Casting Defects

Casting defects: Cold shut

• This occurs when metal coming from different directions in the mold do not fuse properly.
• It typically looks like a crack in the casting.
• Cold metal results in a lack of fluidity.
• Solution:
• Proper chemistry of the metal with superheat.
• Design of gating system.

https://www.intouch-quality.com/blog/21-casting-defects-and-how-to-prevent-them-in-your-products
 Casting defects: Misrun
• The misrun is the unfilled portion or space in the mold.
• Misruns occur when the liquid metal is too cold to flow to the extremities of the mold cavity before
freezing and solidifying.
• The liquid metal does not completely fill the mold cavity.
• The reasons for premature solidification are similar to those for cold shut.
• If you have a misrun, check:
• Mold design
• Gating system design and
• Molten metal fluidity
• Solution:
• Proper chemistry of the metal with superheat.
• Design of gating system.
• Fluidity.

https://www.intouch-quality.com/blog/21-casting-defects-and-how-to-prevent-them-in-your-products
 Casting defects: Rat tail
• It is a mold expansion defect (mainly due to improper moulding material usage).
• It is a milder form of expansion failure of the mold surface during rapid heating.
• Rat tails, or veins, appear as an irregular line or crack on the casting.
• Rat tails usually occur on the surface of the mold bottom.
• High clay content have deformation capacity at high temperature.
• Solutions:
• Additives to counter expansion include wood flour, coal dust and cereal binders

https://www.intouch-quality.com/blog/21-casting-defects-and-how-to-prevent-them-in-your-products
 Casting defects: Scab
• Scabs are rough, irregular projections on surface of castings containing
embedded sand.
• Scabs occur when a portion on the face of mold or core lifts and metal
flows underneath in a thin layer.
• Reasons → Using too fine sand, low permeability or moisture content,
uneven mould ramming or by intense local overheating.
• Solutions → Mix additives (sea coal, wood flour or dextrin) in the
sand, providing proper ramming and pouring with correct velocity.

https://www.intouch-quality.com/blog/21-casting-defects-and-how-to-prevent-them-in-your-products
Casting defects: Metal penetration and sand burn
• Metal penetration occurs when liquid metal penetrates gaps in the molding sand.
• Sand burn is due to mold-metal reaction which chemically bonds sand to the casting surface.
• Solutions: Fine grain size, sufficient sand strength to withstand metalostatic pressure, high
refractoriness of sand, mold coating, etc.

https://www.intouch-quality.com/blog/21-casting-defects-and-how-to-prevent-them-in-your-products
 Casting defects: Mismatch
• Misalignment of pattern and improper handling of mold.
• Reasons:
• Pattern non-alignment in the cope and drag
• Loose work dowel pin in the loose pattern, etc.
• Improper closing of the mold
• Improper core prints
• Incorrect chaplet size and core setting

https://www.intouch-quality.com/blog/21-casting-defects-and-how-to-prevent-them-in-your-products
 Casting defects: Hot tears / cracks (Metallurgical defect)
• Appears during casting of long freezing range alloys.
• Results due to liquid films (tearing) at the grain boundary in the later part of solidification and
strain at this stage.
• If the solidifying metal does not have sufficient strength to resist tensile forces during solidification,
hot tears will appear.
• It looks like cracks and called as hot tears or hot cracking.
• Affecting parameters → Geometry and size of casting, mold material, alloy composition, grain size,
pouring and mold temperature, etc.

https://www.intouch-quality.com/blog/21-casting-defects-and-how-to-prevent-them-in-your-products
Casting processes
Die casting (Mould made of some permanent material - Cast iron, steel… etc)
High pressure hot chamber die casting (up to 20MPa)
Applicable for zinc and other low melting point alloys that does not affect and erode metal pots
cylinders and plungers.
Components:
• Casting mold or die with core, Clamping unit, Injection unit, Hydraulic system

Process parameters:
• Plunger pressure, Plunger velocity, Clamping force, Die lubrication, Molten metal temperature and
Solidification time

http://www.themetalcasting.com/pressure-die-casting.html
Mikell P. Groover - Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing_ Materials, Processes, and Systems-Wiley (2012)
 Die casting
High pressure cold chamber die casting (up to 200 MPa)
• Injection system is not submerged in molten metal.
• A charge of metal sufficient for a single casting is poured in to the sleeve → Plunger forces the charge
through the runner channels.
• Minimizes the contact time between the injector components and the molten metal → Extends the life of
the components.
• Iron contaminant is much lower.
• Entrainment of air into the metal due to high-speed injection can cause gas porosity in the castings.
• Applications: steel castings along with aluminum and copper based alloys are produced by this method.

http://www.themetalcasting.com/pressure-die-casting.html
Mikell P. Groover - Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing_ Materials, Processes, and Systems-Wiley (2012)
Die casting
Low pressure die casting (up to 130 kPa)
• Die is positioned above a sealed furnace containing molten metal.
• A refractory-lined riser extends from the bottom of the die into the molten metal.
• Supply of low pressure air makes the molten metal rise up the tube and enter the die cavity with low
turbulence.
• Metal solidified → Air pressure released → Metal still in the molten state in the riser tube to fall back into the
furnace.
• Applications:
• High quality castings, of aluminum
alloys, along with magnesium and
other low melting point alloys.

http://www.themetalcasting.com/pressure-die-casting.html
 Die casting
• Alloy steels (die steel having 425-460 HB) are used for dies and cores having high temperature strength and
wear resistance.
• Die material properties → low thermal expansion, higher Young’s modulus and fatigue strength to increase
the die life.
• To prevent soldering, better surface finish and facilitate casting release → die and core face is lubricated by
graphite, boron nitride, water based silicates etc.
• Die is also water circulated through channels to reduce the die temperature.
• Metallic movable cores with the dies can be used for simple cylindrical cavities, and the complicated cavities
can be created by using salt core. Use of sand cores are avoided due to high pressure.
• Tapering of 0.2% to 2% are recommended for die outer surface and the core for easy withdrawal of the casting
component minimizing the damage to the die.
• The air inside the die is vented by adding vents or through the mould joint and core-die joints by the slow shot
of the plunger.
• To minimize the gas porosity, vacuuming of the die cavity or purging is done before injection.

http://www.themetalcasting.com/pressure-die-casting.html
Die casting: Advantages
• Thin walled complex casting of light metals e.g. Al, Mg and Zn (low meting temp alloy). e.g. cases of
cell phone and laptop, small automotive parts like steering wheel, airbag housing and oil pan.
• Less porosity compared to green sand mould casting due to absence of moisture.
• Produces fine grain micro-structure superior to sand casting due to very rapid solidification rate.
• Very good surface finish due to fine polished surface of the metal dies and cores).
• Mechanized and hence production rate is higher.

Disadvantages
• Very high initial cost of the machine, control system and die material compared to tools used in sand
casting
• Complicated internal cavities are normally impossible to cast.
• Only metals with low melting point can be cast.
 Investment casting (lost wax casting)
• Precision casting → very good surface finish and
close dimensional tolerance.
• The pattern in the investment casting has the
dimensional allowance to compensate its own
volumetric shrinkage as well as solidification
shrinkage of the cast metal.

Serope Kalpakjian, Steven R. Schmid - Manufacturing Engineering and Technology-Prentice Hall (2009)
Investment casting (lost wax casting)
• The application of investment casting is principally in the field of relative small components. (most
emphasis on intricate parts weighing 1 gm - 0.5 kg)
• Thickness of 0.75 mm or even less can be achieved with complex shape.
• Tolerance of around ± 0.15 mm with surface finish in the range of 0.8-3.2 μm can be commonly
achieved
• All cast alloys can be fabricated
• The preheat temperature has strong influence on casting dimension.
Continuous casting
• The molten metal is poured directly into a casting machine to produce billets, blooms or
slabs.
• Continuous casting eliminates the need for primary and
intermediate rolling mills, soaking pits and the storage and
use of large numbers of ingot molds.
• Liquid steel flows out of the ladle (1) into the tundish (2),
and then into a water-cooled copper mold (3).
• Advantages:
• Yield improvement
• Energy conservation (direct
production of semi-finished products)
• Savings in manpower

Mikell P. Groover - Fundamentals of Modern Manufacturing_ Materials, Processes, and Systems-Wiley (2012)
Continuous casting: Features
• Tundish to 1. Control the flow of melt into the chill mold
2. Help in positioning the melt flow to mold
3. Function as a slag separator
• Oscillating water-cooled copper mold:
• This mold is to form a solidified steel shell having sufficient strength to prevent
breakouts below;
• Mold oscillation creates a relative movement between strand and mold, and prevents
metal sticking to the mold surface.
• Stripping is facilitated by providing
an adequate lubricant (casting
powders or oil) at the steel meniscus.
• This lubricant is also essential to
maintain a high heat extraction and
prevent breakouts.
Continuous casting: Features
• Tapered mold walls to accommodate the strand shrinkage over the mold length of 700 mm.
• On leaving the mold, the strand is cooled by water sprays and is supported by rolls to
prevent bulging until solidification is complete
• Modern casters are curved type machines which are cheaper and easier to accommodate in
the plant than the original vertical machines.
• The curved strand is straightened
by rollers after complete
solidification and cut to the
required length for further
processing in the rolling mills.
Centrifugal casting
• Rings, hollow cylinders, tubes, pipes, and large motor housings are often cast using the centrifugal
casting process for a number of reasons.
• There is no central core required and the wall thickness can therefore be controlled simply by
controlling the volume of metal poured.
• Neither running system nor feeders are required so the metallic yield can be close to 100%.

John Campbell - Complete Casting Handbook_ Metal Casting Processes, Techniques and Design
https://vaishnavi.us/extruded-products/centrifugal-casting/
Centrifugal casting - horizontal
• In centrifugal casting, molten metal is introduced into the mould which is rotated during solidification
Fc r 2 𝑟 2𝜋𝑁
2
0.011𝑟𝑁 2
G factor = = = = r in m and N in rpm
Fg g 𝑔 60 𝑔
• For a particular diameter of casting the rpm should be chosen such that the G factor should be sufficient
✓ to prevent raining as the metal passes over the upper half of the mould,
✓ to spread the liquid metal through out the length by compression of liquid against the mould wall without
slip and
✓ to prevent instability without tearing
the shell due to higher stress

Fc

True centrifugal casting (horizontal)

Centrifugal casting example
If G-factor of 120G is necessary to produce a hollow cylindrical part in true centrifugal casting
in a mould having inner diameter of 350 mm and length of 6 cm, what rotational speed is
needed?
Fc r 2 r   
2
0 .011 rN 2
N =
2 120 g
G factor = = =   N2 =
Fg g g  30  g 0.011r

What will be the thickness of the hollow cylindrical casting if 9.4 kg of metal is poured in liquid
state having density 2.3 gm/cm3, and the total volumetric shrinkage is 0.05.

( )
9400
2.3 =
Vol (cm3 ) Vol =  r − r h
1
2
2
2
(
 r −r h =
1
2 9400
2
2

2.3
)
4087
r22 = r12 −
h
Centrifugal casting – vertical
• In vertical casting method, the spinning die spins about a vertical axis.
• Vertical castings may achieve O.D. shaping by inserting graphite, sand, or ceramic molds into the die
→ significantly reduced post-processing, like machining or fabrication.
 Centrifugal casting – vertical
• Vertical axis true centrifugal casting has a tendency to form a parabolic bore due to the gravitational component
of the force acting on the metal.
• For regime below 10 mm line, the extra machining become so severe.
• Other routes such as horizontal spinning or conventional static casting using internal core have to be
considered.

John Campbell - Complete Casting Handbook_ Metal Casting Processes, Techniques and Design
 Semi-centrifugal casting
• Mould is placed on the horizontal plane and is rotated along the vertical axis.
• Axisymmetric components of varying internal diameter or irregular wall thickness are fabricated by
using central core in a rotated mould.
• The centrifugal force helps in feeding the liquid metal to capture the intricate shape of the mould.
• The centrifugal force acting on the casting metal eliminates the porosity and shrinkage cavities.
• However, the G-factor is less than 15G to avoid the excessive flashing of liquid metal at the parting
surface.

• Speed of the rotation is less than true centrifugal

casting.

• Casting yield is less in this process compared to

true centrifugal casting.

• Wheels, pulleys are made of Semi-centrifugal

casting.
 Centrifuging casting
• In centrifuging casting process, multiple number of mold cavities are placed at certain distance from
the axis of rotation.
• The molten metal is poured from the center and is forced into the mold by centrifugal force.
• The properties of the casting vary by distance from the axis of rotation.
• The various process variables influencing the casting quality in true centrifugal, semi-centrifugal and
centrifuging casting processes are:
• speed of rotation
• pouring temperature
• pouring speed
• mould temperature

• Castings made from this process need not be

axisymmetric.

• Casting yield is less in this process compared to true

centrifugal casting.

Serope Kalpakjian, Steven R. Schmid - Manufacturing Engineering and Technology-Prentice Hall (2009)
 Squeeze casting
Squeeze casting is a net shape fabrication technique under high pressure (50-150 MPa). Also known as
liquid forging or liquid stamping.
Process sequence:
1. A pre-specified amount of molten metal is poured into a preheated die cavity, located on the bed of
a hydraulic press.
2. The press is activated to close the die cavity and to pressurize the liquid metal until complete
solidification
3. The upper mould/punch is withdrawn and the casting is ejected

Serope Kalpakjian, Steven R. Schmid - Manufacturing Engineering and Technology-Prentice Hall (2009)
Squeeze casting: Classification, Applications and Parameters
Two basic forms of the process depending on whether
• The pressure is applied directly on to the solidifying cast product via an upper or male die (punch) or
• The applied pressure is exerted through an intermediate feeding system
• Applications: Automotive industry in producing aluminum front steering knuckles, chassis frames,
brackets or nodes. High capacity propellers for boat-engine.
Parameters:
Direct squeeze Indirect squeeze
• Type of casting equipment
casting mode casting mode
• Melt volume
• Pressure level
• Timing of pressure
application
• Pouring temperature
• Die temperature

Ghomashchi, M. R., and A. Vikhrov. "Squeeze casting: an overview." Journal of Materials Processing Technology 101, no. 1-3 (2000): 1-9.
Squeeze casting: Classification
1. Direct squeeze casting mode
Without metal movement:
• Suitable for ingot type components where
there is no metal movement

With metal movement:

• Involves metal movement, also known as
the backward process
• More versatile and can be used to cast a
wide range of shaped components.

Ghomashchi, M. R., and A. Vikhrov. "Squeeze casting: an overview." Journal of Materials Processing Technology 101, no. 1-3 (2000): 1-9.
Squeeze casting: Classification
2. Indirect squeeze casting mode
Further classified depending upon the clamping and injection direction
• Horizontal die closing and vertical injection
• Vertical die closing and horizontal injection

Horizontal die closing and vertical injection

a. Prevent inclusion of air: venting of air during complete upward hill filling technique
b. Enable pouring and clamping at same time to minimize cycle time

Ghomashchi, M. R., and A. Vikhrov. "Squeeze casting: an overview." Journal of Materials Processing Technology 101, no. 1-3 (2000): 1-9.
Squeeze casting: Advantages and issues
• The hydraulic press load are much lower than required for conventional forging or stamping.
• Squeeze cast shows isotropic material properties compared to conventional forged or stamped
products.
• The products are free from internal shrinkage and gas porosity, resulting from the influence of plastic
deformation under pressure during solidification.
• High cooling rate due to close contact between metal and die under pressure → Fine grained micro-
structure with better surface finish → higher strength to weight ratio with improved fatigue
properties.
• Near net shape manufacturing with higher casting yield.
• Process is limited to low melting point metal like aluminum, its metal matrix composites and
bimetals.
• The narrowest walls are limited to 4 mm thickness and the machines are slower than conventional
high pressure die casting.

Ghomashchi, M. R., and A. Vikhrov. "Squeeze casting: an overview." Journal of Materials Processing Technology 101, no. 1-3 (2000): 1-9.
Thixomoulding
• The process is analogous to plastic injection molding.
• Magnesium chips are fed through a feed screw under Ar gas → progressively heated in the screw →
inject in to the die once the material reached the desired consistency at the front of the screw (typically
only 5–10% solid fraction)
• It does not require melting facilities (processing of semi-liquid metal) as the material is processed from
the solid.
• Product with high mechanical properties or complex shape.
• Applications: for making super-thin enclosures for laptops and other small electronic devices. Competitor
to injection molding and die-casting in a wide variety of applications.

https://www.molex.com/molex/capabilities/capabilities.jsp?key=magnesium_thixomolding
https://www.jsw.co.jp/en/products/mg/process_and_magnesium_thixomolding_machines.html
Thank you