CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER

1.0. What is a Computer

The word “computer” comes from word compute, which means to calculate.
“A computer:- is a programmable machine (or more precisely, a programmable sequential state machine) that
operates on data and is used for wide range of activities”.
 An electronic device capable of accepting data as input, storing all the information relevant to it,
processing the data in a predetermined way that conforms with a program of instructions and then
communicating the results as output.
 is an electronic device capable of data processing by use of sets of instructions called computer
programs?
Thus, a computer system is made up of two major components i.e. Hardware and software.
 Hardware refers to the physical components that make up a computer system
e.g. monitor, keyboard, system casing etc.
 Software refers to the programs which instruct the computer hardware on what to do and how to do it.
Examples of software include operating systems and application programs.

DEFINATION OF COMPUTER
A computer is an electronic device which takes input from the user, processes it and gives the output
as per user’s requirement.
o So the main tasks of performed by the computer are:
 Input
 Process
 Output
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPUTER
Some important characteristics of the computer are as follow:
 Automatic:
o Computers are automatic machines because it works by itself without human
intervention.
o Once it started on a job they carry on until the job is finished.
o Computer cannot start them.
 Accuracy:
o The accuracy of a computer is very high.
o The degree of accuracy of a particular computer depends upon its design.
o Errors can occur by the computer. But these are due to human weakness, due to
incorrect data, but not due to the technological weakness.
 Speed:
o Computer is a very fact device. It can perform the amount of work in few seconds for
which a human can take an entire year.
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 o While talking about computer speed we do not talk in terms of seconds and
milliseconds but in microseconds.
o A powerful computer is capable of performing several billion (109) simple arithmetic
operations per second.
 Diligence:
o Unlike human beings, a computer is free from monotony, tiredness & lack of
concentration.
o It can continuously work for hours without creating any error & without grumbling.
o If you give ten million calculations to performed, it will perform with exactly the
same accuracy & speed as the first one.
 Versatility:
o It is one of the most wonderful features about the computer.
o One moment it is preparing the results of a particular examination, the next moment it is
busy with preparing electricity bills and in between it may be helping an office secretary
to trace an important letter in seconds.
DATA PROCESSING CYCLE OF COMPUTER.
The computer Data Processing is any process that a computer program does to enter data &
summarize analyses or convert data into useable information.
The process may be automated & run on a computer.
It involves recording, analyzing, storing, summarizing & storing data.
Because data are most useful when it is well presented & informative.
The Data Processing Cycle:
Data Processing cycle described all activities which are common to all data processing
systems from manual to electronic systems.
These activities can be grouped in four functional categories, viz., data input, data processing,
data output and storage, constituting what is known as a data processing cycle.
The main aim of data processing cycle is to convert the data into meaningful information.
Data processing system are often referred to as Information System.
The Information System typically take raw Data as Input to produce Information as Output.

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Input Output
Data Process Information

STORAGE
The data processing cycle contains main four functions:
o Data input
o Data process
o Data storage
o Data output
 DATA INPUT
o The term input refers to the activities required to record data.
o It’s a process to entered data in to computer system.
o So before we input any data, it is necessary to check or verify the data context.
 DATA PROCESSING
o The term processing includes the activities like classifying, storing, calculating,
comparing or summarizing the data.
o The processing means to use techniques to convert the data into meaningful
information.
 DATA OUTPUT
o It’s a communication function which transmits the information to the outside
world. After completed the process the data are converted into the meaningful in
Sometimes the output also includes the decoding activity which converts the
electronically generated information into human readable form.
 DATA STORAGE
o It involves the filling of data & information for future use.
CLASSIFICATION OF THE COMPUTER BY DATA PROCESSING:
The computers are classified in four types on the based on data processing.
 Micro computer
 Mini computer
 Mainframe computer
 Super computer
Microcomputer:
 Micro computers are the computers with having a microprocessor chip as it central
processing unit.
 Originated in late 1970s.
 First microcomputer was built with 8 bit processor.
 Microcomputer is known as personal computer.
 Designed to use by individual whether in the form of pc’s, workstation or notebook
computers.
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  Small in size and affordable for general people.
Mini Computer:
 Mini computers are originated in 1960s.
 Small mainframes that perform limited tasks.
 Less expensive than mainframe computer.
 Mini computers are Lower mainframe in the terms of processing capabilities.
 Capable of supporting 10 to 100 users simultaneously.
 In 1970s it contains 8 bit or 12 bit processor.
 Gradually the architecture requirement is grown and 16 and 32 bit.
 Minicomputers are invented which are known as supermini computers.
Mainframe Computer:
 A very powerful computer which capable of supporting thousands of user
simultaneously.
 It contains powerful data processing system.
 It is capable to run multiple operating systems.
 It is capable to process 100 million instructions per second.
 Mainframes are very large & expensive computers with having larger internal storage
capacity & high processing speed.
 Mainframes are used in the organization that need to process large number of transaction
online & required a computer system having massive storage & processing capabilities.
 Mainly used to handle bulk of data & information for processing.
 Mainframe system is housed in a central location with several user terminal connected to it.
 Much bigger in size & needs a large rooms with closely humidity &
temperature.
 IBM & DEC are major vendors of mainframes.
 Ex : MEDHA, SPERRY, IBM, DEC, HP, HCL
Super Computer:
 Most powerful & most expensive computer.
 Used for complex scientific application that requires huge processing power.
 Used multiprocessor technology to perform the calculation very speedy.
 They are special purpose computers that are designed to perform some specific task.
The cost of the super computer is depended on its processing capabilities & configuration.
GENERATION OF THE COMPUTERS.
COMPUTER GENERATIONS
First Generation: 1946 – 1956
The first generation of computers relied on vacuum tubes to store and process information.
o Technology: vacuum tube
o Used as a calculating device.
o Performed calculations in milliseconds.
o To bulky in size & complex design.
o Required large room to place it.
o Generates too much heat & burnt.
o Required continuously hardware maintenance.
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 o Generates much heat so must air-conditioner rooms are required.
o Commercial production is difficult & costly.
o Difficult to configure.
o Limited commercial use.
Second Generation: 1957 – 1963
Second generation computers relied on transistor technology invented in 1947 at Bell
o Laboratories, and magnetic core memories.
o Technology: transistor
o 10 times Smaller in size than 1st generation system.
o Less heat than 1st generation computers.
o Consumed less power than 1st generation system.
o Computers were done calculations in microseconds.
o Air-conditioner is also required.
o Easy to configure than 1st generation computers.
Third Generation: 1964 - 1975
Third generation computers used integrated circuits which were made by combining several transistors usually
3 to 15 together.
o Technology: IC chip
o Smaller in size than 1st & 2nd generation computers.
o Perform more fast calculations than 2nd generation systems.
o Large & fast primary/secondary storage than 2nd generation computers.
o Air –conditioner is required.
o Widely used for commercial applications.
o General purpose computers.
o High level languages like COBOL & FORTAN are allowed to write programs.
o Generate less heat & consumed less power than 2nd generation computer
Fourth Generation (1972-1984)
o Technology: Microprocessor chip
o Based on LSI & VLSI microprocessor chip.
o Smaller in size.
o Much faster than previous generations.
o Minimum hardware maintenance is required.
o Very reliable as computer to previous generation computers.
o Totally general purpose computer.
o Easy to configure.
o Possible to use network concept to connect the computer together.
o NO requirement of air-conditioners.
o Cheapest in price.
Fifth Generation (1989 to Present)
o Technology: ULSI microprocessor chip
o Much smaller & handy.
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 o Based on the ULSI chip which contains 100 million electronic components.
o The speed of the operations is increased.
o Consumed less power.
o Air-conditioner is not required.
o More user friendly interface with multi-media features.
o High level languages are allowed to write programs.
o Larger & faster primary/secondary storage than previous generations.

THE SIMPLE MODEL COMPUTER.

A simple computer system comprises the basic components like Input Devices, CPU
(Central Processing Unit) and Output Devices as under:
 Input Devices:
o The devices which are used to entered data in the computer systems are known as input
devices.
o Keyboard, mouse, scanner, mike, light pen etc are example of input devices.
FUNCTION OF INPUT DEVICES

o Accept the data from the outside worlds.

o Convert that data into computer coded information.
o Supply this data to CPU for further processing.
 Output Devices:
o The devices which display the result generated by the computer are known as output devices.
o Monitor, printer, plotter, speaker etc are the example of output devices.

FUNCTIONS OF OUTPUT DEVICES

o Accept the result form the CPU.
o Convert that result into human readable form.

 Memory Unit:
o The data & instruction have to store inside the computer before the actual processing
start.
o Same way the result of the computer must be stored before passed to the output devices.
This tasks performed by memory unit.

FUNCTIONS OF MEMORY UNIT

 Store data & instruction received from input devices.
 Store the intermediate results generated by CPU.
 Store the final result generated by CPU.

 Arithmetical & Logical Unit:

o The ALU is the place where actual data & instruction are processed.
o All the calculations are performed & all comparisons are made in ALU.
o Performs all arithmetical & logical operations.
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 o An arithmetic operation contains basic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division.
o Logical operations contains comparison such as less than, greater than, less than equal to,
greater than equal to, equal to, not equal to.

 Control Unit:
o It controls the movement of data and program instructions into and out of the CPU, and
to control the operations of the ALU.
o In sort, its main function is to manage all the activities within the computer system.
o Controls the internal parts as well as the external parts related with the computer.
 CPU:
o The Unit where all the processing is done is called as Central Processing Unit.
o It contains many other units under it.
o Main of them are:- Control Unit And ALU (Arithmetic & Logic Unit)

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 Chapter Two
INPUT DEVICES
WHAT IS INPUT DEVICES?
Input devices are hardware components used to provide data and control signals to a
computer or other information processing systems. They enable users to interact with the
computer, send commands, and input data for processing. Common examples of input
devices include:

1. Keyboard: Used for typing text and entering commands.

2. Mouse: A pointing device that allows users to navigate and interact with on-screen
elements.
3. Touchscreen: A display that detects touch inputs, allowing users to directly interact with
what is displayed.
4. Scanner: Converts physical documents and images into digital format.
5. Microphone: Captures audio input for voice commands, communication, or recording.
6. Webcam: Captures video input, commonly used for video calls or recording.

These devices play a crucial role in the functionality and usability of computers and other
electronic devices, allowing users to enter data, give commands, and interact with software
applications.

FUNCTIONS OF INPUT DEVICES:

 Accept the data from the outside worlds.
 Convert that data into computer coded information.
 Supply this data to Central Processing Unit for further processing.

CLASIFICATION OF INPUT DEVICES:

INPUT DEVICES

STANDAD POINNG SPECIAL

INPUT DEVICS INPUT
DEVICE DEVICES

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 KEYBOARD MOUSE MICROPHONE
TRACK BALL
JOYSTICK
LIGHT PEN
TOUCH SCREEN

1. EXPLAIN STANDARD INPUT DEVICE:

KEYBOARD.
Keyboard is most commonly used input device.
It is similar like a type writer which is used to enter data in the computer.
It contains sets of keys such as alphabets, number & special signs.
There are two types of keyboard.
o General purpose keyboard
o Special purpose keyboard

GENERAL PURPOSE KEYBOARD:

Standard keyboard which are used in personal computers.
It contains enough keys which are used in all types of applications so they are known as general
purpose keyboard.
Most popular general purpose keyboard contains 101 keys.
The general purpose keyboard are divided into following parts:
ALPHANUMERAIC KEYPAD
The centered part of the keyboard is known as alphanumeric keypad.
It contains alphabets, numbers & special signs such as *,!, @, #, $, %,* etc.
NUMERAIC KEYPAD
The right most part of the keyboard is known as numeric keypad.
It contains 0 to 9 numbers & mathematical signs such as +, *, -, /.
Mainly used for fast data entry in mathematical applications.
ARROW KEYS
Set of four keys up, down, left & right.
Used to move the cursor at left & right or up and down on the screen.
They are referred as “cursor-control” or “cursor-movement” keys.
FUNCTION KEYS
The first line of the keyboard contains a Set of 12 keys with name f1 to f2 are known as function
keys.Used to generate short-cuts in different software package.

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 SPECIAL KEYS
There are lots of keys that are used for some specific task describes follows:
TAB: used for gives multiple spaces or move the cursor to next defined position.
ENTER: used for generate the output of any command.
SPACE: used to make one blank space between two words.
BACKSPACE: used to remove the left-most character at cursor position.
DELETE: used to remove the right-most character at cursor position.
HOME: moves the cursor at the beginning of the line.
END: moves cursor at the end of the line.
PAGE UP: moves or scroll the screen up or previous page of the current page.
PAGE DOWN: moves the screen to the next page from the currently displayed page.
PRINT SCREEN: used to print what is currently displayed on the screen.
INSERT: used to enter text between two characters.

ESC: used to negate current command or terminate the execution of the program.
ALT: used to expand the functionality of keyboard. Basically used to generate shortcuts in
different application.
CTRL: used to expand the functionality of keyboard. Basically used to generate shortcuts in
different application.
NUMLOCK: used to on or off the numeric keypad.
CAPSLOCK: used to type the all inputted text capitally.
SPECIAL PURPOSE KEYBOARD
Special purpose keyboard is used for special purpose applications which required faster data entry
and rapid interaction with the computer system.
For example ATM used in banks used special purpose keyboard which contains a few keys.
POINTING DEVICES.

1. MOUSE
 Mouse is Small hand-hold device Input device which is generally used for drawing
purpose.
 It’s a Pointing device.
 It contains two or three buttons
 Left button is used to point out or select any item by clicking.
 Right to generate context menu.
 When user moves mouse across flat surface, the graphic cursor moves on screen.
 Graphic cursor contains verity of symbols such as arrow, wrist, pointing finger etc.
 Depending on application text & graphic cursors are changed.
 The following 5 techniques are used to carry out various operations:
 POINT:
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 o To move the mouse on top of icon
 C LICK:
o To press & release the left button of mouse at once.
o Used to open any currently selected icon, menu.
 DOUBLE CLICK:
o To press & release the left button of mouse twice.
o Used to open any application or program.
MICROPHONE
It’s an input device.
Used to stores the voice data into the computer system.
Microphones are a type of transducer - a device which converts energy from one form to another.
Microphones convert sound waves into electrical energy.
Different types of microphone have different ways of converting energy.
All the microphones share one common thing: The diaphragm.
Thin piece of material (such as paper, plastic or aluminum) which vibrates when it is struck by
sound waves.
When the diaphragm vibrates, it causes other components in the microphone to vibrate.
These vibrations are converted into an electrical current which becomes the audio signal.
The microphones are divided in mainly two types The type of
conversion technology they use
This refers to the technical method the mike uses to convert sound into electricity.
The most common technologies are dynamic, condenser, ribbon and crystal.
The type of application they are designed for
Some mikes are designed for general use and others are much specialised purpose.
WEB CAMERA

 It’s an input device.

 Used to feeds the image to a computer or computer network often via USB or Wi-Fi.
 Web camera is a hardware camera connected to a computer that allows everyone to
connect to internet to view either pictures or motion video.
 Most Web cameras are embedded to display with laptop computer or connected with USB or Wi-
Fi with a computer.
 Simple web cam. Consists a digital camera attached to your computer typically through USB.
 The camera part of web camera is just a digital camera.
 Web camera comes with software which preset interval & transfer it to another location of
viewing.
 Web camera system allows you to using video also for that you have web camera with high frame
rate.

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  Web camera is a digital camera which taking picture over & over & again one after another.
 These images are stored image into the physical memory of camera in built in.
 After capture image & stored in memory it reduced the amount of data need to transmit.
 Web camera software takes image & converts data in jpeg (compressing format).

EXPLAIN SCANNER & ITS TYPES.

 Scanners are input devices.
 They are capable of entering information directly into the computer.
 The main advantage of direct entry of information is that users do not have to key the
information.
 And another advantage is that through Scanners you can input Graphical Data into the
computer. This
 Provides faster and more accurate data entry. Important types of scanners
Image scanner:
 It’s an input device, which translates paper documents into an electronic format which can b
stored in a computer.
 The input document may be typed text, pictures, graphics or even handwritten material.
 There are two types of image

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 UNIT: 3 OUTPUT DEVICES

1. WHAT IS OUTPUT DEVICE.

 The output devices are the devices which are used to display the result generated by
the computer system.
 Monitor, printer, plotter, speaker are the example of output devices.
FUNCTIONS OF INPUT DEVICES:
o Accept the result from the CPU.
o Convert that result into human readable form.
o Supply this result to output device.
2. EXPLAIN THE VISUAL DISPLAY UNIT OR
EXPLAIN CRT (CATHOD RAY TUBE) MONITER.
 The monitor is the common output device mostly used It is a softcopy output device.
 It can be thought of as a high resolution TV set.
 The monitor can also determine if the display will be colour, black and white, or include
graphical objects (pictures).
 Two types of monitors are used.
o CRT monitors.
o Non CRT monitors.
 Most computer monitors are based on Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) technology.
 The basic operation of these tubes is similar to that in television sets.
In CRT display CRT is a specialised vacuum tube in which images are produced
when electron beam strikes a phosphor surface.
 CRT monitor contains cathode, control grid, acceleration anode, deflection plates & phosphor
coated screen.
 Cathode: the cathode is heated by filament and produced high speed & large amount of
electrons.
 Control Grid: used to control the brightness of the screen. It controls the number of electrons.
 Accelerating anodes: they are with focusing lens are applied with positive electrons.
 Horizontal deflection plate: moves electron side by side.
 Vertical deflection: moves electrons up & down.
 Screen: contains millions of tiny red, green, blue phosphor dot that glow when struck by
electron beam that travels across screen to create a visible image.
ADVANTAGES OF CRT DISPLAY
 Produce more colors.
 Price is lower than LCD & Plasma.
 High contrast ratio.
 Can easily increase brightness of monitor by reflecting the light.
DISADVANTAGES OF CRT DISPLAY
 High power consumed.
 Heavy to pick up and carry.
 Large space required.

3. NON CRT DISPLAY.

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LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)
 In LCD, a liquid crystalline material is sandwiched between two glass or a plastic plates.
 The front plate is transparent and the back plate is reflective.
 There is a coating of thin film on the front plate.
 The coating is transparent and conductive. Its sections (segments) are in the shape of
desired characters.
 LCDs do not emit their own light. Therefore, a light source is to be used.
 LCDs simply change the reflection of available light. Today, most LCDs used are of the type
that produces dark images on a silver background.
Advantages:
 Light weight as compare to CRT.
 Perfectly flat screen.
 Consumed low electricity power.
 Able to generate higher brightness in images.
Disadvantages:
 Fixed resolution that cannot be changed.
 Expensive than CRT display.
 Limited viewing angle.
 Short life.

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UNIT: 4 INTERNAL/EXTERNAL PARTS WITH
COMPUTER CABINATE

1. EXPLAIN TYPES OF PROCESSORS. DUAL CORE

 Dual-core refers to a CPU that includes two complete execution cores per physical
processor.
 It has combined two processors and their caches and cache controllers onto a single
integrated circuit (silicon chip )
 Multi-core is similar to dual-core in that it is an expansion to the dual-core technology
which allows for more than two separate processors.
 Dual-core refers to a CPU that includes two complete execution cores per physical
processor.
 It combines two processors and their caches and cache controllers onto a single integrated
circuit (silicon chip).
 It is basically two processors, in most cases, residing reside side-by-side on the same die.
 Dual-core processors are well-suited for multitasking environments because there are two
complete execution cores instead of one.
 Each with an independent interface to the front side bus.
 Since each core has its own cache, the operating system has sufficient resources to handle most
compute intensive tasks in parallel.
ADVANTAGES:
 Performance is faster than single-core processors.
 Able to divide information for processing by multiple units.
 Core processor uses slightly less power than two coupled single-core processors

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2. EXPLAIN PRIMORY STORAGE DEVICE.
 It’s a temporary storage.
 It consists of some chips.
 The data & instruction are resided in this memory when the CPU executing programs.
 This memory can capable to store & retrieved data very quickly.
 Primary memory is only the memory that is directly access to the CPU.
RAM
 The complete name of RAM is random access memory which is also known as Primary
memory.
 It is called read/write memory because data can be read as well as write in RAM.
 It is called random access because you can directly access any data from RAM if you know
row & column cell.
 The RAM chip is fixed on the mother board & the mother board is designed in such a way that its
memory capacity can be enhanced by adding more RAM chip.
 RAM is a VOLETILE memory.
 RAM chips are of two types:
DRAM:
 Dynamic Random Access Memory is a volatile memory that allows fast access to data and is
ideal for use as the primary store of computer systems.
 However, the information is stored as electrical charges and the charges need to be constantly
refreshed in order for the data to be maintained.

SRAM:
 Static Random Access Memory is also a volatile memory.
 Once data is written into the chip, it is maintained as long as power is supplied to it; it does not
need refreshing.
 However, SRAM is slower than DRAM and it is also more expensive.
ROM
 The complete name of ROM is read only memory.
 The data stored permanently & can’t be altered by the programmer.
 Data stored in RAM chip can be read & used but cannot be changed.
 This memory also known a field storage permanent storage or dead storage.
 It is basically used to store manufacturer programmed & user program.
 Most of the basic operations are carried out by electronic circuits which are known as
micro programs.
 These programs are stored in ROM. For ex. System Boot Loader.
ROM
 The complete name of ROM is read only memory.
 The data stored permanently & can’t be altered by the programmer.
 Data stored in RAM chip can be read & used but cannot be changed.

PROM
 Programmable Read Only Memory is a non-volatile memory which allows the user to
program the chip with a PROM writer.
 The chip can be programmed once, thereafter, it cannot be altered.
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 EPROM & EEPROM
 Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory and Electrically Erasable Programmable
Read Only Memory chips can be electrically programmed.
 Unlike ROM and PROM chips, EPROM chips can be erased and reprogrammed.
USB PORT
 It’s a new interface technology which is used to connect computer peripherals such as keyboard,
mouse, scanner, joysticks, printer, web camera etc.
 USB operate at two speeds 1.5 mbps & 12 mbps.
 The speed is depending upon the devices which are attached with the port.
 For example the devices such as mouse, keyboard Use the law band while digital camera use
high speed channel/
 Main advantage is that when devices are attached the appropriate drivers are loaded
automatically.
PS/2 PORT
 Developed by IBM for connecting mouse or keyboard to PC.
 It supports the plug that contains 6 pins.
 Also called mouse port.

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UNIT: 5 DATA STORAGE

1. WRITE A NOTE ON MAGNETIC TAPE

 Sequentially access storage device.
 Most popular storage medium for storage large data.
 Its plastic ribbon which is ½ or ¼ inch wide and 50 to 2400 feet long.
 It is coated with a magnetisable recording material.
 In a magnetic tape data are recorded serially.
 Information is recorded on the tape in the form of tiny invisible magnetized and non magnetized
spots.
 The tape ribbon is itself stored in reels or small cassette.
 Whenever we stored new data on the tape that contains old data the old data are automatically
erased and new data are recorded in the same area.
 In older tape contains 7 tracks and they used 6-bit BCD code format for data recording.
Advantages:
 Large or unlimited storage capacity.
 Low cost.
 Light weight and compact in size.
 Copying of data is easy and fast.
 Possible to erase older data n store new data.
Disadvantages:
 Cannot be accessed directly because it’s a Sequential access device.
 Must be located in dust free environment otherwise it cause errors.
 Data are stored in coded form so cannot interpret or verify directly.

2. WRITE A NOTE ON MAGNETIC TAPE

 Directly access storage device.
 It’s a thin circular plate that is made up with plastic material.
 Plate is coated both side with magnetic material such as iron oxide.
 Information is recorded on the tape in the form of tiny invisible magnetized and non magnetized
spots.
 8-bit EBCDIC code is used for data recording.
 Like magnetic tapes, magnetic disks are also erased & reuse.
 The disk is divided into number of circles called tracks.
 The tracks are further divided into sectors.
 A sector typically contains 512 bytes.

 A floppy disk is a round, flat piece of flexible plastic which is coated with magnetic
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 oxide.
 It is encased in square plastic cover that gives protection to the disk.
 They are also referred as diskettes.
 The data is read and write in floppy disk is using a device called FLOPPY DISC DRIVE.
 The long lit is provided for the read / writes head to access the disk.
 A hub in the centre is used for mounting the disk drive.
 A hole is used to sense index marking.
 The floppy disks are available in two sizes.
o 5 ¼ inch (1.2 MB)
o 3 ½ inch (1.44 MB)

Advantages:
 Cheap in cost.
 Convenient offline storage for small computer users.
Disadvantages;
 Low storage capacity.
 A floppy disk drive device is required to use read/write data.

3. HARD DISK
 Hard disks are most popular secondary storage device.
 It supports the direct access of the data.
 It’s a thin magnetic plate which is made of metal n both side coated with magnetic
material.
 The disk is divided in many tracks & the data is store in both side of the disk.
 The disk pack consists of multiple disk plates.
 The disk drive pack has a separate read/write head for each disk surface.
 The disk drive consists of motor to rotate the disk pack about its axis at a speed of about 5400
revolution per minute.

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  The drive also has a set of magnetic heads mounted on arms.
 The arm assembly is capable of moving in & out in radial direction.
 The hard disk drive has become the most indispensable secondary storage device in micro-
computers.
 It is fast and speeds of less than 10 (ms) milliseconds are achievable.
 Storage capacity is large and it is not uncommon for micro-computers.

4. SHORT NOTE : CD-ROM

 CD-ROM (Compact Disk – Read Only Memory) is a non-erasable backing store which can
hold large amounts of data.
 It’s a shiny silver colour metal disk of 5 ¼ inch and the storage capacity about 650 megabytes.
 Large volume production is achieved by automated processes similar to that of audio compact
disks.
 Many of today’s micro-computers come with CD-ROM readers and as a result, CD-ROM is
popularly used for distribution of software, digitized graphic images as well as Multi-Media
material.
 Information is written on the disk surface by shining a laser beam.
 As a disk rotates the laser beam traces out a continuous spiral.
 It’s known as WORM (Write Once Read Many) disk technology.
 The data can be read time and again but, once the data is stored, it cannot be erased or
changed.
Advantages:
 Cost per bit is Low.
 Need not have any mechanical read/write heads to read/write data.
 Compact in size.
 Light weight
Disadvantages:
 Read only storage medium.
 Slower access speed than magnetic disk.

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UNIT: 6 NUMBER SYSTEM

Introduction
 All digital computers store numbers, letters, and other characters in coded form.
 The code used to represent characters is the Binary Code – i.e. a code made up of bits
called Binary Digits.
 Every character is represented by a string of “0s” and “1s” – the only digits found in the
binary numbering system.
“0” or “1” = bit (Binary Digit) 8
bits = 1 Byte (1 Character) 1024
Bytes = 1 KB (Kilo Bytes) 1024
KB = 1 MB (Mega Byte) 1024 MB
= 1 GB (Giga Byte) 1024 GB= 1
TB (Terra Byte)
 When data is typed into a computer, the key board converts each key stroke into a binary
character code. This code is then transmitted to the computer.
 When the computer transmits the data to the any device, each individual character is
communicated in binary code. It is then converted back to the specific character while
displaying or printing the data.
Number Systems
 Numbers earlier consisted of symbols like I for 1, II for 2, III for 3 etc. Each
 Symbol represented the same value irrespective of its position in the number.
 This approach is called an additive approach. As time passed positional numbering systems
were developed. In such a system the number of symbols is few and they represent different
values depending on the position they occupy.
 Now we know that numbers can be represented by arranging symbols in various
positions.
Decimal Number System (Base 10)
 In the decimal system the successive positions to the left of the decimal point represent units,
tens, hundreds, thousands etc. For example if we consider
 The number 7762, the digit 2 represents the number of units, 6 represents the number of tens,
7 the number of hundreds and 7 the number of thousands.
(7 x 1000) + (7 x 100) + (6 x 10) + (2 x 1) = 7762
 Thus as we move one position to the left, the value of the digit increases by ten times. We
can see that the position of the number affects its value.
 These kinds of number systems are therefore called positional number systems.
 In other words the number of symbols used to represent numbers in the system is called the
base of that system. In short we can say that the value of each digit in the number system is
determined by:
 The digit itself
 The position of the digit in the number itself
 The base of the system.
 The Roman numbering system uses symbols like I, II, III, IV, V etc. To represent
the decimal numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.
 As we can see this follows an additive approach and hence is not conductive to arithmetic.
Binary Number System (Base 2)
 We now come to a different number system – the Binary number system.
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  This binary number system has a base of two, and the symbols used are “0” And “1”.
 In this number system, as we move to the left the value of the digit will be two times
greater than its predecessor. Thus the values of the places are: 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
Converting Decimal To Binary
 In conversion from decimal to any other number system, the steps to be followed are:
o Divide the decimal number by the base of 2.
o Note the remainder in one column and divide the quotient again with the base.
Repeat this process until the quotient is reduced to a zero.
Example:
 The decimal number is 65
2 65 1
2 32 0
2 16 0
2 8 0
2 4 0
2 2 0
1
 The binary number of 65 is 1000001
Converting Binary To Decimal
The decimal number of 100001 is
= (1*26)+(0*25)+(0*24)+(0*23)+(0*22)+(0*21)+(1*20)
= (1*64) + (0*32) + (0*16) + (0*8) + (0*4) + (0*2) + (1 * 1)

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 = 64 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 0 + 1
= 65
 The decimal number of 1000001 is 65 Octal
Number System (Base 8)
 A commonly used positional system is the Octal System. The octal system has a base of 8.
 The values increase from left to right as 1, 8, 64, 512, 4096,….

Converting Decimal To Octal

 In conversion from decimal to any other number system, the steps to be followed are:
o Divide the decimal number by the base of the 8.
Example:
 The decimal number is 224
8 224 0
8 28 4
8 3 3

 The octal number of 224 is 340

Converting Octal To Decimal
 The octal number is 340
 = (3*82)+(4*81)+(0*80)
 = (3*64) + (4*8) + (0*1)
 = 192 + 32 + 0
 = 224
 The decimal number of 340 is 224
Converting Binary Octal

000 0
001 1
010 2
011 3
100 4
101 5
110 6
111 7
Converting from Binary to Octal

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  The binary number must be divided into groups of three from the octal point – to the right in
case of the fractional portion and to the left in case of the integer portion. Each group can
then be replaced with their octal equivalent.
 Example
 Binary 101010101010100
101 010 101 010 100
5 2 5 2 4
 So, 52524 is the Octal equivalent of binary 101010101010100
Converting Octal to Binary
 Each octal digit is replaced with the appropriate ‘triple’ of binary digits.
e.g. 65
6 5
110 101
 The binary equivalent of the Octal number 65 is 110101
Hexadecimal Number System (Base 16)
 There is another commonly used positional system, hexadecimal system.
 The hexadecimal system has a base of 16, so the value increases from left to right as 1, 16,
256, 65536,. . . .
 We need to keep a simple table in mind before we attempt any conversion from
hexadecimal or vice-versa.
Converting Decimal To HexaDecimal
 In conversion from decimal to any other number system, the steps to be followed are:
o Divide the decimal number by the base of 16.
Example:
 The decimal number is 370
16 370 2
16 23 7
16 1 1
0
 The hexadecimal number of 370 is 172
Converting Hexadecimal To Decimal
The hexadecimal number 172
= (1*162) + (7*161) + (2*160)
= (1*256) + (7*16) + (2*1)
= 256+112+2

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 = 370
 The decimal number of 172 is 370
Converting Binary to Hexadecimal
 Each hexadecimal digit is represented by 4 binary digits. Binary
Hexadecimal
0000 0
0001 1
0010 2
0011 3
0100 4
0101 5
0110 6
0111 7
1000 8
1001 9
1010 A
1011 B
1100 C
1101 D
1110 E
1111 F
 To convert a binary number to its hexadecimal equivalent we split the quantity into
groups of four onwards, as before.
 Each of this group of four is directly converted into their hexadecimal equivalent.
 We may add zeros to the left of the number if necessary.
 example
Binary 10101011000010
0010 1010 1100 0010
2 A C 2
 So, the hexadecimal equivalent of binary 10101011000010 will be 2AC2
Converting Hexadecimal to Binary
 The conversion from hexadecimal to binary consists of writing off the binary

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 Equivalent of each hexadecimal digit in groups of four.
 e.g.
Hexadecimal 1901A0412C
0001 1001 0000 0001 1010 0000 0100 0001 0010 1100
1 9 0 1 A 0 4 1 2 C
 Thus the required binary number can be written as:
1100100000001101000000100000100101100

Converting Hexadecimal to Octal

 Write 4 digit binary numbers for each hexadecimal.
 Arrange the entire number sequence into group of 3 bit section.
 If any bit is missing add 0 on leftmost section.
 Now write down octal equivalent of each 3 bit section.
 Example:
 The hexadecimal number is 2A35.
2 A 3 5
0010 1010 0011 0101
000 010 101 000 110 101
0 2 5 0 6 5
 The octal number is 25065
Converting Octal to Hexadecimal
 Write 3 digit binary number for each octal.
 Arrange the entire number sequence into group of 4 bit section.
 If any bit is missing add 0 on leftmost section.
 Now write down hexadecimal equivalent of each 4 bit section.
 Example:
 The octal number is 25065.
2 5 0 6 5
010 101 000 110 101
0010 1010 0011 0101
2 A 3 5
The hexadecimal number is 2A35
Binary Arithmetic

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  All the arithmetic operations are possible in binary numbering system like addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division All the Arithmetic operations are done in binary
number system are explained as under:
Addition
 For binary addition the following rules of binary addition are to be considered:
o 0+0=0
o 0+1=1
o 1+0=1
o 1 + 1 = 0 (carry 1 to the next column to the left)
o 1 + 1 + 1 = 1 (carry 1 to the next column)
 e.g. 1 Add two binary numbers 11011 and 111
 Carry 1 1 1 1
10111
+111
1 0 0 0 1 0 (Answer)
Subtraction
 Though there are other methods of performing subtraction, we will consider the method of
subtraction know as complementary subtraction.
 This is a more efficient method of subtraction while using electronic circuits. We will be
following three steps to perform subtraction:
o Find the complement of the number you are subtracting.
o To the complement of the number we obtained in step 1, we add the number we are
subtracting from.
o If there is a carry of 1 add the carry to the result of the addition else re complement
the sum and attach a negative sign.
 How do we find the complement of a binary number ? We have to invert all the bits. e.g.
Number Complement
10001101 01110010
00101010 11010101
 Consider the following example of subtraction:
e.g. 1
1010101 – 1001100
 Step-1. Find the complement of 1001100
0110011

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  Step-2. Add the number you are subtracting from Carry 1 1
10111
1010101
+0110011

0001000
+ 1 (Continue since there is a carry of 1)

0 0 0 1 0 0 1 (Answer)
e.g. 2
101100 – 11100101
 Step-1. Find the complement of 11100101
00011010
 Step-2. Add the number you are subtracting from Carry 0
111
00101100
+00011010
0 1000110
 Step-3. Since there is no carry we are complement the result 10111001
attach a negative sign
 - 10111001 (Answer)
Multiplication
 Multiplication
 Multiplication in binary follows the same rules that are followed in the decimal
system. The table to be remembered is:
 0x0=0
 0x1=0
 1x0=0
 1x1=1
 e.g.
1010 * 1001
1010
x 1001

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 1010
0000
0000
1010

101101 0
 The answer is (1011010)

Division
 Table for binary division is given as under:
 0/1=1
 1/1=1
 The steps for binary division are:
o Start from the left of the dividend.
o Perform subtraction in which the divisor is subtracted from the dividend
o If subtraction is possible put a 1 in the quotient and subtract the divisor from the
corresponding digits of the dividend else put a 0 in the quotient
o Bring down the next digit to the right of the remainder.
o Execute step 2 till there are no more digits left to strating down from the dividend.
 e.g.
 100001 / 110
0101 (quotient)
110 100001
110
1000
110
100
110
1001
110
11 (reminder)

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Unit Of Information (Codes)
 Most computers do not represent characters as pure binary numbers.
 They use a coded version of true binary to represent letters and special symbols as well as
decimal numbers.
 Coding of characters has been standardized to enable transfer of data between computers.
 Codes used are:
- BCD
- ASCII
- EBCDIC
BCD
 BCD stands for Binary Coded Decimal.
 BCD code is one of the early computer codes.
 It is based on the idea of converting each digit of a decimal number into its binary equivalent
rather than converting the entire decimal into binary form.
 All decimal digits are represented in BCD by 4 bit.
 Each decimal digit is independently converted into a 4 bit binary number & so the conversion
process is very easy.
 4 bit BCD can be used to represents only decimal numbers because 4 bits are insufficient to
represent various characters.
 By using 4 bit BCD only 16 possible characters are represented.
 So the BCD code was extended from 6-bit code and it is possible to represent 64 characters.

ASCII

 ASCII stands for American Standard Code for Information Interchange.

 In this form of representation, each character (which includes alphabets, digits and symbols) is
assigned a particular pattern of bits.
 For example, A is represented as binary 1000012, B as 10000102 and so on.
 The standard ASCII character set uses 7 bits and can be used to represent 128 different
characters.
 It uses one extra parity bit for parity check.
 Other forms of ASCII codes use an extra bit to extend the representation to 256 characters.
 However, characters represented from binary are not universally agreed upon.
 The most popular form is the set used by IBM.
 ASCII is commonly used to exchange data between data processing and
communication systems.

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