Topic 5: Writing Skills

• The writing process and stages in writing

• Paragraph and essay structure
• Plagiarism and ways to avoid it
• Forms of writings – letters, CVs, memos, reports
• Referencing styles

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PURPOSE, CONTENT AND READER’S EXPECTATIONS

Writer’s purpose Content

•To describe •Theories
•To analyze •Concepts
•To evaluate •Facts
•To define •Opinions, etc
•To clarify
•To discuss
Reader’s
expectations
•Well focused on the
topic
•Based on wide and
critical reading
•A reasonable
argument
•Competently
presented

Clanchy, J. & Ballard, B. (1992: 61)

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WHAT IS WRITING SKILLS?
• Writing skills: Is a form of communication that
allows a person to put his/her feeling and ideas,
findings etc. on a paper. It is a technical skill one has
to learn.
• Types of writings: essays, research proposals,
newspaper, reports, theses/dissertations, resume
(cv), bibliographies, letters, memos, minutes for
meetings etc.

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Why do we write?

• We can access accumulated and written knowledge

from books, journals, articles, dissertations, in order
to communicate across time and space.
• We preserve knowledge in books, reports, journals,
articles, letters, memos, thesis through writing.
• We enhance understanding of lectures as it
increases concentration.
• In academic life, writing is the main form of
communication between students and lecturers.

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Why do we write?

• Writing is a means through which students’

assessment is done in tests and exams, term
papers, reports, take home essays, writing thesis
and dissertations, etc
• Writing help to organise knowledge and belief into
convincing argument

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STAGES OF THE WRITING PROCESS

1. Planning/Pre-writing
2. Drafting
3. Revising
4. Editing
5. Publishing
Enough time should be given
to complete each phase

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STAGES OF THE WRITING PROCESS
1. Pre-writing/Planning
Planning (process)
Topic, information, organisation, layout
Think of purpose, audience, topic (main idea)
Don’t try to exhaust all ideas in one sitting
Brainstorm –tree diagrams, spider diagrams
Put notes covering same aspects together – scratch
outline
Find for gaps in your outline

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STAGES OF THE WRITING PROCESS
2. Drafting
Start writing the whole document
A trial stage – discover gaps & more ideas
Ignore mechanical errors
Ignore ‘the critic on your shoulder’
Speed differs ‘sprinter, plodder, bleeder’
(Fast, slow, really slow)
Adopt a ‘writer-based’ prose

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Drafting - Writing an Introduction
 This sets the tone of what is to come and attracts the
reader’s attention.
 The first sentences can take ages to come yet. It gives the
reader the first impression.
 It performs the following functions:
 Gives the reader an indication of what subject matter will
be.
 Persuades the reader that reading this text is worthwhile
and enjoyable
 It establishes a relationship between the reader and the
writer
 It may identify the nature and occasion of the writing.

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Drafting - Writing a body and Conclusion
 After you have set the tone of the text then follows
the main body
 Here you elaborate the main points of the text

 A conclusion is also important because it aims at

sending away the reader with a nice taste in their
mouths rather than a feeling of being dissatisfied.
 It tells the reader that the writer is closing the
writing.
 You can conclude by summing up the main points
without repeating them and highlighting a point of
action that is, making a suggestion.
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STAGES OF THE WRITING PROCESS
3. Revision/Redrafting
Look at the draft as one unit (achieved the purpose?,
satisfied your audience?, discussed the topic
adequately?
From ‘writer-based’ to ‘reader-based’
Several times – correct fragments, run-on sentences,
cross out unnecessary detail
Work on a hard copy sometimes
The refinement process will entail cutting, adding and
reordering, remove, replace, etc.
Referred to as global/major revisions

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STAGES OF THE WRITING PROCESS
4. Editing
Means going over your writing to make sure
that there is no grammatical errors in your
draft.
Correct commas, apostrophes, spelling errors,
capitalisation, word choice etc.
The ‘critic on your shoulder’ is now essential
Be careful about personal errors
Give your work to a friend to read or
Send it to a professional editor
Set the format, layout and pagination

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STAGES OF THE WRITING PROCESS
5. Publishing
• Select the appropriate medium to publish your
manuscript
• Look for the credible publisher
• Consider the cost
• Helps you to become a published author
• Reach the target audience

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WRITER’S BLOCKS
Writer’s Block
Writing apprehension (anxiety) = natural but ≠
writer’s block
WB = you are totally stuck

Causes
Procrastination
We tend to take beginnings too seriously – self
inhibition
Wanting to be impressive without ability
Running out of stamina – overworking
Poor planning
Lack of determination
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WRITER’S BLOCKS
Writer’s Block (remedy)
Beginnings are hard – even for professionals
Write something – writing leads to writing
Don’t start from the beginning – break your
task and start from the easiest or most
interesting part
Lower your standards – don’t be complacent!
Have a good plan of activities
Make enough preparations i.e. resources

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WRITER’S BLOCKS
Talk to somebody else
If there is a genuine gap – go back to
sources
Give yourself a break – look for alternative
activity
Promise yourself a reward or a punishment
Are energisers/stimulants useful?

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 THE 7Cs OF EFFECTIVE WRITING

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C1 = Clarity (be specific not vague)

•If you are not clear of your purpose, your audience

won’t be sure either
•People don’t have to read b/n the lines and make
assumptions
•Prefer the familiar, be simple (avoid unnecessary
jargon); use concrete rather than abstract, support
with data
•Avoid circumlocution; avoid using too many words
that are unnecessary
•Don’t ignore mechanics and punctuation etc.

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C2 = Completeness
• Reticence!
• Sufficient information –
remember the audience
(names, dates, times,
locations, etc.
• What reactions are expected
from audience?

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C3 = Consistency (disciplined layout)
• Style – capitalisation, number use, abbreviations,
punctuation etc. - many “correct” uses/principles.
• Coherent – logical flow and smooth transition
• Use of margins, typeface/size (same font treatment),
spacing
• Visuals & illustrations

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C4 = Conciseness
• Concreteness
• Omit unnecessary details, ideas or words – that do not
add value (stick to the point and keep it brief)
• Avoid redundancy and repetitiveness (avoid adjectives
and fillers)

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 C5 = Correctness
• In content and language (error free)
• Techn terms fit audience’ level of edn/knwdg?
• Correct use of grammar, and punctuation
• Accuracy of figures, facts and words
• Acceptable level of language

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C6 = Courtesy/Consideration
• Be respectful to receiver
• Be positive and tactful – “you” attitude, communicate
negative news without being negative
• Be polite, judicious, reflective/sensitive and
enthusiastic
• Avoid anger or resentment/bitterness
• Use bias-free language (labeling & stigmatising) –
stereotypes, sex, race/ethnicity, disability, education,
belief, etc
• Mind your attitude

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C7 = Coherence
• Does one part lead to the next (logic of presentation
or argument)
• Use of cohesive devices, transition markers, signposts

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ACADEMIC WRITING

• Stylistic Features of Academic Writing

• In academic writing, we tend to use passive voice
especially in experimental report. “Six bandits were
arrested yesterday”
• No use of “contracted forms”. For example instead
of writing “don’t” we write do not, instead of
“can’t” we write “cannot,” etc.
• Avoid use of personal forms. To do this, we often
use passive, e.g. “I examined three cases” becomes
“Three cases were examined”
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ACADEMIC WRITING
• In academic writing, we rarely use abbreviations.
Abbreviations are for use in notes. The only
abbreviations which are found fairly often are “e.g.”
and “etc”
• No repetition of ideas or words is entertained
(circumlocution).
• Sentences are arranged chronologically and logically
using transitional (cohesive) markers e.g. firstly,
secondly etc.
• The statement is usually supported by examples
(evidences) followed by conclusion

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QUALITIES OF A PARAGRAPH
Qualities of good paragraph
Topic sentence
Thesis statement
Completeness
Unity
Coherence
Supporting sentences
Concluding sentences

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 PARAGRAPH
Paragraph: A paragraph is a series of sentences that
are organized and coherent, and are all related to a
single topic.
• It’s a group of sentences that tells about one
subject or area.
• Each sentence in a paragraph must give
information about the topic.

Topic sentence: is the controlling idea in a

paragraph. This sentence introduces an overall idea
that is discussed in the paragraph.

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A para cont.

i) A thesis statement: Focuses your ideas into one or

two sentences. It should present the topic of your paper
and also make a comment about your position in relation
to the topic.
ii) Completeness: This means that a paragraph should
achieve what it sets out to do; one idea should be dealt
with complete thoughts.
iii) Unity: Everything should belong together; a paragraph
has unity if it sticks together as one subject.

 Internal unity is when the details in the paragraph

supports the topic sentence.
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A para cont.

 External unity is when information in one

paragraph links to other paragraphs.
iii) Coherence: This means that the content within
the paragraph should connect together. One
should arrange and connect sentences so that
they follow one another in a natural and logical
order.

v) Supporting sentences: are those sentences

which gives details to support the topic
sentences.

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How to achieve coherence in a paragraph
• Use of transitions or linking words
• These are words which help your paragraphs flow
together and link the ideas so that they relate to
one another.

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LIST OF SENTENCE CONNNECTORS
LOGICAL ORDER OF CONTRAST RESULT COMPARISO REASON
ORDER IMPORTANC N
E
Firstly, Most/more However As a result Similarly The cause of
secondly, importantly
thirdly
Next, last, Most On the As a Likewise The reason
finally significant other hand consequenc for
e
In addition Above all On the Therefore Also
contrary
Furthermor Primarily By (in) Thus
e comparison

Also Essential/es In contrast Consequentl

sentially y

At present Hence
/presently
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COMMON SUBORDINATORS
COMPARIS CAUSE/EFF TIME POSSIBILTY PLACE AND
ON AND ECT MANNER
CONTRAST
Although Since After If Wherever

Though So that When As if Where

Even because Until Whether How

though
While Whenever Unless

Whereas before

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Sequence Result Emphasis Addition Reason Example Contrast Comparison

First/firstly, So Undoubtedl and For For example However Similarly

second etc. y

Next, last, As a result Indeed In addition Because For instance Nevertheles Likewise
finally s

In addition, As a Obviously Furthermore Since That is (i.e.) Nonetheless Also

moreover consequenc
e (of)

Furthermore Therefore Generally Also As Such as Still Like

/further

Another Thus Admittedly Too Because of Including Although/ev Just as

en though

Also Consequentl In fact As well as Due to (the Namely Though Just like
y fact that)

In Hence Particularly But Similar to

conclusion

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Sequence Result Emphasis Addition Reason Example Contrast Compariso
n
to summarise due to especially In contrast, in Same as
comparison

clearly while Compare/comp

ared to/with

importantly whereas Not only …but

also

On the other
hand

On the contrary

yet

Despite/in spite
of

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 Essay Writing

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TYPES OF ESSAYS – WRITER’S GOAL

1. Expository
2. Narrative
3. Persuasive
4. Descriptive

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Narrative essay

• It is an essay that tells a story of the writer or

other’s story.

• It is usually found in the feature writing sections

of newspaper or magazine.
• Stories about real life experience
• Use of ‘I’ engaged the reader and feels part of
the story
• Builds towards conclusion and personal
statement

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Descriptive essay

 Illustrates by using sensory words in order to

bring to the reader’s imagination
Related to narrative but descriptive paint a picture
with words
E.g. description of a person, place, object or
memory of special significance
Communicates a deeper meaning
Writers show using colourful words and sensory
expressions to appeal to reader’s emotions.

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Persuasive essay

• It is an essay that convinces the reader to think in

a certain way.
• Convinces the reader to accept writer’s
viewpoint or suggestions
• Sound reasoning using data, examples, facts and
logic
• All sides of the argument need to be
communicated clearly without manipulation

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Expository essay

It’s an informative writing

Presents a balanced analysis of a topic
It is an essay that explains something so that
reader can understand.
Uses facts, statistics and examples
Types of expository essays
 Comparison and contrast
 Cause and effect
 Process or the ‘how to’ essay

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General Requirements of an Essay
• Choice of Subjects
• Information gathering
• Reading sources
• Establish thesis statement and
• Scope of the topic

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 Essay Structure

Title of The Essay

Opening Remarks
Introduction Thesis Statement

Topic Sentence 1 Topic Sentence 2 Topic Sentence 3

Body Specific Evidence Specific Evidence Specific Evidence

Conclusion Summary(Optional)
General Closing
Or both
Remarks

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 Essay Structure

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Elements of an Essay
•Audience - It refers to whom the essay is
intended for.
•Purpose - It refers to the intention or goal
in writing the essay.
•Subject - It is the topic discussed in the
essay.
•Point of view - It is how the ideas are
presented to the reader

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Elements of an essay cont
 Theme- It refers to the lesson or
message of the essay.
 Mood- It refers to the feeling which the
writer would like the reader to
experience or get from the written
work.
 Tone- It is the attitude of the writer
towards his/her subject
 Style- This is the special way in which
the ideas of the essay are developed.

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 Parts of an Essay

 Introductory Paragraph
 It should start with several sentences that attract
the reader’s interest.
 It should advance the central idea or thesis
statement that will be developed in the Essay.
 It can be started from the very general then went for
specific topic.

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The Functions of a Thesis Statement

To reflect a
To announce the
judgement about the
topic to the reader
topic

To provide the
reader with a
blueprint of what is
to come in the paper
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Understanding Thesis Statement

• Thesis statement is a central or main idea in an

essay which is advanced from the beginning to the
end of the essay.
• A good Thesis Statement does two things:
• It tells readers about an Essay topic.
• It presents the writers attitude, opinion, idea, or point
about the topic.

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Body: Supporting Paragraphs

• Most of the essays have three supporting

Paragraphs. This depends on the length of the
essay.

• Each of Supporting Paragraphs should begin with

the Topic Sentence that states the point to be
detailed in that paragraph.

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Concluding Paragraph

• It summarizes the Essay by briefly restating the

Thesis and the main Supporting Paragraphs.

• Along with that, the writer often presents a

Concluding Thought about the Subject of the essay.

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Interpreting Essay Questions
• Before attempting an essay question, you should
note the following.

• Instruction words: these are words which give

direction or instruction about the question e.g
discuss, analyse, evaluate, review, define, mention

• Special conditions – these are words which limit

the scope of the question in terms of time, place,
content, and form.
• E.g. With examples, in Tanzania,
• Underline the instruction word(s) and bracket the
special condition(s).

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Answering Essay Questions
 Correctly interpret the essay question or topic,
and answer it fully.
 Develop a well thought thesis statement.
 Put forward a well thought argument and line
of reasoning, rather than merely reproducing
information from source material.
 Treats the topic in sufficient depth, with evidence
of thorough research or further reading.

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Answering Essay Questions
 Demonstrates understanding of key principles,
theories, and concepts, and build these into the
discussion.

 Maintain focus, keep relevant information to the

question. Ask yourself, is it cohesive, i.e., links
together as a whole, complete, and logically
structured.

 Express ideas clearly: is it free of clumsy or

awkward phrasing, and free from errors in
spelling, grammar, and vocabulary.

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Answering Essay Questions

 Provide reference details of sources in the

required referencing style.

 Keep your essay to the word limit, without being

substantially under or over the limit.

 Demonstrates interest in, and enthusiasm for the

topic.

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 Plagiarism
What is it?
Forms of plagiarism
How to avoid it?

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What is Plagiarism?

• Presenting another’s ideas

as your own
or
• Using another’s exact words
without proper citation

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Types of plagiarism -
1. Plagiarism of Words
• The use of another’s exact words without
citing the author

• Incorrect
• Plagiarism is the reproduction of someone else’s
words, ideas or findings and presenting them as
one’s own without proper acknowledgement.
• Correct
• Plagiarism is the “reproduction of someone
else’s words, ideas or findings and presenting
them as one’s own without proper
acknowledgement” (Undergraduate Course
Handbook: 2008, p.24)
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Types of plagiarism

2. Plagiarism of Structure

• Paraphrasing another’s words by changing

sentence construction or word choice
without citation

• Paraphrasing while maintaining original

sentence construction without
acknowledging the source

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Types of plagiarism
3. Plagiarism of Ideas

Presenting another’s ideas as your own

without giving the person credit

Submitting a paper without citing or

incorrectly citing another’s ideas

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Types of plagiarism
4. Plagiarism of
Authorship

Turning in a
replication of
another’s work

Submitting a paper
that you got off the
internet or from a
friend and presenting
it as your own
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 Types of plagiarism
5. Plagiarism of Self
• The use of previous
work for a separate
assignment

• Although these were

your original words
and thoughts,
receiving credit for a
previous assignment is
considered cheating

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 The consequences of Plagiarism

• Although plagiarism can be intentional or

unintentional, both have consequences.
i. Receiving zero on the assignment
ii. Failing the course
iii. Suspension
iv. Expulsion
v. Nullification of degree and certificates

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 Avoid Plagiarism: Be authentic

• Give credit to researchers while making your

own contribution
• Develop a topic based on previously written
material but write something new and original

• Rely on opinions of experts on a topic but

improve upon those opinions

• Follow a standard documentation method such

as MLA or APA format etc.
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