates a new output
expression.
If we talk about its working, Julia first parses and evaluates the macro, and
then the processed code produced by macro will be evaluated like an
ordinary expression.
The syntax of defining a macro is very similar to that of a function.
Following is the definition of macro that will print out the contents of the
things we pass to it −
julia> macro x(n)
if typeof(n) == Expr
println(n.args)
end
return n
end
@x (macro with 1 method)
We can run the macros by preceding the name of the macro with the @
prefix −
julia> @x 500
500
julia> @x "Tutorialspoint.com"
"Tutorialspoint.com"
eval() and @eval
Julia has eval() function and a macro called @eval. Let us see example to
know their differences −
julia> ABC = :(100 + 50)
:(100 + 50)
julia> eval(ABC)
150
The above output shows that the eval() function expands the expression and
evaluates it.
julia> @eval ABC
:(100 + 50)
julia> @eval $(ABC)
150
It can also be treated as follows −
julia> @eval $(ABC) == eval(ABC)
true
Expanding Macros
The macroexpand() function returns the expanded format (used by the Julia
compiler before it is finally executed) of the specified macro.
Example
julia> macroexpand(Main, quote @p 1 + 4 - 6 * 7 / 8 % 9 end)
Any[:-, :(1 + 4), :(((6 * 7) / 8) % 9)]
quote
#= REPL[69]:1 =#
(1 + 4) - ((6 * 7) / 8) % 9
end
Plotting
Julia has various packages for plotting and before starting making plots, we
need to first download and install some of them as follows −
(@v1.5) pkg> add Plots PyPlot GR UnicodePlots
The package Plots is a high-level plotting package, also referred to as ‘back-
ends’ interfaces with other plotting packages. To start using the Plots
package, type the following command −
julia> using Plots
[ Info: Precompiling Plots [91a5bcdd-55d7-5caf-9e0b-520d859cae80]
Plotting a function
For plotting a function, we need to switch back to PyPlot back-end as
follows −
julia> pyplot()
Plots.PyPlotBackend()
Here we will be plotting the equation of Time graph which can be modeled
by the following function −
julia> eq(d) = -7.65 * sind(d) + 9.87 * sind(2d + 206);
julia> plot(eq, 1:365)
sys:1: MatplotlibDeprecationWarning: Passing the fontdict parameter of
_set_ticklabels() positionally is deprecated since Matplotlib 3.3; the
parameter will become keyword-only two minor releases later.
sys:1: UserWarning: FixedFormatter should only be used together with
FixedLocator
Packages
Everyone wants a package that helps them to draw quick plots by text rather
than graphics.
UnicodePlots
Julia provides one such package called UnicodePlots which can produce the
following −
scatter plots
line plots
bar plots
staircase plots
histograms
sparsity patterns
density plots
We can add it to our Julia installation by the following command −
(@v1.5) pkg> add UnicodePlots
Once added, we can use this to plot a graph as follows:
julia> using UnicodePlots
Example
Following Julia example generates a line chart using UnicodePlots.
julia> FirstLinePlot = lineplot([1, 2, 3, 7], [1, 2, -5, 7], title="First Line Plot",
border=:dotted) First Line Plot
Example
Following Julia example generates a density chart using UnicodePlots.
Julia> using UnicodePlots
Julia> FirstDensityPlot = densityplot(collect(1:100), randn(100),
border=:dotted)
VegaLite
This Julia package is a visualization grammar which allows us to create
visualization in a web browser window. With this package, we can −
describe data visualization in a JSON format
generate interactive views using HTML5 Canvas or SVG
It can produce the following −
Area plots
Bar plots/Histograms
Line plots
Scatter plots
Pie/Donut charts
Waterfall charts
Worldclouds
We can add it to our Julia installation by following command −
(@v1.5) pkg> add VegaLite
Once added we can use this to plot a graph as follows −
julia> using VegaLite
Example
Following Julia example generates a Pie chart using VegaLite.
julia> X = ["Monday", "Tuesday", "Wednesday", "Thrusday",
"Friday","Saturday","Sunday"];
julia> Y = [11, 11, 15, 13, 12, 13, 10]
11
11
15
13
12
13
10
julia> P = pie(X,Y)
Data Frames
DataFrame may be defined as a table or spreadsheet which we can be used
to sort as well as explore a set of related data values. In other words, we can
call it a smarter array for holding tabular data. Before we use it, we need to
download and install DataFrame and CSV packages as follows −
(@v1.5) pkg> add DataFrames
(@v1.5) pkg> add CSV
To start using the DataFrames package, type the following command −
julia> using DataFrames
Loading data into DataFrames
There are several ways to create new DataFrames (which we will discuss
later in this section) but one of the quickest ways to load data into
DataFrames is to load the Anscombe dataset. For better understanding, let us
see the example below −
anscombe = DataFrame(
[10 10 10 8 8.04 9.14 7.46 6.58;
8 8 8 8 6.95 8.14 6.77 5.76;
13 13 13 8 7.58 8.74 12.74 7.71;
9 9 9 8 8.81 8.77 7.11 8.84;
11 11 11 8 8.33 9.26 7.81 8.47;
14 14 14 8 9.96 8.1 8.84 7.04;
6 6 6 8 7.24 6.13 6.08 5.25;
4 4 4 19 4.26 3.1 5.39 12.5;
12 12 12 8 10.84 9.13 8.15 5.56;
7 7 7 8 4.82 7.26 6.42 7.91;
5 5 5 8 5.68 4.74 5.73 6.89]);
julia> rename!(anscombe, [Symbol.(:N, 1:4); Symbol.(:M, 1:4)])
11×8 DataFrame
│ Row │ N1 │ N2 │ N3 │ N4 │ M1 │ M2 │ M3 │
M4 │
│ │ Float64 │ Float64 │ Float64 │ Float64 │ Float64 │ Float64 │
Float64 │ Float64 │
├─────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼────
│ 1 │ 10.0 │ 10.0 │ 10.0 │ 8.0 │ 8.04 │ 9.14 │ 7.46 │ 6.58
│
│ 2 │ 8.0 │ 8.0 │ 8.0 │ 8.0 │ 6.95 │ 8.14 │ 6.77 │ 5.76
│
│ 3 │ 13.0 │ 13.0 │ 13.0 │ 8.0 │ 7.58 │ 8.74 │ 12.74 │ 7.71
│
│ 4 │ 9.0 │ 9.0 │ 9.0 │ 8.0 │ 8.81 │ 8.77 │ 7.11 │ 8.84
│
│ 5 │ 11.0 │ 11.0 │ 11.0 │ 8.0 │ 8.33 │ 9.26 │ 7.81 │ 8.47
│
│6 │ 14.0 │ 14.0 │ 14.0 │ 8.0 │ 9.96 │ 8.1 │ 8.84 │ 7.04
│
│7 │ 6.0 │ 6.0 │ 6.0 │ 8.0 │ 7.24 │ 6.13 │ 6.08 │ 5.25
│
│8 │ 4.0 │ 4.0 │ 4.0 │ 19.0 │ 4.26 │ 3.1 │ 5.39 │ 12.5
│
│9 │ 12.0 │ 12.0 │ 12.0 │ 8.0 │ 10.84 │ 9.13 │ 8.15 │ 5.56
│
│10 │ 7.0 │ 7.0 │ 7.0 │ 8.0 │ 4.82 │ 7.26 │ 6.42 │ 7.91
│
│11 │ 5.0 │ 5.0 │ 5.0 │ 8.0 │ 5.68 │ 4.74 │ 5.73 │ 6.89
│
We assigned the DataFrame to a variable named Anscombe, convert them to
an array and then rename columns.
Collected Datasets
We can also use another dataset package named RDatasets package. It
contains several other famous datasets including Anscombe’s. Before we
start using it, we need to first download and install it as follows −
(@v1.5) pkg> add RDatasets
To start using this package, type the following command −
julia> anscombe = dataset("datasets","anscombe")
11×8 DataFrame
│ Row │ X1 │ X2 │ X3 │ X4 │ Y1 │ Y2 │ Y3 │ Y4
│
│ │ Int64 │ Int64 │ Int64 │ Int64 │ Float64 │ Float64 │ Float64 │
Float64 │
├─────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼───────┼─────────┼──
│ 1 │ 10 │ 10 │ 10 │ 8 │ 8.04 │ 9.14 │ 7.46 │ 6.58 │
│ 2 │ 8 │ 8 │ 8 │ 8 │ 6.95 │ 8.14 │ 6.77 │ 5.76 │
│ 3 │ 13 │ 13 │ 13 │ 8 │ 7.58 │ 8.74 │ 12.74│ 7.71 │
│ 4 │ 9 │ 9 │ 9 │ 8 │ 8.81 │ 8.77 │ 7.11 │ 8.84 │
│ 5 │ 11 │ 11 │ 11 │ 8 │ 8.33 │ 9.26 │ 7.81 │ 8.47 │
│ 6 │ 14 │ 14 │ 14 │ 8 │ 9.96 │ 8.1 │ 8.84 │ 7.04 │
│ 7 │ 6 │ 6 │ 6 │ 8 │ 7.24 │ 6.13 │ 6.08 │ 5.25 │
│ 8 │ 4 │ 4 │ 4 │ 19 │ 4.26 │ 3.1 │ 5.39 │ 12.5 │
│ 9 │ 12 │ 12 │ 12 │ 8 │ 10.84 │ 9.13 │ 8.15 │ 5.56 │
│ 10 │ 7 │ 7 │ 7 │ 8 │ 4.82 │ 7.26 │ 6.42 │ 7.91 │
│ 11 │ 5 │ 5 │ 5 │ 8 │ 5.68 │ 4.74 │ 5.73 │ 6.89 │
Empty DataFrames
We can also create DataFrames by simply providing the information about
rows, columns as we give in an array.
Example
julia> empty_df = DataFrame(X = 1:10, Y = 21:30)
10×2 DataFrame
│ Row │ X │ Y │
│ │ Int64 │ Int64 │
├─────┼───────┼───────┤
│ 1 │ 1 │ 21 │
│ 2 │ 2 │ 22 │
│ 3 │ 3 │ 23 │
│ 4 │ 4 │ 24 │
│ 5 │ 5 │ 25 │
│ 6 │ 6 │ 26 │
│ 7 │ 7 │ 27 │
│ 8 │ 8 │ 28 │
│ 9 │ 9 │ 29 │
│ 10 │ 10 │ 30 │
To create completely empty DataFrame, we only need to supply the Column
Names and define their types as follows −
julia> Complete_empty_df = DataFrame(Name=String[],
W=Float64[],
H=Float64[],
M=Float64[],
V=Float64[])
0×5 DataFrame
julia> Complete_empty_df = vcat(Complete_empty_df,
DataFrame(Name="EmptyTestDataFrame", W=5.0, H=5.0, M=3.0, V=5.0))
1×5 DataFrame
│ Row │ Name │ W │ H │ M │ V │
│ │ String │ Float64 │ Float64 │ Float64 │ Float64 │
├─────┼────────────────────┼─────────┼─────────┼───
│ 1 │ EmptyTestDataFrame │ 5.0 │ 5.0 │ 3.0 │ 5.0 │
julia> Complete_empty_df = vcat(Complete_empty_df,
DataFrame(Name="EmptyTestDataFrame2", W=6.0, H=6.0, M=5.0,
V=7.0))
2×5 DataFrame
│ Row │ Name │ W │ H │ M │ V │
│ │ String │ Float64 │ Float64 │ Float64 │ Float64 │
├─────┼─────────────────────┼─────────┼─────────┼──
│ 1 │ EmptyTestDataFrame │ 5.0 │ 5.0 │ 3.0 │ 5.0 │
│ 2 │ EmptyTestDataFrame2 │ 6.0 │ 6.0 │ 5.0 │ 7.0 │
Plotting Anscombe’s Quarter
Now the Anscombe dataset has been loaded, we can do some statistics with
it also. The inbuilt function named describe() enables us to calculate the
statistics properties of the columns of a dataset. You can supply the symbols,
given below, for the properties −
mean
std
min
q25
median
q75
max
eltype
nunique
first
last
nmissing
Example
julia> describe(anscombe, :mean, :std, :min, :median, :q25)
8×6 DataFrame
│ Row │ variable │ mean │ std │ min │ median │ q25 │
│ │ Symbol │ Float64 │ Float64 │ Real │ Float64 │ Float64 │
├─────┼──────────┼─────────┼─────────┼──────┼──────
│ 1 │ X1 │ 9.0 │ 3.31662 │ 4 │ 9.0 │ 6.5 │
│ 2 │ X2 │ 9.0 │ 3.31662 │ 4 │ 9.0 │ 6.5 │
│ 3 │ X3 │ 9.0 │ 3.31662 │ 4 │ 9.0 │ 6.5 │
│ 4 │ X4 │ 9.0 │ 3.31662 │ 8 │ 8.0 │ 8.0 │
│ 5 │ Y1 │ 7.50091 │ 2.03157 │ 4.26 │ 7.58 │ 6.315 │
│ 6 │ Y2 │ 7.50091 │ 2.03166 │ 3.1 │ 8.14 │ 6.695 │
│ 7 │ Y3 │ 7.5 │ 2.03042 │ 5.39 │ 7.11 │ 6.25 │
│ 8 │ Y4 │ 7.50091 │ 2.03058 │ 5.25 │ 7.04 │ 6.17 │
We can also do a comparison between XY datasets as follows −
julia> [describe(anscombe[:, xy], :mean, :std, :median, :q25) for xy in [[:X1,
:Y1], [:X2, :Y2], [:X3, :Y3], [:X4, :Y4]]]
4-element Array{DataFrame,1}:
2×5 DataFrame
│ Row │ variable │ mean │ std │ median │ q25 │
│ │ Symbol │ Float64 │ Float64 │ Float64 │ Float64 │
├─────┼──────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼───
│ 1 │ X1 │ 9.0 │ 3.31662 │ 9.0 │ 6.5 │
│ 2 │ Y1 │ 7.50091 │ 2.03157 │ 7.58 │ 6.315 │
2×5 DataFrame
├─────┼──────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼───
│ 1 │ X2 │ 9.0 │ 3.31662 │ 9.0 │ 6.5 │
│ 2 │ Y2 │ 7.50091 │ 2.03166 │ 8.14 │ 6.695 │
2×5 DataFrame
├─────┼──────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼───
│ 1 │ X3 │ 9.0 │ 3.31662 │ 9.0 │ 6.5 │
│ 2 │ Y3 │ 7.5 │ 2.03042 │ 7.11 │ 6.25 │
2×5 DataFrame
├─────┼──────────┼─────────┼─────────┼─────────┼───
│ 1 │ X4 │ 9.0 │ 3.31662 │ 8.0 │ 8.0 │
│ 2 │ Y4 │ 7.50091 │ 2.03058 │ 7.04 │ 6.17 │
Let us reveal the true purpose of Anscombe, i.e., plot the four sets of its
quartet as follows −
julia> using StatsPlots
[ Info: Precompiling StatsPlots [f3b207a7-027a-5e70-b257-86293d7955fd]
julia> @df anscombe scatter([:X1 :X2 :X3 :X4], [:Y1 :Y2 :Y3 :Y4],
smooth=true,
line = :red,
linewidth = 2,
title= ["X$i vs Y$i" for i in (1:4)'],
legend = false,
layout = 4,
xlimits = (2, 20),
ylimits = (2, 14))
Regression and Models
In this section, we will be working with Linear Regression line for the
dataset. For this we need to use Generalized Linear Model (GLM) package
which you need to first add as follows −
(@v1.5) pkg> add GLM
Now let us create a liner regression model by specifying a formula using the
@formula macro and supplying columns names as well as name of the
DataFrame. An example for the same is given below −
julia> linearregressionmodel = fit(LinearModel, @formula(Y1 ~ X1),
anscombe)
StatsModels.TableRegressionModel{LinearModel{GLM.LmResp{Array{Float64
Y1 ~ 1 + X1
Coefficients:
───────────────────────────────────────────────────
Coef. Std. Error t Pr(>|t|) Lower 95% Upper 95%
───────────────────────────────────────────────────
(Intercept) 3.00009 1.12475 2.67 0.0257 0.455737 5.54444
X1 0.500091 0.117906 4.24 0.0022 0.23337 0.766812
───────────────────────────────────────────────────
Let us check the summary and the coefficient of the above created linear
regression model −
julia> summary(linearregressionmodel)
"StatsModels.TableRegressionModel{LinearModel{GLM.LmResp{Array{Float64,1}},G
julia> coef(linearregressionmodel)
3.0000909090909054
0.5000909090909096
Now let us produce a function for the regression line. The form of the
function is y = ax +c.
julia> f(x) = coef(linearmodel)[2] * x + coef(linearmodel)[1]
f (generic function with 1 method)
Once we have the function that describes the regression line, we can draw a
plot as follows −
julia> p1 = plot(anscombe[:X1], anscombe[:Y1],
smooth=true,
seriestype=:scatter,
title = "X1 vs Y1",
linewidth=8,
linealpha=0.5,
label="data")
julia> plot!(f, 2, 20, label="correlation")

Working with DataFrames
As we know that nothing is perfect. This is also true in case of datasets
because not all the datasets are consistent and tidy. To show how we can
work with different items of DataFrame, let us create a test DataFrame −
julia> testdf = DataFrame( Number = [3, 5, 7, 8, 20 ],
Name = ["Lithium", "Boron", "Nitrogen", "Oxygen",
"Calcium" ],
AtomicWeight = [6.941, 10.811, 14.0067, 15.9994, 40.078 ],
Symbol = ["Li", "B", "N", "O", "Ca" ],
Discovered = [1817, 1808, 1772, 1774, missing ])
5×5 DataFrame
│ Row │ Number │ Name │ AtomicWeight │ Symbol │ Discovered │
│ │ Int64 │ String │ Float64 │ String │ Int64? │
├─────┼────────┼──────────┼──────────────┼────────┼
│ 1 │ 3 │ Lithium │ 6.941 │ Li │ 1817 │
│ 2 │ 5 │ Boron │ 10.811 │ B │ 1808 │
│ 3 │ 7 │ Nitrogen │ 14.0067 │ N │ 1772 │
│ 4 │ 8 │ Oxygen │ 15.9994 │ O │ 1774 │
│ 5 │ 20 │ Calcium │ 40.078 │ Ca │ missing │
Handling missing values
There can be some missing values in datasets. It can be checked with the
help of describe() function as follows −
julia> describe(testdf)
5×8 DataFrame
│ Row │ variable │ mean │ min │ median │ max │ nunique │
nmissing │ eltype │
│ │ Symbol │ Union… │ Any │ Union… │ Any │ Union… │
Union… │ Type │
├─────┼──────────────┼─────────┼───────┼─────────┼─
│ 1 │ Number │ 8.6 │ 3 │ 7.0 │ 20 │ │ │
Int64 │
│ 2 │ Name │ │ Boron │ │ Oxygen │ 5 │ │
String │
│ 3 │ AtomicWeight │ 17.5672 │ 6.941 │ 14.0067 │ 40.078 │ │
│ Float64 │
│ 4 │ Symbol │ │ B │ │ O│ 5 │ │
String │
│ 5 │ Discovered │ 1792.75 │ 1772 │ 1791.0 │ 1817 │ │ 1
│ Union{Missing, Int64} │
Julia provides a special datatype called Missing to address such issue. This
datatype indicates that there is not a usable value at this location. That is
why the DataFrames packages allow us to get most of our datasets and make
sure that the calculations are not tampered due to missing values.
Looking for missing values
We can check with ismissing() function that whether the DataFrame has any
missing value or not.
Example
julia> for row in 1:nrows
for col in 1:ncols
if ismissing(testdf [row,col])
println("$(names(testdf)[col]) value for $(testdf[row,:Name]) is
missing!")
end
end
end
Discovered value for Calcium is missing!
Repairing DataFrames
We can use the following code to change values that are not acceptable like
“n/a”, “0”, “missing”. The below code will look in every cell for above
mentioned non-acceptable values.
Example
julia> for row in 1:size(testdf, 1) # or nrow(testdf)
for col in 1:size(testdf, 2) # or ncol(testdf)
println("processing row $row column $col ")
temp = testdf [row,col]
if ismissing(temp)
println("skipping missing")
elseif temp == "n/a" || temp == "0" || temp == 0
testdf [row, col] = missing
println("changed row $row column $col ")
end
end
end
processing row 1 column 1
skipping missing
Working with missing values
Julia provides support for representing missing values in the statistical sense,
that is for situations where no value is available for a variable in an
observation, but a valid value theoretically exists.
completecases()
The completecases() function is used to find the maximum value of the
column that contains the missing value.
Example
julia> maximum(testdf[completecases(testdf), :].Discovered)
1817
dropmissing()
The dropmissing() function is used to get the copy of DataFrames without
having the missing values.
Example
julia> dropmissing(testdf)
4×5 DataFrame
│ │ Int64 │ String │ Float64 │ String │ Int64 │
├─────┼────────┼──────────┼──────────────┼────────┼
│ 1 │ 3 │ Lithium │ 6.941 │ Li │ 1817 │
│ 2 │ 5 │ Boron │ 10.811 │ B │ 1808 │
│ 3 │ 7 │ Nitrogen │ 14.0067 │ N │ 1772 │
│ 4 │ 8 │ Oxygen │ 15.9994 │ O │ 1774 │
Modifying DataFrames
The DataFrames package of Julia provides various methods using which you
can add, remove, rename columns, and add/delete rows.
Adding Columns
We can use hcat() function to add a column of integers to the DataFrame. It
can be used as follows −
julia> hcat(testdf, axes(testdf, 1))
5×6 DataFrame
x1 │
│ │ Int64 │ String │ Float64 │ String │ Int64? │ Int64 │
├─────┼────────┼──────────┼──────────────┼────────┼
│ 1 │ 3 │ Lithium │ 6.941 │ Li │ 1817 │ 1 │
│ 2 │ 5 │ Boron │ 10.811 │ B │ 1808 │ 2 │
│ 3 │ 7 │ Nitrogen │ 14.0067 │ N │ 1772 │ 3 │
│ 4 │ 8 │ Oxygen │ 15.9994 │ O │ 1774 │ 4 │
│ 5 │ 20 │ Calcium │ 40.078 │ Ca │ missing │ 5 │
But as you can notice that we haven’t changed the DataFrame or assigned
any new DataFrame to a symbol. We can add another column as follows −
julia> testdf [!, :MP] = [180.7, 2300, -209.86, -222.65, 839]
180.7
2300.0
-209.86
-222.65
839.0
julia> testdf
5×6 DataFrame
MP │
│ │ Int64 │ String │ Float64 │ String │ Int64? │ Float64 │
├─────┼────────┼──────────┼──────────────┼────────┼
│ 1 │ 3 │ Lithium │ 6.941 │ Li │ 1817 │ 180.7 │
│ 2 │ 5 │ Boron │ 10.811 │ B │ 1808 │ 2300.0 │
│ 3 │ 7 │ Nitrogen │ 14.0067 │ N │ 1772 │ -209.86 │
│ 4 │ 8 │ Oxygen │ 15.9994 │ O │ 1774 │ -222.65 │
│ 5 │ 20 │ Calcium │ 40.078 │ Ca │ missing │ 839.0 │
We have added a column having melting points of all the elements to our
test DataFrame.
Removing Columns
We can use select!() function to remove a column from the DataFrame. It
will create a new DataFrame that contains the selected columns, hence to
remove a particular column, we need to use select!() with Not. It is shown in
the given example −
julia> select!(testdf, Not(:MP))
5×5 DataFrame
├─────┼────────┼──────────┼──────────────┼────────┼
│ 1 │ 3 │ Lithium │ 6.941 │ Li │ 1817 │
│ 2 │ 5 │ Boron │ 10.811 │ B │ 1808 │
│ 3 │ 7 │ Nitrogen │ 14.0067 │ N │ 1772 │
│ 4 │ 8 │ Oxygen │ 15.9994 │ O │ 1774 │
We have removed the column MP from our Data Frame.
Renaming Columns
We can use rename!() function to rename a column in the DataFrame. We
will be renaming the AtomicWeight column to AW as follows −
julia> rename!(testdf, :AtomicWeight => :AW)
5×5 DataFrame
│ Row │ Number │ Name │ AW │ Symbol │ Discovered │
├─────┼────────┼──────────┼─────────┼────────┼─────
│ 1 │ 3 │ Lithium │ 6.941 │ Li │ 1817 │
│ 2 │ 5 │ Boron │ 10.811 │ B │ 1808 │
│ 3 │ 7 │ Nitrogen │ 14.0067 │ N │ 1772 │
│ 4 │ 8 │ Oxygen │ 15.9994 │ O │ 1774 │
Adding rows
We can use push!() function with suitable data to add rows in the
DataFrame. In the below given example we will be adding a row having
element Cooper −
Example
julia> push!(testdf, [29, "Copper", 63.546, "Cu", missing])
6×5 DataFrame
├─────┼────────┼──────────┼─────────┼────────┼─────
│ 1 │ 3 │ Lithium │ 6.941 │ Li │ 1817 │
│ 2 │ 5 │ Boron │ 10.811 │ B │ 1808 │
│ 3 │ 7 │ Nitrogen │ 14.0067 │ N │ 1772 │
│ 4 │ 8 │ Oxygen │ 15.9994 │ O │ 1774 │
│ 6 │ 29 │ Copper │ 63.546 │ Cu │ missing │
Deleting rows
We can use deleterows!() function with suitable data to delete rows from the
DataFrame. In the below given example we will be deleting three rows (4th,
5th,and 6th) from our test data frame −
Example
julia> deleterows!(testdf, 4:6)
3×5 DataFrame
├─────┼────────┼──────────┼─────────┼────────┼─────
│ 1 │ 3 │ Lithium │ 6.941 │ Li │ 1817 │
│ 2 │ 5 │ Boron │ 10.811 │ B │ 1808 │
│ 3 │ 7 │ Nitrogen │ 14.0067 │ N │ 1772 │
Finding values in DataFrame
To find the values in DataFrame, we need to use an elementwise operator
examining all the rows. This operator will return an array of Boolean values
to indicate whether cells meet the criteria or not.
Example
julia> testdf[:, :AW] .< 10
3-element BitArray{1}:
1
0
0
julia> testdf[testdf[:, :AW] .< 10, :]
1×5 DataFrame
├─────┼────────┼─────────┼─────────┼────────┼──────
│ 1 │ 3 │ Lithium │ 6.941 │ Li │ 1817 │
Sorting
To sort the values in DataFrame, we can use sort!() function. We need to
give the columns on which we want to sort.
Example
julia> sort!(testdf, [order(:AW)])
3×5 DataFrame
├─────┼────────┼──────────┼─────────┼────────┼─────
│ 1 │ 3 │ Lithium │ 6.941 │ Li │ 1817 │
│ 2 │ 5 │ Boron │ 10.811 │ B │ 1808 │
│ 3 │ 7 │ Nitrogen │ 14.0067 │ N │ 1772 │
The DataFrame is sorted based on the values of column AW.
Working with Datasets
In this chapter, we shall discuss in detail about datasets.
CSV files
As we know that CSV (Comma Separated Value) file is a plain text file
which uses commas to separate fields and values of those fields. The
extension of these files is .CSV. We have various methods provided by Julia
programming language to perform operations on CSV files.
Import a .CSV file in Julia

To import a .CSV file, we need to install CSV package. Use the following
command to do so −
using pkg
pkg.add("CSV")
Reading data
To read data from a CSV file in Julia we need to use read() method from
CSV package as follows −
julia> using CSV
julia> CSV.read("C://Users//Leekha//Desktop//Iris.csv")
150×6 DataFrame
│ Row │ Id │ SepalLengthCm │ SepalWidthCm │ PetalLengthCm │
PetalWidthCm │ Species │
│ │ Int64 │ Float64 │ Float64 │ Float64 │ Float64 │
String │
├─────┼───────┼───────────────┼──────────────┼─────
------┤
│ 1 │ 1 │ 5.1 │ 3.5 │ 1.4 │ 0.2 │ Iris-setosa
│
│ 2 │ 2 │ 4.9 │ 3.0 │ 1.4 │ 0.2 │ Iris-setosa
│
│ 3 │ 3 │ 4.7 │ 3.2 │ 1.3 │ 0.2 │ Iris-setosa
│
│ 4 │ 4 │ 4.6 │ 3.1 │ 1.5 │ 0.2 │ Iris-setosa
│
│ 5 │ 5 │ 5.0 │ 3.6 │ 1.4 │ 0.2 │ Iris-setosa
│
│ 6 │ 6 │ 5.4 │ 3.9 │ 1.7 │ 0.4 │ Iris-setosa
│
│ 7 │ 7 │ 4.6 │ 3.4 │ 1.4 │ 0.3 │ Iris-setosa
│
│ 8 │ 8 │ 5.0 │ 3.4 │ 1.5 │ 0.2 │ Iris-setosa
│
│ 9 │ 9 │ 4.4 │ 2.9 │ 1.4 │ 0.2 │ Iris-setosa
│
│ 10 │ 10 │ 4.9 │ 3.1 │ 1.5 │ 0.1 │ Iris-setosa
│
⋮
│ 140 │ 140 │ 6.9 │ 3.1 │ 5.4 │ 2.1 │ Iris-
virginica │
│ 141 │ 141 │ 6.7 │ 3.1 │ 5.6 │ 2.4 │ Iris-
virginica │
│ 142 │ 142 │ 6.9 │ 3.1 │ 5.1 │ 2.3 │ Iris-
virginica │
│ 143 │ 143 │ 5.8 │ 2.7 │ 5.1 │ 1.9 │ Iris-
virginica │
│ 144 │ 144 │ 6.8 │ 3.2 │ 5.9 │ 2.3 │ Iris-
virginica │
│ 145 │ 145 │ 6.7 │ 3.3 │ 5.7 │ 2.5 │ Iris-
virginica │
│ 146 │ 146 │ 6.7 │ 3.0 │ 5.2 │ 2.3 │ Iris-
virginica │
│ 147 │ 147 │ 6.3 │ 2.5 │ 5.0 │ 1.9 │ Iris-
virginica │
│ 148 │ 148 │ 6.5 │ 3.0 │ 5.2 │ 2.0 │ Iris-
virginica │
│ 149 │ 149 │ 6.2 │ 3.4 │ 5.4 │ 2.3 │ Iris-
virginica │
│ 150 │ 150 │ 5.9 │ 3.0 │ 5.1 │ 1.8 │ Iris-
virginica │
Creating new CSV file
To create new CSV file, we need to use touch()command from CSV
package. We also need to use DataFrames package to write the newly
created content to new CSV file −
julia> using CSV
julia> touch("1234.csv")
"1234.csv"
julia> new = open("1234.csv", "w")
IOStream(<file 1234.csv>)
julia> new_data = DataFrame(Name = ["Gaurav", "Rahul", "Aarav",
"Raman", "Ravinder"],
RollNo = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5],
Marks = [54, 67, 90, 23, 95])
5×3 DataFrame
│ Row │ Name │ RollNo │ Marks │
│ │ String │ Int64 │ Int64 │
├─────┼──────────┼────────┼───────┤
│ 1 │ Gaurav │ 1 │ 54 │
│ 2 │ Rahul │ 2 │ 67 │
│ 3 │ Aarav │ 3 │ 90 │
│ 4 │ Raman │ 4 │ 23 │
│ 5 │ Ravinder │ 5 │ 95 │
julia> CSV.write("1234.csv", new_data)
"1234.csv"
julia> CSV.read("1234.csv")
5×3 DataFrame
│ Row │ Name │ RollNo │ Marks │
│ │ String │ Int64 │ Int64 │
├─────┼──────────┼────────┼───────┤
│ 1 │ Gaurav │ 1 │ 54 │
│ 2 │ Rahul │ 2 │ 67 │
│ 3 │ Aarav │ 3 │ 90 │
│ 4 │ Raman │ 4 │ 23 │
│ 5 │ Ravinder │ 5 │ 95 │
HDF5
The full form of HDF5 is Hierarchical Data Format v5. Following are some
of its properties −
A “group” is similar to a directory, a “dataset” is like a file.
To associate metadata with a particular group, it uses attributes.
It uses ASCII names for different objects.
Language wrappers are often known as “low level” or “high
level”.
Opening HDF5 files

HDF5 files can be opened with h5open command as follows −
fid = h5open(filename, mode)
Following table describes the mode −
Sl.No Mode & Meaning
1 "r"
read-only
2 "r+"
read-write − It will preserve any existing contents.
3 "cw"
read-write − It will create file if not existing.
It will also preserve existing contents.
4 "w"
read-write − It will destroy any existing contents.
The above command will produce an object of type HDF5File and a subtype
of the abstract type DataFile.
Closing HDF5 files

Once finished with a file, we should close it as follows −
close(fid)
It will also close all the objects in the file.
Opening HDF5 objects

Suppose if we have a file object named fid and it has a group called object1,
it can be opened as follows −
Obj1 = fid[“object1”]
Closing HDF5 objects

close(obj1)
Reading data
A group “g” containing a dataset with path “dtset” and we have opened
dataset as dset1 = g[dtset]. We can read the information in following ways −
ABC = read(dset1)
ABC = read(g, "dtset")
Asub = dset1[2:3, 1:3]
Writing data
We can create the dataset as follows −
g["dset1"] = rand(3,5)
write(g, "dset1", rand(3,5))
XML files
Here we will be discussing about LightXML.jl package which is a light-
weight Julia wrapper for libxml2. It provides the following functionalities −
Parsing an XML file
Accessing XML tree structure
Creating an XML tree
Exporting an XML tree to a string
Example
Suppose we have an xml file named new.xml as follows −
<Hello>
<to>Gaurav</to>
<from>Rahul</from>
<heading>Reminder to meet</heading>
<body>Friend, Don't forget to meet this weekend!</body>
</Hello>
Now, we can parse this file by using LightXML as follows −
julia> using LightXML
#below code will parse this xml file
julia> xdoc = parse_file("C://Users//Leekha//Desktop//new.xml")
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>
<Hello>
<to>Gaurav</to>
<from>Rahul</from>
<heading>Reminder to meet</heading>
<body>Friend, Don't forget to meet this weekend!</body>
</Hello>
Following example explains how to get the root element −
julia> xroot = root(xdoc);
julia> println(name(xroot))
Hello
#Traversing all the child nodes and also print element names
julia> for c in child_nodes(xroot) # c is an instance of XMLNode
println(nodetype(c))
if is_elementnode(c)
e = XMLElement(c) # this makes an XMLElement instance
println(name(e))
end
end
3
1
to
3
1
from
3
1
heading
3
1
body
3
RDatasets
Julia has RDatasets.jl package providing easy way to use and experiment
with most of the standard data sets which are available in the core of R. To
load and work with one of the datasets included in RDatasets packages, we
need to install RDatasets as follows −
julia> using Pkg
julia> Pkg.add("RDatasets")
Subsetting the data

For example, we will use the Gcsemv dataset in mlmRev group as follows −
julia> GetData = dataset("mlmRev","Gcsemv");
julia> summary(GetData);
julia> head(GetData)
6×5 DataFrame
│ Row │ School │ Student │ Gender │ Written │ Course │
│ │ Categorical… │ Categorical… │ Categorical… │ Float64⍰ │
Float64⍰ │
├─────┼──────────────┼──────────────┼──────────────
│ 1 │ 20920 │ 16 │ M │ 23.0 │ missing │
│ 2 │ 20920 │ 25 │ F │ missing │ 71.2 │
│ 3 │ 20920 │ 27 │ F │ 39.0 │ 76.8 │
│ 4 │ 20920 │ 31 │ F │ 36.0 │ 87.9 │
│ 5 │ 20920 │ 42 │ M │ 16.0 │ 44.4 │
│ 6 │ 20920 │ 62 │ F │ 36.0 │ missing │
We can select the data for a particular school as follows −
julia> GetData[GetData[:School] .== "68137", :]
104×5 DataFrame
Float64⍰ │
├─────┼──────────────┼──────────────┼──────────────
│ 1 │ 68137 │ 1 │ F │ 18.0 │ 56.4 │
│ 2 │ 68137 │ 2 │ F │ 23.0 │ 55.5 │
│ 3 │ 68137 │ 3 │ F │ 25.0 │ missing │
│ 4 │ 68137 │ 4 │ F │ 29.0 │ 73.1 │
│ 5 │ 68137 │ 5 │ F │ missing │ 66.6 │
│ 6 │ 68137 │ 9 │ F │ 20.0 │ 60.1 │
│ 7 │ 68137 │ 11 │ F │ 34.0 │ 63.8 │
│ 8 │ 68137 │ 12 │ F │ 60.0 │ 89.8 │
│ 9 │ 68137 │ 13 │ F │ 44.0 │ 76.8 │
│ 10 │ 68137 │ 14 │ F │ 20.0 │ 58.3 │
⋮
│ 94 │ 68137 │ 252 │ M │ missing │ 75.9 │
│ 95 │ 68137 │ 254 │ M │ 35.0 │ missing │
│ 96 │ 68137 │ 255 │ M │ 36.0 │ 62.0 │
│ 97 │ 68137 │ 258 │ M │ 23.0 │ 61.1 │
│ 98 │ 68137 │ 260 │ M │ 25.0 │ missing │
│ 99 │ 68137 │ 261 │ M │ 46.0 │ 89.8 │
│ 100 │ 68137 │ 264 │ M │ 50.0 │ 70.3 │
│ 101 │ 68137 │ 268 │ M │ 15.0 │ 43.5 │
│ 102 │ 68137 │ 270 │ M │ missing │ 73.1 │
│ 103 │ 68137 │ 272 │ M │ 43.0 │ 78.7 │
│ 104 │ 68137 │ 273 │ M │ 35.0 │ 60.1 │
Sorting the data

With the help of sort!() function, we can sort the data. For example, here we
will sort the dataset in ascending examination scores −
julia> sort!(GetData, cols=[:Written])
1905×5 DataFrame
Float64⍰ │
├──────┼──────────────┼──────────────┼─────────────
│ 1 │ 22710 │ 77 │ F │ 0.6 │ 41.6 │
│ 2 │ 68137 │ 65 │ F │ 2.5 │ 50.0 │
│ 3 │ 22520 │ 115 │ M │ 3.1 │ 9.25 │
│ 4 │ 68137 │ 80 │ F │ 4.3 │ 50.9 │
│ 5 │ 68137 │ 79 │ F │ 7.5 │ 27.7 │
│ 6 │ 22710 │ 57 │ F │ 11.0 │ 73.1 │
│ 7 │ 64327 │ 19 │ F │ 11.0 │ 87.0 │
│ 8 │ 68137 │ 85 │ F │ 11.0 │ 27.7 │
│ 9 │ 68137 │ 97 │ F │ 11.0 │ 57.4 │
│ 10 │ 68137 │ 100 │ F │ 11.0 │ 61.1 │
⋮
│ 1895 │ 74874 │ 83 │ F │ missing │ 81.4 │
│ 1896 │ 74874 │ 86 │ F │ missing │ 92.5 │
│ 1897 │ 76631 │ 79 │ F │ missing │ 84.2 │
│ 1898 │ 76631 │ 193 │ M │ missing │ 72.2 │
│ 1899 │ 76631 │ 221 │ F │ missing │ 76.8 │
│ 1900 │ 77207 │ 5001 │ F │ missing │ 82.4 │
│ 1901 │ 77207 │ 5062 │ M │ missing │ 75.0 │
│ 1902 │ 77207 │ 5063 │ F │ missing │ 79.6 │
│ 1903 │ 84772 │ 17 │ M │ missing │ 88.8 │
│ 1904 │ 84772 │ 49 │ M │ missing │ 74.0 │
│ 1905 │ 84772 │ 85 │ F │ missing │ 90.7 │
Statistics in Julia
To work with statistics, Julia has StatsBase.jl package providing easy way
to do simple statistics. To work with statistics, we need to install StatsBase
package as follows −
julia> using Pkg
julia> Pkg.add("StatsBase")
Simple Statistics
Julia provides methods to define weights and calculate mean.
We can use weights() function to define weights vectors as follows −
julia> WV = Weights([10.,11.,12.])
3-element Weights{Float64,Float64,Array{Float64,1}}:
10.0
11.0
12.0
You can use the isempty() function to check whether the weight vector is
empty or not −
julia> isempty(WV)
false
We can check the type of weight vectors with the help of eltype() function as
follows −
julia> eltype(WV)
Float64
We can check the length of the weight vectors with the help of length()
function as follows −
julia> length(WV)
3
There are different ways to calculate the mean −
Harmonic mean − We can use harmmean() function to
calculate the harmonic mean.
julia> A = [3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 2, 9, 10]
3
5
6
7
8
2
9
10
julia> harmmean(A)
4.764831009217679
Geometric mean − We can use geomean() function to calculate
the Geometric mean.
julia> geomean(A)
5.555368605381863
General mean − We can use mean() function to calculate the
general mean.
julia> mean(A)
6.25
Descriptive Statistics
It is that discipline of statistics in which information is extracted and
analyzed. This information explains the essence of data.
Calculating variance
We can use var() function to calculate the variance of a vector as follows −
julia> B = [1., 2., 3., 4., 5.];
julia> var(B)
2.5
Calculating weighted variance

We can calculate the weighted variance of a vector x w.r.t to weight vector
as follows −
julia> B = [1., 2., 3., 4., 5.];
julia> a = aweights([4., 2., 1., 3., 1.])
5-element AnalyticWeights{Float64,Float64,Array{Float64,1}}:
4.0
2.0
1.0
3.0
1.0
julia> var(B, a)
2.066115702479339
Calculating standard deviation

We can use std() function to calculate the standard variation of a vector as
follows −
julia> std(B)
1.5811388300841898
Calculating weighted standard deviation

We can calculate the weighted standard deviation of a vector x w.r.t to
weight vector as follows −
julia> std(B,a)
1.4373989364401725
Calculating mean and standard deviation

We can calculate the mean and standard deviation in a single command as
follows −
julia> mean_and_std(B,a)
(2.5454545454545454, 1.4373989364401725)
Calculating mean and variance

We can calculate the mean and variance in a single command as follows −
julia> mean_and_var(B,a)
(2.5454545454545454, 2.066115702479339)
Samples and Estimations
It may be defined as the discipline of statistics where, for analysis, sample
units will be selected from a large population set.
Following are the ways in which we can do sampling −
Taking random samples is the simplest way of doing sampling. In this we
draw a random element from the array, i.e., the population set. The function
for this purpose is sample().
Example
julia> A = [8.,12.,23.,54.5]
8.0
12.0
23.0
54.5
julia> sample(A)
12.0
Next, we can take “n” elements as random samples.
Example
julia> A = [8.,12.,23.,54.5]
8.0
12.0
23.0
54.5
julia> sample(A, 2)
23.0
54.5
We can also write the sampled elements to pre-allocated elements of length
“n”. The function to do this task is sample!().
Example
julia> B = [1., 2., 3., 4., 5.];
julia> X = [2., 1., 3., 2., 5.];
julia> sample!(B,X)
2.0
2.0
4.0
1.0
3.0
Another way is to do direct sampling which will randomly picks the
numbers from a population set and stores them in another array. The
function to do this task is direct_sample!().
Example
julia> StatsBase.direct_sample!(B, X)
1.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
5.0
Knuth’s algorithms is one other way in which random sampling is done
without replcement.
Example
julia> StatsBase.knuths_sample!(B, X)
5.0
3.0
4.0
2.0
1.0
Modules and Packages
The modules in Julia programming language are used to group together the
related functions and other definitions. The structure of a module is given
below −
module ModuleName
end
We can define and put functions, type definitions, and so on in between
above two lines.
Installing Modules
Julia’s package manager can be used to download and install a particular
package. To enter the package manage from REPL, type ] (right bracket).
Once entering the package manager, you need to type the following
command −
(@v1.5) pkg> add DataFrames
Updating registry at `C:\Users\Leekha\.julia\registries\General`
Resolving package versions...
Updating `C:\Users\Leekha\.julia\environments\v1.5\Project.toml`
[a93c6f00] + DataFrames v0.21.7
No Changes to `C:\Users\Leekha\.julia\environments\v1.5\Manifest.toml`
The above command will add DataFrames package to Julia’s environment.
The (@v1.5) in the prompt tells us that we are working in the default
project, "v1.5", in ~/.julia/environments/.
Using Modules
Once installed, it is time to start using the functions and definitions from the
installed module. For this we need to tell Julia programming language to
make code available for our current session. Use using statement which will
accept the names of one or more installed modules.
Example
[ Info: Precompiling DataFrames
[a93c6f00-e57d-5684-b7b6-d8193f3e46c0]
julia> empty_df = DataFrame(X = 1:10, Y = 21:30)
10×2 DataFrame
│ Row │ X │ Y │
│ │ Int64 │ Int64 │
├─────┼───────┼───────┤
│ 1 │ 1 │ 21 │
│ 2 │ 2 │ 22 │
│ 3 │ 3 │ 23 │
│ 4 │ 4 │ 24 │
│ 5 │ 5 │ 25 │
│ 6 │ 6 │ 26 │
│ 7 │ 7 │ 27 │
│ 8 │ 8 │ 28 │
│ 9 │ 9 │ 29 │
│ 10 │ 10 │ 30 │
Import
Like using, import can also be used for modules. The only difference is that
import lets you decide how you would like to access the functions inside the
module. In the below example, we have two different functions in a module.
Let us see how we can import them −
Example
julia> module first_module
export foo1
function foo1()
println("this is first function")
end
function foo2()
println("this is second function")
end
end
Main.first_module
Now we need to use import to import this module −
julia> import first_module
julia> foo1()
ERROR: foo1 not defined
julia> first_module.foo1()
"this is first function"
You can notice that the function foo1() can only be accessed if it is used
with module prefix. It is because the first_module was loaded
using import command rather than using command.
Include
What if you want to use the code from other files that are not contained in
the modules? For this you can use include() function which will evaluate the
contents of the file in the context of the current module. It will search the
relative path of the source file from which it is called.
Packages
Use status command in Julia package environment to see all the packages
you have installed.
(@v1.5) pkg> status
Status `C:\Users\Leekha\.julia\environments\v1.5\Project.toml`
[336ed68f] CSV v0.7.7
[a93c6f00] DataFrames v0.21.7
[864edb3b] DataStructures v0.18.6
[7806a523] DecisionTree v0.10.10
[38e38edf] GLM v1.3.10
[28b8d3ca] GR v0.52.0
[86223c79] Graphs v0.10.3
[7073ff75] IJulia v1.21.3
[682c06a0] JSON v0.21.1
[91a5bcdd] Plots v1.6.8
[d330b81b] PyPlot v2.9.0
[ce6b1742] RDatasets v0.6.10
[3646fa90] ScikitLearn v0.6.2
[f3b207a7] StatsPlots v0.14.13
[b8865327] UnicodePlots v1.3.0
[112f6efa] VegaLite v1.0.0
Structure of a package
As we know that Julia uses git for organizing as well controlling the
packages. All the packages are stored with .ji prefix. Let us see the structure
of Calculus package −
Calculus.jl/
src/
Calculus.jl
module Calculus
import Base.ctranspose
export derivative, check_gradient,
...
include("derivative.jl")
include("check_derivative.jl")
include("integrate.jl")
end
derivative.jl
function derivative()
...
end
...
check_derivative.jl
function check_derivative(f::...)
...
end
...
integrate.jl
function adaptive_simpsons_inner(f::Funct
...
end
...
symbolic.jl
export processExpr, BasicVariable, ...
import Base.show, ...
type BasicVariable <: AbstractVariable
...
end
function process(x::Expr)
...
end
...
test/
runtests.jl
using Calculus
using Base.Test
tests = ["finite_difference", ...
for t in tests
include("$(t).jl")
end
...
finite_difference.jl
@test ...
...
Working with Graphics
This chapter discusses how to plot, visualize and perform other (graphic)
operations on data using various tools in Julia.
Text Plotting with Cairo
Cairo, a 2D graphics library, implements a device context to the display
system. It works with Linux, Windows, OS X and can create disk files in
PDF, PostScript, and SVG formats also. The Julia file of Cairo i.e. Cairo.jl is
authentic to its C API.
Example
The following is an example to draw a line −
First, we will create a cr context.
julia> using Cairo
julia> img = CairoRGBSurface(512, 128);
julia> img = CairoRGBSurface(512, 128);
julia> cr = CairoContext(img);
julia> save(cr);
Now, we will add a rectangle −
julia> set_source_rgb(cr, 0.5, 0.5, 0.5);
julia> rectangle(cr, 0.0, 0.0, 512.0, 128.0);
julia> fill(cr);
julia> restore(cr);
julia> save(cr);
Now, we will define the points and draw a line through those points −
julia> x0=61.2; y0=74.0;
julia> x1=214.8; y1=125.4;
julia> x2=317.2; y2=22.8;
julia> x3=470.8; y3=74.0;
julia> move_to(cr, x0, y0);
julia> curve_to(cr, x1, y1, x2, y2, x3, y3);
julia> set_line_width(cr, 10.0);
julia> stroke_preserve(cr);
julia> restore(cr);
Finally, writing the resulting graphics to the disk −
julia> move_to(cr, 12.0, 12.0);
julia> set_source_rgb(cr, 0, 0, 0);
julia> show_text(cr,"Line_Figure")
julia> write_to_png(c,"Line_Figure.png");
Output
Text Plotting with Winston
Winston is also a 2D graphics library. It resembles the built-in graphics
available within MATLAB.
Example
julia> x = range(0, stop=3pi, length=100);
julia> c = cos.(x);
julia> s = sin.(x);
julia> p = FramedPlot(
title="Winston Graphics!",
xlabel="\\Sigma x^2_i",
ylabel="\\Theta_i")
julia> add(p, FillBetween(x, c, x, s))

julia> add(p, Curve(x, c, color="black"))
julia> add(p, Curve(x, s, color="red"))
Output
Data Visualization
Data visualization may be defined as the presentation of data in a variety of
graphical as well as pictorial formats such as pie and bar charts.
Gadfly
Gadfly is a powerful Julia package for data visualization and an
implementation of the “grammar of graphics” style. It is based on the same
principal as ggplot2 in R. For using it, we need to first add it with the help of
Julia package manager.
Example
To use Gadfly, we first need to use RDatasets package so that we can get
some datasets to work with. In this example, we will be using iris dataset −
julia> using Gadfly
julia> using RDatasets
julia> iris = dataset("datasets", "iris");
julia> first(iris,10)
10×5 DataFrame
│ Row │ SepalLength │ SepalWidth │ PetalLength │ PetalWidth │
Species │
│ │ Float64 │ Float64 │ Float64 │ Float64 │ Cat… │
├─────┼─────────────┼────────────┼─────────────┼───
│ 1 │ 5.1 │ 3.5 │ 1.4 │ 0.2 │ setosa │
│ 2 │ 4.9 │ 3.0 │ 1.4 │ 0.2 │ setosa │
│ 3 │ 4.7 │ 3.2 │ 1.3 │ 0.2 │ setosa │
│ 4 │ 4.6 │ 3.1 │ 1.5 │ 0.2 │ setosa │
│ 5 │ 5.0 │ 3.6 │ 1.4 │ 0.2 │ setosa │
│ 6 │ 5.4 │ 3.9 │ 1.7 │ 0.4 │ setosa │
│ 7 │ 4.6 │ 3.4 │ 1.4 │ 0.3 │ setosa │
│ 8 │ 5.0 │ 3.4 │ 1.5 │ 0.2 │ setosa │
│ 9 │ 4.4 │ 2.9 │ 1.4 │ 0.2 │ setosa │
│ 10 │ 4.9 │ 3.1 │ 1.5 │ 0.1 │ setosa │
Now let us plot a scatter plot. We will be using the variables namely
SepalLength and SepalWidth. For this, we need to set the geometry element
using Geom.point as follows −
julia> Gadfly.plot(iris, x = :SepalLength, y = :SepalWidth, Geom.point)
Similarly we can add some more geometries like geom.line to produce more
layers in the plot −
julia> Gadfly.plot(iris, x = :SepalLength, y = :SepalWidth, Geom.point,
Geom.line)
We can also set the color of keyword argument as follows −

julia> Gadfly.plot(iris, x = :SepalLength, y = :SepalWidth, color = :Species,
Geom.point)
Compose
Compose is a declarative vector graphics system. It is also written by Daniel
Jones as a part of the Gadfly system. In Compose, the graphics are defined
using a tree structure and the primitives can be classified as follows −
Context − It represents an internal node.
Form − It represents a leaf node which defines some geometry
such as a circle or line.
Property − It represents a leaf node that modifies how its
parent’s subtree is drawn. For example, fill color and line width.
Compose(x,y) − It returns a new tree rooted at x and with y
attached as child.
Example
The below example will draw a simple image −
julia> using Compose
julia> composition = compose(compose(context(), rectangle()),
fill("tomato"))
julia> draw(SVG("simple.svg", 6cm, 6cm), composition)
Now let us form more complex trees by grouping subtrees with brackets −
julia> composition = compose(context(),
(context(), circle(), fill("bisque")),
(context(), rectangle(), fill("tomato")))
julia> composition |> SVG("simple2.svg")
Graphics Engines
In this section, we shall discuss various graphic engines used in Julia.
PyPlot
PyPlot, arose from the previous development of the PyCall module, provides
a Julia interface to the Matplotlib plotting library from Python. It uses the
PyCall package to call Matplotlib directly from Julia. To work with PytPlot,
we need to do the following setup −
julia> using Pkg
julia> pkg"up; add PyPlot Conda"
julia> using Conda
julia> Conda.add("matplotlib")
Once you are done with this setup, you can simply import PyPlot by using
PyPlot command. It will let you make calling functions
in matplotlib.pyplot.
Example
This example, from PyPlot documentation, will create a sinusoidally
modulated sinusoid −
julia> using PyPlot
julia> x = range(0; stop=2*pi, length=500);
julia> y = sin.(3 * x + 4 * cos.(2 * x));
julia> plot(x, y, color="blue", linewidth=1.0, linestyle="--")
1-element Array{PyCall.PyObject,1}:
PyObject <matplotlib.lines.Line2D object at 0x00000000323405E0>
julia> title("A sinusoidally modulated sinusoid")
PyObject Text(0.5, 1.0, 'A sinusoidally modulated sinusoid')
The PyPlot package can also be used for 3d plotting and for this it can
import functions from Matplotlib’s mplot3d toolkit. We can create 3d plots
directly also by calling some corresponding methods such as bar3d,
plot_surface, plot3d, etc., of Axes3d.
For example, we can plot a random surface mesh as follows −
julia> surf(rand(20,30))
PyObject <mpl_toolkits.mplot3d.art3d.Poly3DCollection object at
0x00000000019BD550>
Gaston
Gaston is another useful package for plotting. This plotting package provides
an interface to gnuplot.
Some of the features of Gaston are as follows −
It can plot using graphical windows, and with mouse interaction,
it can keep multiple plots active at one time.
It can plot directly to the REPL.
It can also plot in Jupyter and Juno.
It supports popular 2-dimensional plots such as stem, step,
histograms, etc.
It also supports popular 3-dimensional plots such as surface,
contour, and heatmap.
It takes around five seconds to load package, plot, and save to
pdf.
Example
A simple 2-D plot with the help of Gaston is shown below −
julia> x = 0:0.01:1
0.0:0.01:1.0
julia> plot(x, sin.(2π*5*t))
Now, we can add another curve as follows −
julia> plot!(x, cos.(2π*5*t))
PyPlot can also be used to plot 3-d plots. Example is given below:
julia> a = b = -10:0.30:10
-10.0:0.3:9.8
julia> surf(a, b, (a,b)->sin.(sqrt.(a.*a+b.*b))./sqrt.(a.*a+b.*b),
title="Sombrero", plotstyle="pm3d")
PGF Plots
PGFPlots, unlike Gaston, is relatively a new package for plotting. This
plotting package uses the pgfplots LaTex routines to produce the plots. It
can easily integrate with IJulia, outputting SVG images to notebook. To
work with it, we need to install the following dependencies −
Pdf2svg, which is required by TikzPictures.
Pgfplots, which you can install using latex package manager.
GNUPlot, which you need to plot contours
Once you are done with these installations, you are ready to use PGFPlots.
In this example, we will be generating multiple curves on the same axis and
assign their legend entries in LaTex format −
julia> using PGFPlots
julia> R = Axis( [ Plots.Linear(x->sin(3x)*exp(-0.3x), (0,8),
legendentry = L"$\sin(3x)*exp(-0.3x)$"),
Plots.Linear(x->sqrt(x)/(1+x^2), (0,8),
legendentry = L"$\sqrt{2x}/(1+x^2)$") ]);
julia> save("Plot_LinearPGF.svg", R);

Networking
Sockets and Servers

To deal with streaming I/O objects such as pipes, TCP sockets, terminals,
etc., we need a rich interface which is provided by Julia. This Julia interface
is provided to the programmer in synchronous manner despite the fact that it
is presented asynchronously at system level.
The advantage is that the programmer does not need to think about the
underlying asynchronous operations. Before getting deep into this, we
should know the concept of well-known ports.
Well-known ports
The concept of well-known ports and networked services on them was
introduced in early 1980s by Berkeley development. It was first introduced
to Unix. The basic idea behind this was −
A particular network service should associate with a particular
port number.
And the network packet should be sent tagged with that port
number.
Some of the well-known ports are as follows −
Port 21-file transfer protocol
Port 22-SSH
Port 25-sendmail
Port 80-web servers to deliver HTTP content
Port 3306-used commonly by MySQL database
Port 28017-used commonly by MongoDB Server
Port 6379- Stores Redis key-value
Julia’s UDP and TCP sockets
The internet protocol (IP) specified following two types of sockets −
Unreliable
The concept of unreliable socket rests in the fact that some requests which if
not serviced, will be ignored, and retired. Example, requesting the network
time from NNTP server. All these kinds of sockets are connectionless and
operating via UDP (User Datagram Protocol).
Reliable
The concept of reliable sockets is opposite to unreliable sockets. They are
connection full and operate via TCP (Transmission Control Protocol).
Julia supports both these sockets (UDP and TCP) and the source code is
provided in socket.jl and streams.jl base modules.
Example
In the example given below, we will be creating a simple server involving
TCP sockets −
julia> using Sockets
julia> @async begin
server = listen(ip"127.0.0.1",2000)
while true
sock = accept(server)
println("This is TCP server example\n")
end
end
julia> connect(2000)
This is TCP server example
Named Pipes
Named pipes or UNIX domain sockets is a FIFO(First-in, First-out) stream
and an extension to the traditional pipe mechanism on Unix and OS X. It is
also available on Windows and has a specific pattern for the name prefix
(\\.\pipe\). It is a communication channel which uses a special file.
Example
We can also create a named pipe server as given below −
julia> using Sockets
julia> @async begin
server = listen("\\\\.\\pipe\\testsocket")
while true
println("This is a named pipe server example\n")
end
end
julia> connect(2000)
This is a named pipe server example
A TCP web service
The functionality of a web browser is different from that of an echo server
(which we developed earlier in this section). One important difference is that
the web server should be able to return different file formats (JPEG, PNG,
GIFs, TXT, etc.) and the browser should be able to distinguish between
them.
Example
The following example will return a random quote as plain text from a text
file −
julia> function web_server(sock::Integer)
foo = open("/Users/Leekha/Desktop/Hello.txt");
header = """HTTP/1.1 200 OK
Content-type: text/plain; charset=us-ascii
""" ;
wb = readlines(foo);
close(foo);
wn = length(wb);
@async begin
server = listen(sock)
while true
wi = rand(1:wn)
ws = chomp(wb[wi])
println(header*ws)
end
end
end
web_server (generic function with 1 method)
julia> web_server(8080)
Task (runnable) @0x0000000014bae570
julia> conn = connect(8080)
HTTP/1.1 200 OK
Content-type: text/plain; charset=us-ascii
Hello, This is Tutorialspoint
TCPSocket(Base.Libc.WindowsRawSocket(0x00000000000003f8) open, 0
bytes waiting)
The Julia Web Group
The web browsers are mainly built with the property to respond to the
request issued for a browser. Here we will discuss how we can interact with
the Web through HTTP requests (for getting as well as posting data to the
web).
First, we need to import the Requests.jl package as follows −
Pkg.add(“Requests”)
Next, import the necessary modules namely get and post as follows −
import Requests: get, post
Use GET request to request data from a specified web browser as follows −
get(“url of the website”)
If you want to request from a specified web page inside the website, use the
query parameter as follows −
get(“url of the website”; query = Dict(“title”=>”pagenumber/page name”))
We can also set the timeouts for the GET request as follows −
get(“url of the website”; timeout = 0.2)
We can use the below command to avoid getting your request repeatedly
redirected to different websites −
get(“url of the website”; max_redirects = 2)
Using the below command prevents the site from redirecting your GET
request −
get(“url of tcommand he website”; allow_redirects = false)
To send the post request, we have to use the below command −
post(“url of the website”)
Using the below command, we can send data to web browser through the
POST request −
post(“url of the website”, data = “Data to be sent”)
Let us see how we can send data such as session cookies to web browser
through the POST request −
post(“url of the website”, cookies = Dict(“sessionkey”=> “key”)
Files can also be sent as follows −
file = "book.jl"
post("url of the website"; files = [FileParam(file), "text/julia",
"file_name", "file_name.jl"])
WebSockets
We are familiar with the method called AJAX (Asynchronous JavaScript
and XML). The example for this method can be the process where we type
in the search box and the server returns a set of suggestions and they change
as the search term is refined. With this, it is clear that the overhead usage of
HTTP protocols is very high.
Web Sockets, which combine the parts of UDP and TCP, are the way to
overcome this problem. Hence, web sockets are message-based such as UDP
and reliable as TCP. It uses normal HTTP/HTTPS ports, i.e., port 80 and
port 443 respectively. They are ideal for vehicles for chat services. Julia
provides a package named websockets.jl.
Messaging
Julia supports the following messaging methods −
E-mail
Email is one of the oldest messaging methods. Email messaging can be done
in two ways −
Sending e-mails − It happens on well-known port 25. Some other
ports such as 465 and 587 can also be used for this purpose.
SMTP (Simple Mail Transport Protocol) that consists of
formulating a message the SMTP server can understand is used
for sending emails. To:, From:, and Subject:, all together with
the message should be deposited in the mail service’s outbound
queue.
Receiving e-mails − It is a bit different from sending emails. It
basically depends on POP (Post Office Protocol) or IMAP
(Internet Message Access Protocol).
Example
Following code can be used to send emails −
using SMTPClient
opt = SendOptions(
isSSL = true,
username = "g*****@gmail.com",
passwd = "yourgmailpassword")
body = IOBuffer(
"Date: Fri, 25 Sep 2020 19:44:35 +0100\r\n" *
"From: You <you@gmail.com>\r\n" *
"To: me@test.com\r\n" *
"Subject: Test_email\r\n" *
"\r\n" *
"Test Message\r\n")
url = "smtps://smtp.gmail.com:465"
rcpt = ["<me@gmail.com>", "<foo@gmail.com>"]
from = "<you@gmail.com>"
resp = send(url, rcpt, from, body, opt)
Twitter
Apart from E-mail, there are other systems that send SMS textual
information. One of them is Twitter. Julia provides a package
named Twitter.jl to work with Twitter API. To work with Twitter on Julia,
we need to authenticate. For authentication, we need to first create an
application on dev.twitter.com. After setting up the application, we will be
able to access our consumer_key, consumer_token, oauth_token, and
oauth_secret.
using Twitter
twitterauth("1234567nOtp...",
"1234sES96S...",
"45750-Hjas...",
"Uonhjlmkmj...")
If you want to say hello to all your Twitter followers, use the following code
−
post_status_update("Hello")
And if you want to search the tweets containing the hashtag say
#TutorialsPoint, the function call will be as follows −
my_tweets = get_search_tweets("#TutorialsPoint")
The Twitter API bydefault will return the 15 most recent tweets containing
the above searched hastag.
Suppose if you want to return the most recent 50 tweets, you can pass the
“count” as follows −
my_tweets_50 = get_search_tweets("#TutorialsPoint"; options = {"count" =>
"50"})
DataFrame method can be defined as follows −
df_tweets = DataFrame(my_tweets_50)
Cloud Services
Julia offers the following cloud services −
The AWS.jl Package

The AWS.jl package is a Julia interface for Amazon Web Services. It
replaces AWSCore.jl (provided low-level) and AWSSDK.jl (provided high-
level) packages. The AWS.jl package −
Includes automated code generation to ensure all new AWS
services are available.
Keeps the existing service up to date.
We can install this package with the following code −
julia> Pkg.add("AWS")
AWS.jl package can be used with both low-level and high-level API
requests. Following are the services supported −
EC2
S3
SQS
Auto Scaling
AWSEnv
The structure of AWSEnv is as follows −
type AWSEnv
aws_id::String # AWS Access Key id
aws_seckey::String # AWS Secret key for signing requests
aws_token::String # AWS Security Token for temporary credentials
region::String # region name
ep_scheme::String # URL scheme: http or https
ep_host::String # region endpoint (host)
ep_path::String # region endpoint (path)
sig_ver::Int # AWS signature version (2 or 4)
timeout::Float64 # request timeout in seconds, Default is 0.0
dry_run::Bool # If true, no actual request will be made
dbg::Bool # print request and raw response to screen
end
Constructors
Following are the constructors in AWS −
AWSEnv(; id=AWS_ID, key=AWS_SECKEY, token=AWS_TOKEN,
ec2_creds=false, scheme="https", region=AWS_REGION, ep="", sig_ver=4,
timeout=0.0, dr=false, dbg=false)
Here,
AWS_ID and AWS_SECKEY both are initialized from env.
AWS_TOKEN − It is by default an empty string.
ec2_creds − It should be set to true to automatically retrieve
temporary security credentials.
region − It should be set to one of the AWS region name strings.
ep − It can contain both a hostname and a pathname for an AWS
endpoint.
sig_ver − It is signature version and must be set to 2 or 4.
Binary Dependencies
Following must be installed before using AWS −
libz
libxm2
The Google Cloud
The GoogleCloud.jl is the module that wraps GCP (Google Clous Platform)
APIs with Julia.
Prerequisites
Following are some prerequisites for Google Cloud −
Create a Google account if you do not already have.
Need to sign in to the GCP console.
You need to create a new project. Click on the Project drop-
down menu at the top of the page.
You need to first get the credentials from your GCP credentials
page, that are associated with your project, as a JSON file.
Save this json file to your local computer.
Interacting with the API from Julia

First install the GoogleCloud,jl package as follows −
Pkg.add(“GoogleCloud”)
using GoogleCloud
Now we need to load the service account credentials obtained from Google
account −
creds = GoogleCredentials(expanduser("put here address of .json file"))
Create a session as follows −
session = GoogleSession(creds, ["devstorage.full_control"])
By using set_session, set the default session of an API −
set_session!(storage, session)
You can list all the buckets in your existing project as shown below −
bkts = storage(:Bucket, :list)
for item in bkts
display(item)
println()
end
Now let us create a new bucket named foo_bkt as follows −
storage(:Bucket, :insert; data=Dict(:name => "foo_bkt"))
for item in bkts
display(item)
println()
end
You can list all the objects that are in foo_bkt −
storage(:Object, :list, "foo_bkt")
You can delete the bucket as follows −
storage(:Bucket, :delete, "foo_bkt")
for item in bkts
display(item)
println()
end
Databases
Following are the four mechanisms for interfacing with a particular database
system −
First method of accessing a database is by using the set of
routines in an API (Application Program Interface). In this
method, the DBMS will be bundled as a set of query and
maintenance utilities. These utilities will communicate with the
running database through a shared library which further will be
exposed to the user as a set of routines in an API.
Second method is via an intermediate abstract layer. This abstract
layer will communicate with the database API via a driver. Some
example of such drivers are ODBC, JDBC, and Database
Interface (DBI).
Third approach is to use Python module for a specific database
system. PyCall package will be used to call routines in the Python
module. It will also handle the interchange of datatypes between
Python and Julia.
The fourth method is sending messages to the database. RESTful
is the most common messaging protocol.
Julia Database APIs
Julia provides several APIs to communicate with various database providers.
MySQL
MySQL.jl is the package to access MySQL from Julia programming
language.
Use the following code to install the master version of MySQL API −
Pkg.clone("https://github.com/JuliaComputing/MySQL.jl")
Example
To access MySQL API, we need to first connect to the MySQL server which
can be done with the help of following code −`
using MySQL
con = mysql_connect(HOST, USER, PASSWD, DBNAME)
To work with database, use the following code snippet to create a table −
command = """CREATE TABLE Employee
(
ID INT NOT NULL AUTO_INCREMENT,
Name VARCHAR(255),
Salary FLOAT,
JoinDate DATE,
LastLogin DATETIME,
LunchTime TIME,
PRIMARY KEY (ID)
);"""
response = mysql_query(con, command)
if (response == 0)
println("Create table succeeded.")
else
println("Create table failed.")
end
We can use the following command to obtain the SELECT query result as
dataframe −
command = """SELECT * FROM Employee;"""
dframe = execute_query(con, command)
Julia Array −
retarr = mysql_execute_query(con, command, opformat=MYSQL_ARRAY)
Julia Array with each row as a tuple −
retarr = mysql_execute_query(con, command,
opformat=MYSQL_TUPLES)
We can execute a multi query as follows −
command = """INSERT INTO Employee (Name) VALUES ('');
UPDATE Employee SET LunchTime = '15:00:00' WHERE
LENGTH(Name) > 5;"""
data = mysql_execute_query(con, command)
We can get dataframes by using prepared statements as follows −
stmt = mysql_stmt_init(con)
if (stmt == C_NULL)
error("Error in initialization of statement.")
end
response = mysql_stmt_prepare(stmt, command)
mysql_display_error(con, response != 0,
"Error occured while preparing statement for query
\"$command\"")
dframe = mysql_stmt_result_to_dataframe(stmt)
mysql_stmt_close(stmt)
Use the following command to close the connection −
mysql_disconnect(con)
JDBC
JDBC.jl is Julia interface to Java database drivers. The package JDBC.jl
enables us the use of Java JDBC drivers to access databases from within
Julia programming language.
To start working with it, we need to first add the database driver jar file to
the classpath and then initialize the JVM as follows −
using JDBC
JavaCall.addClassPath("path of .jar file") # add the path of your .jar file
JDBC.init()
Example
The JDBC API in Julia is similar to Java JDBC driver. To connect with a
database, we need to follow similar steps as shown below −
conn = DriverManager.getConnection("jdbc:gl:test/juliatest")
stmt = createStatement(conn)
rs = executeQuery(stmt, "select * from mytable")
for r in rs
println(getInt(r, 1), getString(r,"NAME"))
end
If you want to get each row as a Julia tuple, use JDBCRowIterator to iterate
over the result set. Note that if the values are declared to be nullable in the
database, they will be of nullable in tuples also.
for r in JDBCRowIterator(rs)
println(r)
end
Updating the table

Use PrepareStatement to do insert and update. It has setter functions defined
for different types corresponding to the getter functions −
ppstmt = prepareStatement(conn, "insert into mytable values (?, ?)")
setInt(ppstmt, 1,10)
setString(ppstmt, 2,"TEN")
executeUpdate(ppstmt)
Running stored procedures

Use CallableStatement to run the stored procedure −
cstmt = JDBC.prepareCall(conn, "CALL
SYSCS_UTIL.SYSCS_SET_DATABASE_PROPERTY(?, ?)")
setString(cstmt, 1, "gl.locks.deadlockTimeout")
setString(cstmt, 2, "10")
execute(cstmt)
Metadata
In order to get an array of (column_name, column_type) tuples, we need to
Pass the JResultSet object from executeQuery to getTableMetaData as
follows −
conn = DriverManager.getConnection("jdbc:gl:test/juliatest")
stmt = createStatement(conn)
rs = executeQuery(stmt, "select * from mytable")
metadata = getTableMetaData(rs)
Use the following command to close the connection −
close(conn)
Executing a query
For executing a query, we need a cursor first. Once obtained a cursor you
can run execute! command on the cursor as follows −
csr = cursor(conn)
execute!(csr, "insert into ptable (pvalue) values (3.14);")
execute!(csr, "select * from gltable;")
Iterating over the rows

We need to call rows on the cursor to iterate over the rows −
rs = rows(csr)
for row in rs
end
Use the following command to close the cursor call −
close(csr)
ODBC
ODBC.jl is a package which provides us a Julia ODBC API interface. It is
implemented by various ODBC driver managers. We can install it as follows
−
julia> Pkg.add(“ODBC”)
Installing ODBC Driver

Use the command below to install an ODBC driver −
ODBC.adddriver("name of driver", "full, absolute path to driver shared
library"; kw...)
We need to pass −
The name of the driver
The full and absolute path to the driver shared library
And any additional keyword arguments which will be included as
KEY=VALUE pairs in the .ini config files.
Enabling Connections
After installing the drivers, we can do the following for enabling connections
−
Setup a DSN, via ODBC.adddsn("dsn name", "driver name";
kw...)
Connecting directly by using a full connection string like
ODBC.Connection(connection_string)
Executing Queries
Following are two paths to execute queries −
DBInterface.execute(conn, sql, params) − It will directly
execute a SQL query and after that will return a Cursor for any
resultset.
stmt = DBInterface.prepare(conn, sql);
DBInterface.execute(stmt, params) − It will first prepare a SQL
statement and then execute. The execution can be done perhaps
multiple times with different parameters.
SQLite
SQLlite is a fast, flexible delimited file reader and writer for Julia
programming language. This package is registered in METADATA.jl hence
can be installed by using the following command −
julia> Pkg.add("SQLite")
We will discuss two important and useful functions used in SQLite along
with the example −
SQLite.DB(file::AbstractString) − This function requires the file string
argument as the name of a pre-defined SQLite database to be opened. If the
file does not exit, it will create a database.
Example
julia> using SQLite
julia> db = SQLite.DB("Chinook_Sqlite.sqlite")
Here we are using a sample database ‘Chinook’ available for SQLite, SQL
Server, MySQL, etc.
SQLite.query(db::SQLite.DB, sql::String, values=[]) − This function
returns the result, if any, after executing the prepared sql statement in the
context of db.
Example
julia> SQLite.query(db, "SELECT * FROM Genre WHERE regexp('e[trs]',
Name)")
6x2 ResultSet
| Row | "GenreId" | "Name" |
|-----|-----------|----------------------|
| 1 | 3 | "Metal" |
| 2 | 4 | "Alternative & Punk" |
| 3| 6 | "Blues" |
| 4| 13 | "Heavy Metal" |
| 5| 23 | "Alternative" |
| 6| 25 | "Opera" |
PostgreSQL
PostgreSQL.jl is the PostgreSQL DBI driver. It is an interface to
PostgreSQL from Julia programming language. It obeys the DBI.jl protocol
for working and uses the C PostgreeSQL API (libpq).
Let’s understand its usage with the help of following code −
using DBI
using PostgreSQL
conn = connect(Postgres, "localhost", "username", "password", "dbname",
5432)
stmt = prepare(conn, "SELECT 1::bigint, 2.0::double precision,
'foo'::character varying, " *
"'foo'::character(10);")
result = execute(stmt)
for row in result
end
finish(stmt)
disconnect(conn)
To use PostgreSQL we need to fulfill the following binary requirements −
DBI.jl
DataFrames.jl >= v0.5.7
DataArrays.jl >= v0.1.2
libpq shared library (comes with a standard PostgreSQL client
installation)
julia 0.3 or higher
Hive
Hive.jl is a client for distributed SQL engine. It provides a HiveServer2, for
example: Hive, Spark, SQL, Impala.
Connection
To connect to the server, we need to create an instance of the HiveSession as
follows −
session = HiveSession()
It can also be connected by specifying the hostname and the port number as
follows −
session = HiveSession(“localhost”,10000)
The default implementation as above will authenticates with the same user-
id as that of the shell. We can override it as follows −
session = HiveSession("localhost", 10000, HiveAuthSASLPlain("uid",
"pwd", "zid"))
Executing the queries

We can execute DML, DDL, SET, etc., statements as we can see in the
example below −
crs = execute(session, "select * from mytable where formid < 1001";
async=true, config=Dict())
while !isready(crs)
println("waiting...")
sleep(10)
end
crs = result(crs)
Other Packages
DBAPI is a new database interface proposal, inspired by Python’s DB API
2.0, that defies an abstract interface for database drivers in Julia. This
module contains the following −
Abstract types
Abstract required functions which throw
a NotImplementedError by default
Abstract optional functions which throw
a NotSupportedError by default
To use this API, the database drivers must import this module, subtype its
types, and create methods for its functions.
DBPrf is a Julia database which is maintained by JuliaDB. You see its usage
below −
The user can provide input in two ways −
Command-Line mode
$ julia DBPerf.jl <Database_Driver_1.jl> <Database_Driver_2.jl> .......
<Database_Driver_N.jl> <DBMS>
Here, Database_Driver.jl can be of the following types −
ODBC.jl
JDBC.jl
PostgreSQL.jl
MySQL.jl
Mongo.jl
SQLite.jl
DBMS filed is applicable only if we are using JDBC.jl.
The database can be either Oracle or MySQL.
Example
DBPerf.jl ODBC.jl JDBC.jl MySql
Executing from Julia Prompt

julia> include("DBPerf.jl")
julia> DBPerf(<Database_Driver_1.jl>, <Database_Driver_2.jl>, .......
<Database_Driver_N.jl>, <DBMS>)
Example
DBPerf(“ODBC.jl”, “JDBC.jl”, “MySql”)

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What is Julia Programming Language?

Linux and FreeBSD installation

Building Julia from source

Stylistic Conventions and Allowed Variable Names

Single Line Comments

ellipsis(…) or splat operator

Remove the last element

Removing the first element

Removing element at given position

Keys and values in separate tuples

Keys and values in a single tuple

Combining two named tuples

Type Signed? Number Smallest Largest

Int8 ✓ 8 -2^7 2^7 – 1

Int16 ✓ 16 -2^15 2^15 – 1

Int32 ✓ 32 -2^31 2^31 – 1

Int64 ✓ 64 -2^63 2^63 – 1

Int128 ✓ 128 -2^127 2^127 –

UInt128 128 0 2^128 –

Bool N/A 8 false (0) true (1)

Float16 Float32 Float64 Name Description

Inf16 Inf32 Inf positive It is the value

-Inf16 -Inf32 -Inf negative It is the value

NaN16 NaN32 NaN not a It is a value

We can also apply typemin and typemax functions as follows −

Constructing rational numbers

Converting to floating-point numbers

Performing Standard arithmetic operations

julia> (2 + 3im)-(1 - 2im)

Combining different operands

Functions to manipulate complex values

julia> abs(4+7im) # absolute value of complex number

Expression Name Description

+x unary It is the identity operation.

-x unary It maps values to their

x+y binary It performs addition.

x-y binary It performs subtraction.

x*y times It performs multiplication.

x/y divide It performs division.

x\y inverse It is equivalent to y / x.

x^y power It raises x to the yth power.

x%y remainder It is equivalent to rem(x,y).

!x negation It is negation on bool types

The promotion system of Julia makes these arithmetic operations work

Sl.No Expression Name Name

2 x&y bitwise and

4 x⊻y bitwise xor (exclusive or)

5 x >>> y logical shift right

6 x >> y arithmetic shift right

7 x << y logical/arithmetic shift

Sl.No Operator Name

3 < less than

4 <=, ≤ less than or equal to

5 > greater than

6 >=, ≥ greater than or equal to

julia> 100 > 500

Category Operators Associativity

Syntax followed by :: Left