COURSE # PD-407

COURSE TITLE: Bio-statistics

Dated: 21st, 23rd May 2024 (M)
20th, 21st May 2024 (E)

By,
Dr. Sadia Iqbal
Lecturer
Pharm.D, M.Phil., Ph.D. Scholar (Pharmaceutical Chemistry)
DCOP-DUHS
TOPICS INCLUDED
➢ TEST OF HYPOTHESIS AND SIGNIFICANCE
Statistical Hypothesis. Level of significance . Test of Significance.
Confidence Intervals.
➢ STUDENT “T” TEST, “Z” TEST, “F” TEST, TEST
CONCERNING VARIANCE AND CHI-SQUARE
DISTRIBUTION:
Test of Significance based on “t”, “z”, “F”, test concerning variance
and Chi Square Distributions.
➢ ANALYSIS OF VARIANCE (ANOVA):
One – way classification, Two-way Classification. Partitioning of sum
of Squares and Degree of Freedom, Multiple compression test. The
analysis of variance Moldes
 OBJECTIVES
At the end of lecture, students will be able to understand:

• Bio-Statistics • Alternate hypothesis

• Statisticalhypothesis • Level of significance
• Characteristics of • Critical region
hypothesis • Type I & II errors
• Steps involved in • Confidence interval
testing of hypothesis • One tail and two tail
• Null hypothesis tests
BIOSTATISTICS:

• Bio-statistics is concerned with scientific methods

for collecting, organizing, summarizing, graphical
presenting and analyzing the biological data as
well as drawing valid conclusions and making
sensible decisions on the basis of analysis.
 ❑ STATISTICAL HYPOTHESIS:
Greek, hypotithenai meaning
"to put under" or "to suppose."

A statistical hypothesis is either:

(1) a statement about the value of a population parameter (e.g.,
mean, median, mode, variance, standard deviation,
proportion, total),
or
(2) a statement about the kind of probability distribution that
a certain variable obeys.
TESTING OF HYPOTHESIS
EXAMPLES:

o The mean age of all university boys is 20 years.

o The proportion of university students who are women
is 76 percent.
o The modal GPR in university this semester is 3.45.

o The proportion of books in the Public Library whose

heights exceed 30 cm is less than or equal to 0.13.
Test of Hypothesis OR Test of Significance

• Hypothesis is generally considered the most important

instrument in research. Its main function is to suggest
new functions and ideas.
• In social sciences where direct knowledge of
population parameters is rare hypothesis testing is
often used for deciding whether sample data supports
our purpose.
CHARACTERISTICS OF HYPOTHESIS
It should be
o Clear and precise
o Capable of being tested
o Able to relate to a variable
o Stated in very simple terms
o Limited in scope and
specific
o Consistent with must known
facts
o Testable within reasonable
time
STEPS INVOLVED IN TESTING OF
HYPOTHESIS:
o A statement of the central hypothesis (the null hypothesis)
A statement of the alternative hypothesis to be considered
o A statement of the highest acceptable value of "α”
o A description of an experiment, including specification of:
• The possible outcomes of the experiment i.e., the set
of possible values that might be observed for the "test statistic“.
• The subset of the possible outcomes that will lead to rejection of the null
hypothesis (in technical terms, the "critical region").
o A statement of conclusion
NULL AND ALTERNATE HYPOTHESIS
Null hypothesis (Ho)
• The null hypothesis, denoted by H0, is usually the hypothesis
that sample observations result purely from chance.
• It is always expressed in some form of equality such as, less
than or equal to (≤), greater than or equal to (≥), or exactly
equal to (=)
• The hypothesis which we want to test is called the null
hypothesis.
NULL AND ALTERNATE HYPOTHESIS
Alternate hypothesis (HA)
• The alternative hypothesis, denoted by H1 or HA, is the
hypothesis that sample observations are influenced by some
non-random cause
• The hypothesis opposite the null hypothesis is called alternate
hypothesis
• It is always the form of inequality. Inequality may be expressed
in one of only three ways:
greater than (>), less than (<), or not equal to (≠)
 For example, suppose we wanted to determine whether a coin
was fair and balanced. A null hypothesis might be that half the
flips would result in Heads and half, in Tails. The alternative
hypothesis might be that the number of Heads and Tails would
be very different. Symbolically, these hypotheses would be
expressed as
◦ H0: P = 0.5
HA: P ≠ 0.5
 Suppose we flipped the coin 50 times, resulting in 40 Heads
and 10 Tails. Given this result, we would be inclined to reject
the null hypothesis. We would conclude, based on the
evidence, that the coin was probably not fair and balanced.
 ERRORS
• Type I errors:
Rejection of the null hypothesis when it is true.
• Type II errors:

Acceptance of the null hypothesis when it is false.

LEVEL OF SIGNIFICANCE (α) :
• The maximum probability of errors or chance of risk is called
the level of significance of the test.
• “The probability of a false rejection of the null hypothesis in a
statistical test”.
CRITICAL REGION:
• It must be decided before
the sample is drawn that
under what circumstances
the Ho will be rejected.
Critical Region--the set of
values of the test statistic
that cause the null
hypothesis to be reject.
 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN LEVEL OF
SIGNIFICANCE AND CRITICAL REGION
• The significance level, also
denoted as alpha or α, is the
probability of rejecting the null
hypothesis when it is true. ...
• The critical region defines how
far away our sample statistic must
be from the null hypothesis value
before we can say it is unusual
enough to reject the null
hypothesis.
 LAST STEP – CONCLUSION:

❑Conclusion– the final line,

stating either the null hypothesis is accepted or it is rejected.

❑Without conclusion, the whole testing of hypothesis is invalid

and becomes insignificant.
 CONFIDENCE INTERVAL:

o Confidence interval is used to indicate

the reliability of an estimate.
o Confidence interval is

constructed at a
CONFIDENCE

confidence level, such as 95%. INTERVAL

o A confidence interval stated at a (1-α)100% level can be thought

of as the inverse of a significance interval α.

One Tailed and Two Tailed Tests:
One Tailed and Two Tailed Tests
TYPES OF TEST OF HYPOTHESIS:
• Sample

Mean: x̅
Standard deviation: S

• Population

Mean: µₒ
Standard deviation: δ
TYPES OF TEST OF HYPOTHESIS
• WhenPopulation S.D is not known and n < 30:
One-Sample t Test

• WhenPopulation S.D is known and n ≥ 30 :

One-Sample z Test