LESSON 6: METHODOLOGY BUSIRES

FIRST SEMESTER | ACADEMIC YEAR 2024 - 2025| PROF. WILBERT C. VENZON, LPT, MBA.

WHAT IS A RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 2. It should explain the research method and technique to
● Research methodology is a detailed outline of how an be used for the collection and analysis of data.
investigation will take place. 3. It must explain the approach to be implemented in the
● It will typically include how data is to be collected, what processing and analysis of data.
instruments will be employed, how the instruments will
be used, and the intended means for analyzing data PARTS OF A RESEARCH DESIGN
collected. 1. Purpose/Objectives: Clearly state the research
objectives, which can be:
WHAT IS INCLUDED IN THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 1.1 Exploratory Research: To explore new topics or
1. Research Design issues with limited prior research.
2. Sampling Plan
3. Research Instrument 1.2 Descriptive Research: To describe concepts and
4. Statistical Treatment Of Data variables related to the topic.

1.3 Explanatory Research: To explain causes and

RESEARCH DESIGN
reasons behind problems or behaviors.
● refers to the action plan and research procedures
developed by the researcher in order to successfully
2. Nature of the Study: Identify whether the study is causal
answer the research problem.
(understanding causes) or correlational (examining
relationships between variables).
FACTORS TO CONSIDER WHEN CHOOSING A RESEARCH
DESIGN
3. Researcher Involvement: Discuss the extent of the
1. Research Questions and Objectives
researcher’s interference with the variables, including
● What is the research problem?
any adjustments made during the study.
● What is the purpose of the study?
● What are the objectives of the research?
4. Setting: Explain whether the research will take place in a
2. Readers
natural or contrived setting, especially in causal studies
● Who are the intended readers of the study? where the environment may be controlled.
● Who are the beneficiaries of the study?
3. Geographical Location and Distribution of the 5. Unit of Analysis: Specify the population or subjects to be
Population Under Study observed, which can range from individuals to groups or
● Where is the geographical focus of the study? organizations.
● Where is the study to be undertaken?
● Who are the people or groups of people under 6. Time Dimension: Define the time frame of the study,
study? indicating if it will be cross-sectional (one-time snapshot)
4. Personal Experiences, Time, and Financial Resources or longitudinal (multiple time points) with types
● How do factors like personal experiences, time, and including time series, panel, and cohort studies.
financial resources affect the research process and
outcome? 7. Data Collection Method: Clearly outline the
5. The Methodology (qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methodology to be used, whether quantitative or
methods) qualitative.
● Is the research qualitative or quantitative?
● What is the most appropriate qualitative or 8. Sampling Method: Explain the sampling technique that
quantitative research method that will be used in will be employed in the research.
the research? Why do you think so?
TYPES OF RESEARCH DESIGN

ELEMENTS OF A RESEARCH DESIGN 1. Quantitative Research Design – the process of

collecting and analyzing numerical data. Which focuses
1. A good research design must have a well-defined and
on numbers, statistics, and relationships between
clearly stated research problem.
variables.

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2. Qualitative Research Design – research design is TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGN

determined by the form or kinds of data, the ways of 1. NARRATIVE RESEARCH
collecting and organizing data, and the procedures for ● studies a single person or several individuals,
analyzing data. gathers data through the collection of stories or
anecdotes, reports the person’s or individual’s
TYPES OF QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH DESIGNS experiences, and discusses the meaning of those
1. EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN – bases its research experiences.
method on a scientific activity called “experiment,” in ● Narrative research comes in several forms, such as:
which a test or examination of a thing under a a. Autobiography – the narrative centers on the
manipulated or controlled environment is done to researcher who is the subject of the study.
determine its validity or truthfulness. b. Biography – a written account of a person’s
● True Experimental Design – It is a biased free life, usually an important personality, often
selection that ensures objectivity of results. The best chronicling that person’s contributions to
way to examine causal relationships. society.
● Quasi-Experimental Design – A research with the c. Life History – provides a more detailed account
capacity to yield findings that are seemingly or more of the subject’s life. As a narrative approach,
or less true. This is more prone to bias rather than life history has its roots in anthropology and
the true experimental design. sociology and chronicles the subject’s history
a. Matched Comparison Group Design – A set of from childhood to adolescence to adulthood,
participants that shows close similarities with taking into account the historical (social,
the experimental treatment group based on political, and economic) contexts in which the
one or more important variables. subject grew up.
b. Time-Series Quasi-Experimental Design – This d. Personal Experience – zeroes in on episodic
is where we compare the pattern of change experiences, whether single or multiple, found
over time to see the connection between the in private situations or shared within a
pre-test and post-test based on the treatment. community.
c. Counterbalanced Quasi-Experimental Design 2. PHENOMENOLOGY
– Control is applied to one group to examine ● describes the “subjective reality” of an event, as
the effects of all treatment and conditions to perceived by the study of a population. The term
control variables. “phenomenology” literally means the study of a
d. Single-Subject Quasi-Experimental Design – A phenomenon (pl. phenomena). A phenomenon is
design that can be applied when a number of any situation, event, concept, or fact that is
individuals are considered as a one group. observed but is unusual or difficult to explain.
● to examine and describe human experiences
2. NON-EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGN – This is where through data collected from several individuals who
the researcher cannot control, manipulate the variables undergo the same phenomenon. The goal,
or the subjects. This relies on interpretation, observation therefore, of any phenomenological study is to
or interactions to come to a conclusion. describe the “universal essence” of experiences
a. Descriptive – Portrays an image or a picture of an shared by several people for the rest to understand.
individual or a group. ● For the researchers to avoid biases, they need to
b. Comparative – States the differences and similarities “bracket.”
(e.g. people, things, objects, etc). ○ Bracketing – the process where you need to
c. Correlative – Shows the extent and direction of set aside your own feelings and beliefs about
variable relationships, that is, whether a negative or the phenomenon to produce a balanced and
positive relationship exists between or among them. free observation, analysis, and interpretation.
d. Survey – Describes the attitudes, preferences, views, 3. GROUNDED THEORY
feelings, opinions, and other behavioral patterns of a ● one of the most common but complex types of
big number of people for arriving at a certain qualitative research mostly applied in the field of
conclusion about societal concerns and issues. social sciences.
e. Ex Post Facto – Has the purpose of deriving data ● kind of qualitative research that aims to discover a
from things that are by nature taking place, so as to theory that is grounded in data. It is used when little
obtain explanations about past events. is known about the topic and intends to explore
what is “out there.”

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● This type of research “discovers” a theory from 3. Honesty and Accuracy

existing events or processes that do not have a 4. Responsiveness
predetermined theory. 5. Diversity
● Steps in data gathering for this research include a 6. Reliability
series of coding called open coding, axial coding,
and selective coding. CRITERIA FOR CHOOSING RESPONDENTS
○ Open Coding – From the collected data, 1. KNOWLEDGEABLE PARTICIPANTS – ensure that
researchers need to define, name, or describe respondents have a sufficient understanding of the
basic themes; a process where researchers subject or case being studied
break down sentences and paragraphs to 2. AVAILABILITY WITHIN THE SET TIMEFRAME –
answer questions like “What is this about?” or respondents must be able to provide feedback within the
“What is being referenced here?” given timeframe
○ Axial Coding – researchers find connections or
relationships to the categories. Here, it is CHARACTERISTICS OF RESPONDENTS
noteworthy to find causal conditions, action
● Respondents are selected based on specific criteria
strategies, and consequences.
relevant to the study
○ Selective Coding – used to synthesize and
● Their characteristics, such as demographics (e.g., age,
choose a core category and relate all other
gender, education level), occupation, or behavioral traits,
○ categories to that category to form a unifying
help define the scope of the study.
and emergent theory. The theory created is
● These characteristics must align with the research
also self-correcting, as the data are gathered
objectives to ensure that the findings accurately
and analyzed, adjustments are made to allow
represent the intended population.
for interpretation of new data.
4. ETHNOGRAPHIC RESEARCH DESIGN OR
ROLE IN THE STUDY
ETHNOMETHODOLOGY
● The respondents' primary role is to provide firsthand
● the study of the “entire cultural group”
data, which can be in the form of opinions, experiences,
● analyzes the shared pattern of behaviors, beliefs,
behaviors, or knowledge.
and languages among participants. It aims to
● Their participation is integral to generating insights that
describe and identify the cultural characteristics of a
will answer the study's research questions or
particular group to understand their political, social,
hypotheses.
religious, or psychological processes.
5. CASE STUDY
RESPONDENT BIAS
● explains in detail information about either a person
1. SOCIAL DESIRABILITY BIAS – When respondents give
or group regarding a specific phenomenon in
answers they believe are more socially acceptable or
real-life contexts (e.g., autism, fare-hike, puberty,
favorable, rather than truthful.
managing funds) and draws conclusions only about
2. ACQUIESCENCE BIAS – A tendency to agree with
that individual or group and only in that particular
statements or questions, regardless of actual opinions.
context.
Addressing these biases, either through careful question
● Emphasis is on explanation and description of the
design or using multiple data sources, is essential to
real-life context; why it happened; when it
enhance the reliability of the research.
happened. The goal of the case study approach is to
offer new perspectives or solutions and questions
ENGAGEMENT AND MOTIVATION
for further research.
● Motivating respondents to participate fully and
thoughtfully is vital for gathering quality data.
RESPONDENTS
Respondents who feel that their input is valued and
● Pertains to important individuals who participate by understand the significance of their role are more likely
answering or completing questionnaires, surveys, to provide accurate and complete responses.
interviews and/or other data collection methods ● Clear communication about the purpose and importance
of their contributions can help in maintaining high
SELECTING RESPONDENTS engagement levels.
1. Willingness
2. Relevant Knowledge and Experience

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DIVERSITY OF RESPONDENTS TYPES OF NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING

● A diverse set of respondents ensures that the study 1. Purposive sampling – refers to intentionally selecting
covers a wide range of perspectives, leading to more participants based on their characteristics, knowledge,
generalizable and comprehensive findings. Depending on experiences, or some other criteria.
the research goals, diversity in terms of demographic 2. Convenience sampling – involves recruiting individuals
backgrounds, professions, and experiences may be primarily because they are available, willing, or easy to
necessary to avoid narrow or biased conclusions. access or contact on a practical level.
3. Snowball Sampling – Existing participants recruit further
SAMPLING AND SAMPLE SIZE participants from among their acquaintances. It is often
used for hard-to-reach or specialized populations.
WHAT IS SAMPLING
● Sampling involves selecting individuals or sampling units
SAMPLING COMPUTATION
from a predetermined sample frame. It is important to
define the sampling strategy beforehand, as the chosen TERMS
method can influence the estimation of the required ● Margin of Error: The margin of error is the range
sample size. that shows how much the results of a survey might
differ from the actual values in the population.
SAMPLE FRAME ● Confidence Level: The confidence level is the
● A sample frame is the group of individuals that can be percentage that tells us how sure we are that the
selected from the target population given the sampling true value is within the range of results from a
process used in the study. survey or study.

TWO TYPES OF SAMPLING SLOVIN’S FORMULA

1. PROBABILITY SAMPLING/RANDOM SAMPLING ● used to determine the sample size needed to attain a
● is a technique for selecting a sample of observations specific confidence interval when sampling a population.
from a population to make assumptions about that This formula is particularly useful when there is
population. If the purpose of sampling is to generalize insufficient information about the population's behavior
the results across the population, use random sampling. or distribution to accurately estimate the required
sample size.
TYPES OF PROBABILITY/RANDOM SAMPLING 𝑁
1. Simple Random Sampling – In this sampling method, 𝑛 = 2
every item in the population has an equal chance of
being chosen for the sample.
1 + 𝑁𝑒
2. Stratified Random Sampling – If the target population WHERE:
has a natural grouping and some groups may have more n = sample size needed
respondents than the other groups, then the right N = Population size
random sampling approach is to stratify the sample e = acceptable margin of error
based on the population distribution.
3. Clustered Sampling – Cluster sampling resembles
stratified sampling; however, the population is divided
into numerous subgroups. A random selection of these
clusters is then made, from which simple random
samples are collected. These subgroups are referred to
as clusters.
4. Systematic Random Sampling – This sampling method
involves selecting samples according to a set interval
from a numbered population.

2. NON-PROBABILITY SAMPLING
● is a technique for selecting units from a population using
a subjective (i.e., non-random) approach. If the purpose
is to target a specific population and not to generalize it
across the population, use purposive sampling.

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COCHRAN’S FORMULA 2. How do I determine the right sample size for my study?
● considered especially appropriate in situations with large ● The appropriate sample size can be determined
populations. A sample of any given size provides more using formulas that consider the desired confidence
information about a smaller population than a larger level, margin of error, population size, and estimated
one, so there’s a ‘correction’ through which the number population proportion.
given by Cochran’s formula can be reduced if the whole
population is relatively small. 3. When should I use a larger or smaller sample size?
2 ● A larger sample size should be used when you want
𝑍 𝑝𝑞
𝑛0 = 2
greater accuracy in your results when dealing with a
highly variable population, or when the margin of
𝑒 error needs to be small. A smaller sample size may
be acceptable for exploratory research or when
resources are limited, but it can lead to less reliable
results and a larger margin of error.

WHERE: RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

e = the desired level of precision (i.e. the margin of error) ● A research instrument is any tool that researchers use to
p = the (estimated) proportion of the population that has the gather data for their study. It can include surveys,
attribute in question questionnaires, interviews, or other devices that help
q=1–p collect information from research subjects.
Z-value = is found in a Z table ● The type of instrument depends on the study’s goals and
the data needed. For instance, surveys are useful for
collecting quantitative data, while interviews are more
suited for qualitative insights

IMPORTANCE
● they ensure that researchers systematically and
consistently collect data. A well-designed instrument can
help reduce biases, ensure reliability, and improve the
validity of the findings. This is critical in ensuring that the
data collected accurately represents the population
being studied

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD RESEARCH INSTRUMENT

1. RELIABILITY
● Refers to the consistency of a measurement,
specifically how consistently an instrument yields
the same results when used repeatedly under the
same conditions with the same subjects.
● it reflects the repeatability of your measurement. A
measure is deemed reliable if a person’s scores on
the same test administered twice are similar. It's
important to note that reliability is estimated rather
than directly measured. A reliable instrument should
OTHER THINGS TO NOTE produce consistent scores, and its reliability is
1. What is the appropriate sample size? typically assessed using some form of correlation
● As to the appropriate sample size, it depends on the coefficient.
school, the panel of examiners, or the contracted ● can be thought of as consistency. Does the
researcher. It should, however, be 100 or more. The instrument consistently measure what it is intended
problem with a big sample size is the cost and time to measure?
involved: it becomes so expensive and it requires a
much longer period to gather the data.

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2. VALIDITY ● Its purpose is to address a specific topic, in-depth, in

● refers to how well a test measures what it purports a comfortable environment to elicit a wide range of
to measure. For results to be accurately applied and opinions, attitudes, feelings, or perceptions from a
interpreted, it is crucial for a test to be valid. group of individuals who share some common
● Validity is not assessed by a single statistic; rather, it experience relative to the dimension under study.
relies on a body of research that shows the ○ Focus Interview: An emphasis on the
relationship between the test and the behavior it interviewees subjective and personal
aims to measure. responses where the interviewer engages to
● is the extent to which an instrument measures what elicit more information.
it is supposed to measure and performs as it is ○ Focus Group Interview: A group of selected
designed to perform participants are asked about their opinion or
● There are numerous statistical tests and measures to perceptions concerning a particular topic.
assess the validity of quantitative instruments, 3. SURVEYS
which generally involves pilot testing. ● Survey research encompasses any measurement
3. PRACTICABILITY procedures that involve asking questions of
● refers to the feasibility and usability of a process or respondents. The types of surveys can vary on the
method. It describes the quality of being applicable span of time used to conduct the study. They can be
in relation to the objectives that need to be made up of cross-sectional surveys and/or
achieved. longitudinal surveys. Types of questions asked in
4. USABILITY surveys include:
● refers to the ease of administering, scoring, ○ Free-Answer: Also referred to as open-ended
interpreting, and applying a test. It encompasses questions, these include unrestricted, essay, or
factors such as low cost and appropriate design or unguided questions.
construction. ○ Guided Response Type: Recall-type questions
5. MEASURABILITY asking the participant to recall a set of
● means that it should effectively assess the objective categories. Multiple-choice or multiple
that needs to be achieved. response questions.
4. OBSERVATIONS

TYPES OF RESEARCH INSTRUMENT ● (watching what people do) is a type of correlational

(non-experimental) method where researchers
1. INTERVIEWS
observe ongoing behavior.
● The interaction where verbal questions are posed by
○ Structured Observations: Research conducted
an interviewer to elicit verbal responses from an
at a specific place, time, where participants are
interviewee.
observed in a standardized procedure. Rather
● It has been said that while other instruments focus
than writing a detailed description of all
on the surface elements of what is happening,
behaviors observed, researchers code
interviews give the researcher more of an insight
observed behaviors according to a previously
into the meaning and significance of what is
agreed-upon scale.
happening.
○ Naturalistic Observation: The study of the
○ Structured Interview: A formal set of
spontaneous behavior of participants in
questions posed to each interviewee and
natural surroundings. The researcher simply
recorded using a standardized procedure.
records what they see in whatever way they
○ Unstructured Interview: A less formal set of
see it.
questions; the interviewer modifies the
○ Participant Observation: A variation on natural
sequence and wording of questions.
observations where the researcher joins in and
○ Non-Directive Interview: An unguided
becomes part of the group they are studying to
interview, including open-ended questions and
get a deeper insight into their lives.
use of spontaneous engagement.
2. FOCUS GROUPS
● A focus group is a carefully planned and moderated
informal discussion where one person’s ideas
bounce off another’s creating a chain reaction of
informative dialogue.

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STEPS IN FINDING A RESEARCH INSTRUMENT 3. OBTAIN

(IDENTIFY – ASSESS – OBTAIN) ● This can be done in several ways:
1. IDENTIFY 1. Use Existing Instruments: If a valid, reliable
● The first step in finding a research instrument is to instrument already exists, reach out to the
identify what type of data you need to collect based author for permission to use it or check if it’s
on your research objectives. This requires a deep freely available online (e.g., in public databases
understanding of your research problem, key or published studies).
questions, and hypotheses. 2. Modify an Existing Instrument: Sometimes,
● You also need to consider whether you are collecting slight adjustments or translations may be
quantitative or qualitative data, or a combination of needed to fit your specific research context.
both. 3. Create a New Instrument: If no suitable tools
○ Quantitative Instruments: If your research are available, you may need to develop your
involves numerical data, you’ll likely need own instrument. Be sure to pilot test it for
structured tools like surveys, questionnaires, or reliability and validity before using it in your
standardized tests. main study.
○ Qualitative Instruments: For qualitative ● Pilot Testing – A pilot test is an initial test
research, instruments like interviews, focus or a miniature version of a larger-scale
groups, or observational tools are more study or project. The term "pilot" means
appropriate. to test a plan, project, or other strategy
before implementing it more fully across
Questions to ask yourself before you begin: an organization
1. How much time do you have?
- Not all instrument's are readily available or ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
easy to obtain WHAT IS RESEARCH ETHICS
2. What is your budget? ● Research ethics is about doing research the right way
- Not all instruments are freely available. ● It helps protect the people involved, the researchers, and
the trust in science.
3. What is the instrument's reliability and validity?
- Does the instrument measure what it is
KEY ETHICAL PRINCIPLES
intended to, and does it measure it
consistently? 1. Respect for People – Recognize that everyone has the
right to make their own choices and give informed
4. Will the instrument be available for your use?
consent.
- Even if it’s free, it might be difficult or take too long
2. Doing Good – Aim to provide benefits while reducing any
to get a copy!
harm.
- You need to obtain the owner’s permission,
3. Fairness – Ensure that everyone shares in the benefits
particularly if you want to publish your results
and risks of research.

2. ASSESS
INFORMED CONSENT
● Assess potential instruments based on their
● Informed consent means getting permission from
reliability, validity, and suitability for your target
participants after explaining everything clearly.
population. This involves reviewing available tools
● It should be easy to understand and completely
used in similar studies, conducting a literature
voluntary.
review, and evaluating existing instruments.
● Example: A study on a new medicine where participants
● Key questions to consider during this assessment
know all the details before joining.
include:
1. Has the instrument been validated in previous
KEEPING INFORMATION PRIVATE
studies? (Ensures accuracy in measurement)
2. Is it reliable? (Can it produce consistent ● Protecting personal information is very important.
results?) ● Use methods to keep identities secret.
3. Is it culturally appropriate and ethical?
(Important for sensitive populations or SPECIAL CARE FOR VULNERABLE GROUPS
cross-cultural research) ● Be extra careful with groups like children, prisoners, or
those with less power.

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● Make sure they have extra protections in place. TYPES OF DATA

● Importance of including their voices in research planning. 1. Qualitative Data: Non-numeric data, such as categories
or labels (e.g., gender, profession).
HONESTY IN RESEARCH 2. Quantitative Data: Numeric data that can be measured
● Always be truthful when reporting results. (e.g., height, weight).
● Avoid making up data or copying others' work.
● Example: How false studies can affect public health LEVELS OF MEASUREMENT
decisions. ● Nominal: Categorical data without any order (e.g., types
of cars).
WHAT CAN WE DO TO AVOID THESE ETHICAL PROBLEMS IN ● Ordinal: Categorical data with a specific order (e.g.,
FUTURE RESEARCH rankings).
1. Follow Ethical Guidelines Adhere to established ethical ● Interval: Numeric data with equal intervals, no true zero
principles like honesty, integrity, and respect for point (e.g., temperature).
participants. Familiarize yourself with guidelines from ● Ratio: Numeric data with a true zero point (e.g., age,
organizations like the APA. income).

2. Obtain Informed Consent Ensure participants understand TYPES OF STATISTICAL TREATMENTS

the study's purpose, risks, and their right to withdraw at 1. Descriptive Statistics
any time without penalty. ● Summarizes and organizes data.
● Examples: Mean, median, mode, standard deviation,
3. Conduct Risk Assessments Evaluate potential risks to frequency distribution.
participants and implement measures to minimize harm ● Use: To give a snapshot of the data (e.g., average age
while maximizing benefits. of participants).
2. Inferential Statistics
4. Ensure Fair Participant Selection Avoid biases in selecting
● Helps make inferences or generalizations from the
participants, ensuring inclusivity and fairness regardless
sample to the population.
of gender, race, or background.
● Examples: Hypothesis testing, confidence intervals,
t-tests, ANOVA.
5. Maintain Transparency Be open about your research
● Use: To determine if findings are statistically
methods and any conflicts of interest to build trust and
significant or if they can be generalized.
credibility.
3. Correlation and Regression Analysis
● Correlation: Measures the relationship between two
6. Engage Ethics Review Boards Submit your research
variables.
proposals to ethics committees for review to ensure
● Regression: Predicts the value of one variable based
compliance with ethical standards.
on the value of another.
● Use: To analyze relationships or predict outcomes
STATISTICAL TREATMENT
(e.g., the impact of study hours on grades).
● Statistical treatment in research refers to the process of
4. Non-Parametric Tests
applying statistical methods to analyze and interpret data
● Used when data doesn’t meet the assumptions of
collected during a study. It is crucial because it allows
parametric tests (e.g., normal distribution).
researchers to draw meaningful conclusions and insights
● Examples: Chi-square test, Mann-Whitney U test.
from the data, determine the significance of their
● Use: For ordinal data or non-normally distributed
findings, and test hypotheses.
data (e.g., preference surveys).

KEY CONCEPTS IN STATISTICAL TREATMENT

CHOOSING THE RIGHT STATISTICAL TREATMENT
VARIABLES
1. Identify the Research Type and Data
● Independent Variable: The variable you manipulate in
the study. ● For quantitative research, numerical analysis using
● Dependent Variable: The outcome you measure in descriptive or inferential statistics is common.
response to changes in the independent variable. ● For qualitative research, frequency distributions or
non-parametric tests may be more appropriate.

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2. Determine Data Distribution

● Check if your data is normally distributed. If yes, use
parametric tests. If not, use non-parametric tests.
3. Match Data to Statistical Tests
● Nominal Data: Use frequency distributions or
chi-square tests.
● Ordinal Data: Use rank-based tests like the
Mann-Whitney U test.
● Interval and Ratio Data: Use t-tests, ANOVA, or
regression analysis.

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