What Are Energy Bands?

Energy Bands Description

In gaseous substances, the arrangement of molecules is spread apart and are not so close to
each other. In liquids, the molecules are closer to each other. But, in solids, the molecules are
closely arranged together, due to this atoms of molecules tend to move into the orbitals of
neighbouring atoms. Hence, the electron orbitals overlap when atoms come together.

In solids, several bands of energy levels are formed due to the intermixing of atoms in solids.
We call these set of energy levels as energy bands.

Formation of Energy Bands

In an isolated atom, the electrons in each orbit possess definite energy. But, in the case of
solids, the energy level of the outermost orbit electrons is affected by the neighbouring atoms.

When two isolated charges are brought close to each other, the electrons in the outermost
orbit experience an attractive force from the nearest or neighbouring atomic nucleus. Due to
this reason, the energies of the electrons will not be at the same level, the energy levels of
electrons are changed to a value which is higher or lower than that of the original energy
level of the electron.

The electrons in the same orbit exhibit different energy levels. The grouping of these
different energy levels is known as the energy band.

However, the energy of the inner orbit electrons is not much affected by the presence of
neighbouring atoms.

Classification of Energy Bands

Valence Band
The electrons in the outermost shell are known as valence electrons. These valence electrons
contain a series of energy levels and form an energy band known as the valence band. The
valence band has the highest occupied energy.

Conduction Band
The valence electrons are not tightly held to the nucleus due to which a few of these valence
electrons leave the outermost orbit even at room temperature and become free electrons. The
free electrons conduct current in conductors and are therefore known as conduction electrons.
The conduction band is one that contains conduction electrons and has the lowest occupied
energy levels.

Forbidden Energy Gap

The gap between the valence band and the conduction band is referred to as the forbidden
gap. As the name suggests, the forbidden gap doesn’t have any energy and no electrons stay
in this band. If the forbidden energy gap is greater, then the valence band electrons are tightly
bound or firmly attached to the nucleus. We require some amount of external energy that is
equal to the forbidden energy gap.

The figure below shows the conduction band, valence band and the forbidden energy gap.

Conductors
Gold, Aluminium, Silver, Copper, all these metals allow an electric current to flow through
them.

There is no forbidden gap between the valence band and conduction band which results in the
overlapping of both the bands. The number of free electrons available at room temperature is
large.
Insulators
Glass and wood are examples of the insulator. These substances do not allow electricity to
pass through them. They have high resistivity and very low conductivity.

The energy gap in the insulator is very high up to 7eV. The material cannot conduct because
the movement of the electrons from the valence band to the conduction band is not possible.

Semiconductors
Germanium and Silicon are the most preferable material whose electrical properties lie in
between semiconductors and insulators. The energy band diagram of semiconductors is
shown where the conduction band is empty and the valence band is completely filled but the
forbidden gap between the two bands is very small that is about 1eV. For Germanium, the
forbidden gap is 0.72eV and for Silicon, it is 1.1eV. Thus, semiconductor requires small
conductivity.

Energy Band Theory

According to Bohr’s theory, every shell of an atom contains a discrete amount of energy at
different levels. Energy band theory explains the interaction of electrons between the
outermost shell and the innermost shell. Based on the energy band theory, there are three
different energy bands:

1. Valence band
2. Forbidden energy gap
3. Conduction band

Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs

Q1

The valence band and the conduction band overlap in

_____.
The valence band and the conduction band overlap in conductors.

Q2

What is the energy that a valence electron should have to

jump from the valence band to the conduction band called?
The valence electrons must have the same energy as an energy gap to jump from the valence band
to conduction band.

Q3
What is the energy gap between the valence and
conduction band termed as?
The energy gap between the valence and the conduction band is termed as energy gap.

Q4

The band in which the electrons move freely is known as

_____.
The band in which the electrons move freely is known as the conduction band.

Q5

What is a band model?

Band theory models the behaviour of electrons in solids by postulating the existence of energy
bands. It successfully uses a material’s band structure to explain the many physical properties of
solids.

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Learning App” for loads of interactive, engaging Physics-related videos and unlimited
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Test Your Knowledge On What Are Energy

What Are Energy Levels?

Energy levels (also called electron shells) are fixed distances from
the nucleus of an atom where electrons may be found. Electrons are tiny,
negatively charged particles in an atom that move around the positive
nucleus at the center. Energy levels are a little like the steps of a
staircase. You can stand on one step or another but not in between the
steps. The same goes for electrons. They can occupy one energy level or
another but not the space between energy levels.

The model in the figure below shows the first four energy levels of an
atom. Electrons in energy level I (also called energy level K) have the least
amount of energy. As you go farther from the nucleus, electrons at higher
levels have more energy, and their energy increases by a fixed, discrete
amount. Electrons can jump from a lower to the next higher energy level if
they absorb this amount of energy. Conversely, if electrons jump from a
higher to a lower energy level, they give off energy, often in the form of
light. This explains the fireworks pictured above. When the fireworks
explode, electrons gain energy and jump to higher energy levels. When
they jump back to their original energy levels, they release the energy as
light. Different atoms have different arrangements of electrons, so they
give off light of different colors.

Figure 5.12.
25.12.2 (Credit: Zachary Wilson; Source: CK-12 Foundation;
License: CC BY-NC 3.0(opens in new window))

Q: In the atomic model Figure above, where would you find electrons that
have the most energy?

A: Electrons with the most energy would be found in energy level IV.

Energy Levels and Orbitals

The smallest atoms are hydrogen atoms. They have just one electron.
That one electron is in the first energy level. Bigger atoms have more
electrons. Electrons are always added to the lowest energy level first until
it has the maximum number of electrons possible. Then electrons are
added to the next higher energy level until that level is full, and so on.

How many electrons can a given energy level hold? The maximum
numbers of electrons possible for the first four energy levels are shown in
the figure above. For example, energy level I can hold a maximum of two
electrons, and energy level II can hold a maximum of eight electrons. The
maximum number depends on the number of orbitals at a given energy
level. An orbital is a volume of space within an atom where an electron is
most likely to be found. As you can see by the images in the figure below,
some orbitals are shaped like spheres (S orbitals) and some are shaped
like dumbbells (P orbitals). There are other types of orbitals as well.

The Outermost Level

Electrons in the outermost energy level of an atom have a special
significance. These electrons are called valence electrons, and they
determine many of the properties of an atom. An atom is most stable if its
outermost energy level contains as many electrons as it can hold. For
example, helium has two electrons, both in the first energy level. This
energy level can hold only two electrons, so helium’s only energy level is
full. This makes helium a very stable element. In other words, its atoms
are unlikely to react with other atoms.

Consider the elements fluorine and lithium, modeled in the figure below.
Fluorine has seven of eight possible electrons in its outermost energy
level, which is energy level II. It would be more stable if it had one more
electron because this would fill its outermost energy level. Lithium, on the
other hand, has just one of eight possible electrons in its outermost
energy level (also energy level II). It would be more stable if it had one
less electron because it would have a full outer energy level (now energy
level I).

Figure 5.12.
45.12.4 (Credit: Zachary Wilson; Source: CK-12 Foundation; License: CC
BY-NC 3.0(opens in new window))

Both fluorine and lithium are highly reactive elements because of their
number of valence electrons. Fluorine will readily gain one electron and
lithium will just as readily give up one electron to become more stable. In
fact, lithium and fluorine will react together as shown in the figure below.
When the two elements react, lithium transfers its one “extra” electron to
fluorine.

Figure 5.12.
55.12.5 (Credit: Zachary Wilson; Source: CK-12 Foundation; License: CC
BY-NC 3.0(opens in new window))

Q: A neon atom has ten electrons. How many electrons does it have in its
outermost energy level? How stable do you think a neon atom is?

A: A neon atom has two electrons in energy level I and its remaining eight
electrons in energy level II, which can hold only eight electrons. This
means that is outermost energy level is full. Therefore, a neon atom is
very stable.

Summary
 Energy levels (also called electron shells) are fixed distances from
the nucleus of an atom where electrons may be found. As you go
farther from the nucleus, electrons at higher energy levels have
more energy.
 Electrons are always added to the lowest energy level first until it
has the maximum number of electrons possible, and then electrons
are added to the next higher energy level until that level is full, and
so on. The maximum number of electrons at a given energy level
depends on its number of orbitals. There are at most two electrons
per orbital.
 Electrons in the outermost energy level of an atom are called
valence electrons. They determine many of the properties of an
atom, including how reactive it is.

Review
1. What are energy levels?
2. Relate energy levels to the amount of energy their electrons have.
 3. What must happen for an electron to jump to a different energy
level?
4. How many electrons can the fourth energy level have? How many
orbitals are there at this energy level?
5.
6.

Difference Between Conductor, Semiconductor

and Insulator
Electrical Technology

0 3 minutes read

What is the Difference Between Conductors, Semiconductors and

Insulators?
The main difference between the conductor, semiconductor & insulator is in its
conduction state. The conductors always conduct electric current while the insulators
do no conduct. However, semiconductor conducts & blocks at different conditions.

Table of Contents
 What is a Conductor?
 What is Semiconductor?
 What is Insulator?
 Differences Between Conductors, Semiconductors & Insulators:
What is a Conductor?
In Electrical & Electronics engineering, a conductor is a type of material that allows
the flow of charge otherwise known as electrical current. Most common electrical
conductors are made from metals. Such materials allow the current flow due to the
presence of free electron or ions which starts moving when voltage is applied.
The conductors have very low electrical resistance i.e. the opposition to the current
flow & depend on the length & width of the conductor. It increases with increase in
temperature.
 Related Post: Difference Between Conductor and Superconductor
What is Semiconductor?
Semiconductors are materials that have conductivity in-between conductors and
insulators. They can block or allow the current flow providing total control over it.
They are mostly modified by adding impurities called doping. It modifies its
properties like unidirectional current flow or amplification or energy conversion etc.
The electrical conduction inside semiconductors is due to the movement of electrons
& holes.
 Related Post: Difference Between Current and Voltage
What is Insulator?
An insulator is a material that has very high electrical resistance & it does not allow
the flow of current. There are no free electrons in insulators thus they do not conduct
electricity. Thus they are used for protection against shock.
 Related Post: Difference Between Voltage and EMF?
Differences Between Conductors, Semiconductors &
Insulators:
Characteristics Conductor Semiconductor Insulator

A semiconductor is a
A conductor is a material that An insulator is a m
material whose
Definition allows the flow of charge when that does not all
conductivity lies between
applied with a voltage. flow of curre
conductor & insulator

The resistance of a
semiconductor decrease Insulator has ve
The resistance of a conductor
Temperature with increases in resistance but
increases with an increase in
Dependence temperature. Thus it acts decreases w
temperature.
as an insulator at temperatur
absolute zero.
 They have intermediate
The conductors have conductivity ((10-7 Ʊ / They have very
very high conductivity (10-7 Ʊ m to 10-13 Ʊ /m), thus they conductivity (1
Conductivity
/m), thus they can conduct can acts as insulator & m), thus they do n
electrical current easily. conductor at different current flow
conditions.

The conduction in
The conduction in conductors There are no
semiconductor is due to
Conduction is due to the free electrons in electrons or hole
the movement of electron
metal bonding. there is no cond
& holes.

The band gap of The band gap in i

There is no or low energy semiconductor is greater is huge (+5 eV),
gap between the conduction & than the conductor but need an enorm
Band gap valance band of a conductor. It smaller than an insulator amount of energ
does not need extra energy for i.e. 1 eV. Their electrons lightning to p
the conduction state. need a little energy for electrons into
conduction state. conduction ba

Normal (10-
Resistivity Low (10-5 Ω/m) Very High (105
5
Ω/m to 105 Ω/m)

The coefficien
It has positive coefficient of
It has negative resistivity of an in
Coefficient of Resistivity resistivity i.e. its resistance
coefficient of resistivity. is also negative b
increase with temperature
very huge resis

Some special conductors turn

into superconductors when The semiconductors turn The insulator’s re
Absolute Zero supercooled down to absolute into insulator at absolute increase when c
zero while other have finite zero. down to absolut
resistance.

Valence Electron in Outer 1 Valence electron in outer 4 Valence electron in 8 Valence elect
Shell shell. outer shell. outer shell

Silicon, Germanium,
Selenium,
Gold, Copper, Silver, Rubber, Glass, W
Examples Antimony, Gallium
Aluminum etc Mica, Plastic, Pa
Arsenide (known as semi
insulator),Boron etc.

Application The metals like iron & copper Semiconductors are used The insulators ar
etc. that can conduct electricity every day electronic for protection aga
are made into wires and cable devices such as voltages & preve
for carrying electric current. cellphone, computer, electrical short b
 solar panel etc as
switches, energy cables in circ
converter, amplifiers, etc.

Conduction And Valence

Band In Semiconductors
The electrons essential for conduction are held in the
conduction band. The energy level of the electrons in
the outer shell of an atomic structure is defined by the
valence band.

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A specific amount of energy separates the two distinct energy levels of the conduction band and
valence band. The main distinction between the valence band and the conduction band is that
the valence band describes the energy level of electrons in an atomic structure’s valence shell.
On the other hand, a conduction band contains the electrons responsible for conduction. The
conduction band and the valence band intersect in metallic conductors. At sufficiently low
temperatures, the conduction band in semiconductors and inductors is devoid of electrons.
Thermal excitation of electrons from a lower energy band or impurity atoms in the crystal
produces conduction electrons.

Band Theory
According to the band theory, semiconductors will operate as insulators at absolute zero. The
metal would operate as a semiconductor above this temperature while remaining below the
solid’s melting point. The fully occupied valence band and the unoccupied conduction band
classify semiconductors. Because of the tiny band gap between these two bands, exciting
electrons from the valence to the conduction band require energy.

Conduction Band

In a crystalline material that is partially filled with electrons, the conduction band is a delocalized
band of energy levels. These electrons are responsible for electrical conductivity and have high
mobility. When an atom is energized, electrons can jump to a band of electron orbitals called the
conduction band. These electrons leave the valence band and jump to the conduction band.
These electrons have enough energy to flow freely inside a material while in the conduction
band. An electric current is created as a result of this movement.

The bandgap is the energy difference between the valence band’s highest energy level energy
state and the conduction band’s lowest occupied energy state. The bandgap is a measurement
of a material’s electrical conductivity. The two bands overlap, just like in conductors, and
electrons in the lower energy band can easily travel to the conduction band. However, external
energy is required to release the valence electrons because there is a substantial energy gap
between the two bands in semiconductors. However, the bandgap is quite big in insulators,
requiring a lot of energy to make the valence electron a free electron.

Valence Band

It is generally described as the energy band that consists of valence band electrons in an atomic
structure’s outermost shell. When given enough energy, these valence electrons become free
electrons and travel to the conduction band, resulting in conductivity. In the energy level diagram,
it is at a lower energy level than the conduction band and is abbreviated as the valence band.
The forbidden energy gap is the amount of energy that separates these two bands. This energy
gap is determined by the type of material, which is either a conductor, an insulator, or a
semiconductor. The valence and conduction bands are nearest to the Fermi level in solid-state
physics and influence the solid’s electrical conductivity. The valence band is the largest range of
electron energies in which electrons are generally found at zero temperature in semiconductors.

Valence Band vs. Conduction Band Main Differences

When an atom is stimulated, electrons can leap out of the valence band, made up of electron
bands. However, in a crystalline material that is partially filled with electrons, the conduction band
is a delocalized band of energy levels. Following are the key difference between the Conduction
band and Valence band:

1. Below the Fermi energy level, there is a valence band. In the energy band diagram, the
conduction band is present above the Fermi level.
 2. Electrons in the valence band move out when external stimulation is applied. The
electrons, however, shift into the conduction band due to external energy.

3. The density of electrons in the valence band is higher than in the conduction band.

4. The valence band is frequently partially or filled at ambient temperature. At room

temperature, the conduction band is usually vacant or partially replaced.

5. The valence band has a lower energy level than the conduction band, which has a larger
energy level.

6. The nucleus exerts a strong push on the electrons in the valence band. On the other
hand, the nucleus exerts a weak or non-existent force on the electrons in the conduction
band.

Conclusion

Valence electrons are the electrons that are found within the outer shell. These electrons are
made up of a series of energy levels that make up the valence band. At normal temperature, the
valence electrons are loosely linked to the nucleus. Some valence electron electrons will be able
to depart the band freely. These free electrons, also known as conduction electrons, will conduct
current flow within a conductor. The conduction band, which includes electrons, is named after
the occupied energy of this band.

Frequently asked questions

Get answers to the most common queries related to the NEET UG Examination
Preparation.
Valence band

Figure 1.[1] A diagram showing the valence and conduction bands of insulators, metals,
and semiconductors. The Fermi level is the name given to the highest energy occupied
electron orbital at absolute zero.[2]

The valence band is the band of electron orbitals that electrons can jump out of,
moving into the conduction band when excited. The valence band is simply the
outermost electron orbital of an atom of any specific material that electrons actually
occupy. This is closely related to the idea of the valence electron.

The energy difference between the highest occupied energy state of the valence
band and the lowest unoccupied state of the conduction band is called the band
gap and is indicative of the electrical conductivity of a material.[3] A large band gap
means that a lot of energy is required to excite valence electrons to the conduction
band. Conversely, when the valence band and conduction band overlap as they do
in metals, electrons can readily jump between the two bands (see Figure 1) meaning
the material is highly conductive.[4]

The difference between conductors, insulators, and semiconductors can be shown

by how large their band gap is.[5] Insulators are characterized by a large band gap,
so a prohibitively large amount of energy is required to move electrons out of the
valence band to form a current.[6] Conductors have an overlap between the
conduction and valence bands, so the valence electrons in such conductors are
essentially free.[4] Semiconductors, on the other hand, have a small band gap that
allows for a meaningful fraction of the valence electrons of the material to move into
the conduction band given a certain amount of energy. This property gives them a
conductivity between conductors and insulators, which is part of the reason why they
are ideal for circuits as they will not cause a short circuit like a conductor.[2] This band
gap also allows semiconductors to convert light into electricity in photovoltaic cells
and to emit light as LEDs when made into certain types of diodes. Both these
processes rely on the energy absorbed or released by electrons moving between the
conduction and valence bands.

Conduction band

Figure 1.[1] A diagram showing the valence and conduction bands of insulators, metals,
and semiconductors. The Fermi level is the name given to the highest energy occupied
electron orbital at absolute zero.[2]

The conduction band is the band of electron orbitals that electrons can jump up into
from the valence band when excited. When the electrons are in these orbitals, they
have enough energy to move freely in the material. This movement of electrons
creates an electric current. The valence band is simply the outermost electron orbital
of an atom of any specific material that electrons actually occupy. The energy
difference between the highest occupied energy state of the valence band and the
lowest unoccupied state of the conduction band is called the band gap and is
indicative of the electrical conductivity of a material.[3] A large band gap means that a
lot of energy is required to excite valence electrons to the conduction band.
Conversely, when the valence band and conduction band overlap as they do
in metals, electrons can readily jump between the two bands (see Figure 1) meaning
the material is highly conductive.[4]

Insulators are characterized by a large band gap, so a prohibitively large amount of

energy is required to move electrons into the conduction band to form a current.
[5]
Conductors have an overlap between the conduction and valence bands, so the
valence electrons in such conductors are essentially free.[4] Semiconductors, on the
other hand, have a small band gap that allows for a meaningful fraction of the
valence electrons of the material to move into the conduction band given a certain
amount of energy. This property gives them a conductivity between conductors and
insulators, which is part of the reason why they are ideal for electric circuits as they
will not cause a short circuit like a conductor.[2] This band gap also allows
semiconductors to convert light into electricity in photovoltaic cells and to emit light
as LEDs when made into certain types of diodes. Both these processes rely on the
energy absorbed or released by electrons moving between the conduction and
valence bands.

ENERGY BAND

Conduction Band
A conduction band is a delocalised band of energy levels in a crystalline solid that is
partially filled with electrons. These electrons are highly mobile and are responsible for
electrical conductivity. However, before we learn about the conduction band, we will
understand the band theory.

Table of Contents
 Band Theory
 What Is the Conduction Band?
 Conduction Bands in Semiconductors and Metallic Conduits
 Differences between Valence Band and Conduction Band
 Forbidden Band
 Understanding Related Terms
 Conduction Band Questions
 Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs

Band Theory
A useful way to visualise the distinction between conductors (metal), insulators
and semiconductors is to plot out their energies for electrons within the material. Rather than
having distinct energies, as within the case of free atoms, the energy states which are
available form bands.
Crucial to the conductivity method is whether or not the electrons are inside the conductivity
band. In insulators, the electrons inside the valence band are separated by a large gap from
the conduction band; in conductors, like metals, the valence band overlaps the conduction
band, and in semiconductors, there is a very little gap between the valence and conduction
bands that thermal or totally different excitations can bridge the gap.

With such a small gap, the presence of a less proportion of doping material can increase
conduction dramatically. A vital parameter inside the band theory is that of the Fermi level,
the highest of the accessible electron energy levels at lower temperatures. The position of the
Fermi level in relevance to the conductivity band might be important to place confidence in
crucial electrical properties.

What Is the Conduction Band?

The conduction band is the band of electron orbitals that electrons can bounce up into from
the valence band when energised. At the point when the electrons are in these orbitals, they
have enough energy to move freely in the material. This movement of electrons makes an
electric current flow. The valence band is the furthest electron orbital of a particle of a
particular material in which electrons are involved.

Also Read: Basic Logic Gates

The energy distinction between the highest occupied energy state of the valence band and the
least abandoned condition of the conduction band is known as the bandgap, and is
demonstrative of the electrical conductivity of a material. An enormous bandgap implies that
a great deal of vitality is required to energise valence electrons to the conduction band. Then
again, when the valence band and conduction band cover as they do in metals, electrons can
promptly bounce between the two groups, which means the material is profoundly
conductive.

The electrons in this energy band can expand their energies by going to higher energy levels
inside the band when an electric field is applied to quicken them or when the temperature of
the crystal is increased. These electrons are called conduction electrons.

Conduction Bands in Semiconductors and

Metallic Conductors
In metallic conductors, the conduction band and the valence band overlap.

In semiconductors and inductors at adequately low temperatures, the conduction band has no
electrons. Conduction electrons originate from the thermal excitation of electrons from a
lower energy band or from impurity atoms in the crystal.

Valence Band and Conduction Band

Here are some of the differences between a valence band and a conduction band.
 Conduction Band Valence Band

An energy band is formed by a series of energy levels

Higher energy level band
containing valence electrons

Partially filled by the electrons Always filled with electrons

High energy state Low energy state

Above the Fermi level Below of Fermi level

Electrons move into the conduction band when Electrons will move out of the conduction band when the atom
the atom is excited is excited

The highest energy level, which can be occupied by an electron

Current flows due to such electrons
in the valence band at 0 K

Forbidden Band
The forbidden band is the energy gap between a conduction band and a valence band. Some
of its characteristics include the following:

 No free electron is present.

 No energy.
 The width of the forbidden energy gap depends upon the nature of the substance.
 As temperature increases (↑), the forbidden energy gap decreases (↓) very slightly.

Understanding Related Terms

Conduction Electrons
Electrons are allowed to move inside a solid. The movement of these electrons can offer
ascent to the conduction of power by making an electric flow through the solid.
Conductor
A material with low resistivity is utilised for contacts and interconnects in semiconductor
preparation. The conduction band and the valence band overlap in a conductor. In this way, in
a conductor, the conduction band is equivalent to the valence band, and the charge bearers are
fundamentally electrons.
Conductivity (s)
The measure of how freely current can flow through a material is called conductivity.
Copper, with its high conductivity of 5.95 x 107 W-1m-1, conveys electric flow more freely than
aluminium, with its marginally lower conductivity of 3.77 x 107 W-1m-1. Conductivity is the
converse of resistivity r:

s = 1/r.

Also Read: Working of Transistors

Mobility
It describes the ease with which charge carriers drift in the material

Where e is the charge of the electron, τ is the relaxation time, and m*n is the mass of the
electron.

Electron Energy Distribution

The Fermi energy level of a semiconductor, denoted Ef��, represents
the energy level at which the probability of finding an electron is one half
[9] [10, p. 432,543]. The Fermi level depends on temperature, and it
depends on the impurities in the semiconductor. Chemists sometime call
the Fermi level by the name chemical potential, μchem��ℎ��.

In a pure semiconductor at T=0�=0 K, all electrons occupy the lowest

possible states. The valence band is completely filled, and the conduction
band is completely empty. The Fermi level, Ef��, is the energy level at
the middle of the energy gap. No electrons are found at
energy Ef�� because no electrons can have an energy inside the energy
gap. However, the Fermi level is a useful measure to describe the
material.
In a pure semiconductor at T>0�>0 K, some electrons are excited into
higher energy levels. As the temperature increases, more electrons are
likely to be found at higher energy levels more often. The probability that
an electron is in energy level E� varies with temperature
as e−E/kBT�−�/��� [9] [10]. The quantity kB�� is the Boltzmann
constant.

kB=1.381⋅10−23JK=8.617⋅10−5eVK��=1.381⋅10−23��=8.617⋅10−5�
��

The Fermi level for a material with T>0�>0 K is slightly higher than the
Fermi level for a material with T=0�=0 K because more electrons are
likely to be excited.

The probability of finding an electron at energy level E� at

temperature T� is

F(E,T)=11+e(E−Ef)/kBT.(6.2.1)(6.2.1)�(�,�)=11+�(�−��)/���.

Equation 6.2.16.2.1 is called the Fermi Dirac distribution, and like any
probability, it ranges 0≤F≤10≤�≤1. For energy levels far above the
conduction band, (E−Ef�−��) is large and positive, so electrons are
quite unlikely to be found, F≈0�≈0. For energy levels far below the
valence band, (E−Ef�−��) is large and negative, so electrons are quite
likely to be found, F≈1�≈1.

The concentration and type of impurities influence the energy of the Fermi
level. A p-type material has a lack of electrons. For this reason in a p-type
material, Ef�� is closer to the valence band than the middle of the
energy gap. An n-type material has an excess of electrons. For this reason
in a n-type material, Ef�� is closer to the conduction band.

Electric current
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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 Electric current

A simple electric circuit, where current is represented by the

letter i. The relationship between the voltage (V), resistance
(R), and current (i or I) is V=IR; this is known as Ohm's law.

Common symbols I

SI unit ampere

Derivations from
other quantities

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An electric current is a flow of charged particles,[1][2][3] such as electrons or ions,

moving through an electrical conductor or space. It is defined as the net rate of flow
of electric charge through a surface.[4]: 2 [5]: 622 The moving particles are called charge
carriers, which may be one of several types of particles, depending on the conductor.
In electric circuits the charge carriers are often electrons moving through a wire.
In semiconductors they can be electrons or holes. In an electrolyte the charge
carriers are ions, while in plasma, an ionized gas, they are ions and electrons.[6]

In the International System of Units (SI), electric current is expressed

in units of ampere (sometimes called an "amp", symbol A), which is equivalent to
one coulomb per second. The ampere is an SI base unit and electric current is
a base quantity in the International System of Quantities (ISQ).[7]: 15 Electric current is
also known as amperage and is measured using a device called an ammeter.[5]: 788

Electric currents create magnetic forces, which are used in motors,

generators, inductors, and transformers.[8][9] In ordinary conductors, they cause Joule
heating, which creates light in incandescent light bulbs. Time-varying currents
emit electromagnetic waves, which are used in telecommunications to broadcast
information.[10]

Symbol
The conventional symbol for current is I, which originates from the French
phrase intensité du courant, (current intensity).[11][12] Current intensity is often referred
to simply as current.[13] The I symbol was used by André-Marie Ampère, after whom
the unit of electric current is named, in formulating Ampère's force law (1820).[14] The
notation travelled from France to Great Britain, where it became standard, although
at least one journal did not change from using C to I until 1896.[15]

Conventions
 The electrons, the charge carriers in an electrical circuit,

flow in the opposite direction of the conventional electric current.

The symbol for a battery in a circuit diagram.

The conventional direction of current, also known as conventional current,[16][17] is

arbitrarily defined as the direction in which positive charges flow. In a conductive
material, the moving charged particles that constitute the electric current are
called charge carriers. In metals, which make up the wires and other conductors in
most electrical circuits, the positively charged atomic nuclei of the atoms are held in
a fixed position, and the negatively charged electrons are the charge carriers, free to
move about in the metal. In other materials, notably the semiconductors, the charge
carriers can be positive or negative, depending on the dopant used. Positive and
negative charge carriers may even be present at the same time, as happens in
an electrolyte in an electrochemical cell.

A flow of positive charges gives the same electric current, and has the same effect in
a circuit, as an equal flow of negative charges in the opposite direction. Since current
can be the flow of either positive or negative charges, or both, a convention is
needed for the direction of current that is independent of the type of charge carriers.
Negatively charged carriers, such as the electrons (the charge carriers in metal wires
and many other electronic circuit components), therefore flow in the opposite
direction of conventional current flow in an electrical circuit.[16][17]

Ohm's law
Main article: Ohm's law

Ohm's law states that the current through a conductor between two points is
directly proportional to the potential difference across the two points. Introducing the
constant of proportionality, the resistance,[20] one arrives at the usual mathematical

equation that describes this relationship:[21]

where I is the current through the conductor in units of amperes, V is the potential
difference measured across the conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of
the conductor in units of ohms. More specifically, Ohm's law states that the R in this
relation is constant, independent of the current.[22]

Alternating and direct current

See also: War of the currents

In alternating current (AC) systems, the movement of electric charge periodically

reverses direction.[citation needed] AC is the form of electric power most commonly delivered
to businesses and residences. The usual waveform of an AC power circuit is a sine
wave, though certain applications use alternative waveforms, such
as triangular or square waves. Audio and radio signals carried on electrical wires are
also examples of alternating current. An important goal in these applications is
recovery of information encoded (or modulated) onto the AC signal.

In contrast, direct current (DC) refers to a system in which the movement of electric
charge in only one direction (sometimes called unidirectional flow).[23] Direct current is
produced by sources such as batteries, thermocouples, solar cells, and commutator-
type electric machines of the dynamo type. Alternating current can also be converted
to direct current through use of a rectifier. Direct current may flow in
a conductor such as a wire, but can also flow through semiconductors, insulators, or
even through a vacuum as in electron or ion beams. An old name for direct current
was galvanic current.[24]

Despite DC being mathematically and conceptually simpler than AC, it is actually

less widely-used than AC. However, due to the versatility of electric circuits, there
are many situations that call for one type of electric current over the other.

Power transmission
AC is almost always used for power transmission to consumers.[25] The reason
behind this is the sum of multiple historical and technological details.

Besides solar power, most power generation methods produce AC current. In order
to distribute electricity in the form of DC, a rectifier must be used to convert from the
initial AC to DC. However, rectification is a complex, expensive, and, until recent,
fairly lossy conversion, especially on the scale of power plants. This has made it
historically inefficient to convert the AC generated by power plants to DC for
distribution.

Along the power lines connecting power stations to consumers, voltage is stepped
up and down to reduce heat loss, often multiple times. While DC inherently
experiences less heat loss than AC, it cannot be stepped up or down with
transformers. This is due to transformers working on the principle of induction: the
changing electric field created by AC generates a changing magnetic field, which
induces an electromotive force (EMF) of higher or lower voltage in the connected
power line. DC, however, generally does not fluctuate much, resulting in an
unchanging electric field, which generates no magnetic field, making induction
impossible. While there is now technology for DC transformers, they are more
complex, massive, and expensive than AC transformers, and when infrastructural
power grids were being built in much of the world, such technology either didn't exist
or was inefficient to utilize.

There are certain cases, however, specifically in high-voltage, long-distance power

transmission (HVDC), where DC is used. The main issue with using DC in
commercial power transmission is changing voltage for consumers, but this is
because the voltage is changed multiple times. For safety, voltage is stepped down
the closer it gets to consumers to prevent incredibly high voltage lines from running
through highly populated residential areas. However, if constant voltage transmission
across long distances is needed, DC outperforms AC. DC carries better over
distance[26] and experiences less heat loss, as the skin effect is only observed in AC
systems.[27] Additionally, out-of-phase AC systems can only be connected via DC. For
example, the U.S. power grid is split into three asynchronous AC systems. For power
to be transferred between any of these systems, DC must be used to mediate the
transfer.[26]

Fermi Energy
In Physics, the concept of energy is tricky because it has different meanings depending on the
context. For example, in atoms and molecules, energy comes in different forms: light energy,
electrical energy, heat energy, etc.

In quantum mechanics, it gets even trickier. In this branch of Physics, scientists rely on
concepts like Fermi energy which refers to the energy of the highest occupied quantum
state in a system of fermions at absolute zero temperature.

Table of Contents:

 What Is Fermi Energy?

 Calculating Fermi Energy
 What Is Fermi Level?
 Fermi Energy Level
 Applications of Fermi Energy
 Value of Fermi energy for different elements
 Frequently Asked Questions – FAQs

What Is Fermi Energy?

Named after the Physicist Enrico Fermi, a Fermi level is the measure of the energy of the
least tightly held electrons within a solid. It is important in determining the thermal and
electrical properties of solids. It can be defined as:
Fermi energy is a concept in quantum mechanics that usually refers to the energy difference
between the highest and lowest occupied single-particle states in a quantum system of non-
interacting fermions at absolute zero temperature.
The value of the Fermi level at absolute zero temperature (−273.15 °C) is known as
the Fermi energy. It is also the maximum kinetic energy an electron can attain at 0K. Fermi
energy is constant for each solid.

Read More: Quantum Mechanics

Calculating Fermi Energy

To determine the lowest possible Fermi energy of a system, we first group the states with
equal energy into sets and arrange them in increasing order of energy. We then add particles
one at a time, successively filling up the unoccupied quantum states with the lowest energy.

When all the particles are arranged accordingly, the energy of the highest occupied state is
the Fermi energy. In spite of the extraction of all possible energy from metal by cooling it to
near absolute zero temperature (0 Kelvin), the electrons in the metal still move around. The
fastest ones move at a velocity corresponding to a kinetic energy equal to the Fermi energy.

The Fermi level and Fermi energy are usually confusing terms and are often used
interchangeably to refer to each other. Although both the terms are equal at absolute zero
temperature, they are different at other temperatures.

Fermi energy is applied in determining the electrical and thermal characteristics of the solids.
It is one of the important concepts in superconductor physics and quantum mechanics. It is
used in semiconductors and insulators.

Read More: Semiconductors

What Is Fermi Level?
The highest energy level that an electron can occupy at the absolute zero temperature is
known as the Fermi Level. The Fermi level lies between the valence band and conduction
band because at absolute zero temperature, the electrons are all in the lowest energy state.
Due to the lack of sufficient energy at 0 Kelvin, the Fermi level can be considered as the sea
of fermions (or electrons) above which no electrons exist. The Fermi level changes as the
solids are warmed and as electrons are added to or withdrawn from the solid.

Fermi Energy Level

The reason for the existence of this energy level is due to Pauli’s exclusion principle, which
states two fermions cannot occupy that same quantum state. So, if a system has more than
one fermion, each fermion has a different set of magnetic quantum numbers associated with
it.

The Fermi Temperature can be defined as the energy of the Fermi level divided by the
Boltzmann’s constant. It is also the temperature at which the energy of the electron is equal to
the Fermi energy. It is the measure of the electrons in the lower states of energy in metal.

You make also like to learn more about the following concepts:

 Fermi Paradox
 Band Theory Of Solids
 magnetic quantum numbers

Applications of Fermi Energy

It is one of the important concepts in quantum mechanics and condensed matter physics.
Some Fermi energy applications are given in the points below.

 It is used in semiconductors and insulators.

 It is used to describe insulators, metals, and semiconductors.
 Fermi energy is applied in determining the electrical and thermal characteristics of the solids.
 It is also important in nuclear physics to understand the stability of white dwarfs. White
dwarfs are stars that have a mass comparable to the Sun but have about a hundredth of its
radius.

Value of Fermi energy for different elements

Element Fermi Energy

 eV

Li 4.74

K 2.12

Na 3.24

Cs 1.59

Rb 1.85

Ag 5.49

Cu 7.00

Be 14.3

Au 5.53

Ca 4.69

Mg 7.08

Ba 3.64

Sr 3.93

Fe 11.1

Nb 5.32

Zn 9.47
Mn 10.9

Hg 7.13

Cd 7.47

Al 11.7

Ga 10.4

In 8.63

Tl 8.15

Sn 10.2

Pb 9.47

Bi 9.90

Sb 10.9