Introduction

Semiconductors
In between conductors and insulators, there is a third classification of atoms
(material) known as semiconductors. Generally, the conductivity of a
semiconductor lies in between the conductivities of metals and insulators.
However, at absolute zero temperature, the semiconductor also acts like a
perfect insulator.

Silicon and germanium are the most familiar semiconductor elements. Copper
oxide, cadmium-sulfide, and gallium arsenide are some other semiconductor
compounds that are frequently used. These kinds of material are generally
classified as type IVB elements. Such atoms have four valence electrons. If they
can give up four valence electrons, stability can be accomplished. It can also be
achieved by accepting four electrons.

Stability of an Atom
The concept of stability of an atom is an important factor in the status of
semiconductor materials. The maximum number of electrons in the valence
band is 8. When there are exactly 8 electrons in the valence band, it can be
said that the atom is stable. In a stable atom, the bonding of valence electrons
is very rigid. These types of atoms are excellent insulators. In such atoms, free
electrons are not available for electrical conductivity. Examples of stabilized
elements are gases such as Argon, Xenon, Neon, and Krypton. Due to their
property, these gases cannot be mixed with other material and are generally
known as inert gases. If the number of valence electrons in the outer shell is
less than 8, then the atom is said to be unstable i.e., the atoms having fewer
than 8 valence electrons are unstable. They always try to borrow or donate
electrons from the neighboring atoms to become stable. Atoms in the outer
shell with 5, 6, or 7 valence electrons tend to borrow electrons from other
atoms to seek stability, while atoms with one, two, or three valence electrons
tend to release these electrons to other nearby atoms.

Normally, an atom has an equal number of protons and planetary electrons to

maintain its net charge at zero. Atoms frequently combine to form stabilized
molecules or compounds through their available valence electrons.

The process of combining of free valence electrons is generally called bonding.

Following are the different kinds of bonding that takes place in atom
combinations

 Ionic bonding

 Covalent bonding

 Metallic bonding

Let us now discuss in detail about these atomic bondings.

Ionic Bonding
Each atom is seeking stability when the atoms bond together to form
molecules. When the valence band contains 8 electrons, it is said to be a
stabilized condition. When the valence electrons of one atom combine with
those of another atom to become stable, it is called ionic bonding.

If an atom has more than 4 valence electrons in the outer shell it is seeking
additional electrons. Such atom is often called an acceptor.

If any atom holds less than 4 valence electrons in the outer shell, they try to
move out from these electrons. These atoms are known as donors.

In ionic bonding, donor and acceptor atoms frequently combine together and
the combination becomes stabilized. Common salt is a common example of
ionic bonding..
Covalent Bonding
When the valence electrons of neighboring atoms are shared with other
atoms, covalent bonding takes place. In covalent bonding, ions are not formed.
This is a unique dissimilarity in covalent bonding and ionic bonding. When an
atom contains four valence electrons in the outer shell, it can share one
electron with four neighboring atoms. A covalent force is established between
the two linking electrons. These electrons alternately shift orbits between the
atoms. This covalent force bonds the individual atoms together

Metallic Bonding
The third type of bonding generally occurs in good electrical conductors and it
is called as metallic bonding. In metallic bonding, an electrostatic force exists
between the positive ions and electrons. For example, the valence band of
copper has one electron in its outer shell. This electron has a tendency to roam
around the material between different atoms. When this electron leaves one
atom, it instantly enters the orbit of another atom. The process is repetitive on
a nonstop basis. An atom becomes a positive ion when an electron leaves it.
This is a random process. It means that one electron is always linked with an
atom. It does not mean that the electron is associated with one particular
orbit. It is always roaming in different orbits. As a consequence, all atoms are
likely to share all the valence electrons

The number of electrons in the outer ring of an atom is still the reason for the
difference between conductors and insulators. As we know, solid materials are
primarily used in electrical devices to accomplish electron conduction. These
materials can be separated into conductors, semiconductors, and insulators.
However, conductors, semiconductors, and insulators are differentiated by
energy-level diagrams. The amount of energy needed to cause an electron to
leave its valence band and go into conduction will be accounted here.
Valence Band
The bottom portion is the valence band. It represents the energy levels closest
to the nucleus of the atom and the energy levels in the valance band hold the
correct number of electron necessary to balance the positive charge of the
nucleus. Thus, this band is called the filled band. In the valence band, electrons
are tightly bound to the nucleus. Moving upward in the energy level, the
electrons are more lightly bound in each succeeding level toward the nucleus.
It is not easy to disturb the electrons in the energy levels closer to the nucleus,
as their movement requires larger energies and each electron orbit has a
distinct energy level.

Conduction Band
The top or outermost band in the diagram is called the conduction band. If an
electron has an energy level, which lies within this band, and is comparatively
free to move around in the crystal, then it conducts electric current.

In semiconductor electronics, we are concerned mostly in the valence and

conduction bands. Following are some basic information about it:

The valence band of each atom shows the energy levels of the valence
electrons in the outer shell.

A definite amount of energy must be added to the valence electrons to cause

them to go into the conduction band.

Forbidden Gap
The valence and conduction bands are separated by a gap, wherever exists,
called forbidden gap. To cross the forbidden gap a definite amount of energy is
needed. If it is insufficient, electrons are not released for conduction. Electrons
will remain in the valence band till they receive additional energy to cross the
forbidden gap.

The conduction status of a particular material can be indicated by the width of

the forbidden gap. In atomic theory, the width of the gap is expressed in
electron volts (eV). An electron volt is defined as the amount of energy gained
or lost when an electron is subjected to a potential difference of 1 V. The
atoms of each element have a dissimilar energy-level value that allows
conduction.

Note that the forbidden region of an insulator is relatively wide. To cause an

insulator to go into conduction will require a very large amount of energy. For
example, Thyrite.

If insulators are operated at high temperatures, the increased heat energy

causes the electrons of the valence band to move into the conduction band.

As it is clear from the energy band diagram, the forbidden gap of a

semiconductor is much smaller than that of an insulator. For example, silicon
needs to gain 0.7 eV of energy to go into the conduction band. At room
temperature, the addition of heat energy may be sufficient to cause
conduction in a semiconductor. This particular characteristic is of great
importance in solid-state electronic devices.

In case of a conductor, the conduction band and the valence band partly
overlaps one another. In a sense, there is no forbidden gap. Therefore, the
electrons of valence band are able to release to become free electrons.
Normally at normal room temperature little electrical conduction takes place
within the conductor.
Types Of Semiconductors
Intrinsic Semiconductors
A Semiconductor in its extremely pure form is said to be an intrinsic
semiconductor. The properties of this pure semiconductor are as follows −
 The electrons and holes are solely created by thermal excitation.
 The number of free electrons is equal to the number of holes.
 The conduction capability is small at room temperature.
In order to increase the conduction capability of intrinsic semiconductor, it is
better to add some impurities. This process of adding impurities is called
as Doping. Now, this doped intrinsic semiconductor is called as an Extrinsic
Semiconductor.

Doping in Semiconductors
The process of adding impurities to the semiconductor materials is termed as
doping. The impurities added, are generally pentavalent and trivalent
impurities.
Pentavalent Impurities
 The pentavalent impurities are the ones which has five valence electrons
in the outer most orbit. Example: Bismuth, Antimony, Arsenic,
Phosphorus
 The pentavalent atom is called as a donor atom because it donates one
electron to the conduction band of pure semiconductor atom.
Trivalent Impurities
 The trivalent impurities are the ones which has three valence electrons in
the outer most orbit. Example: Gallium, Indium, Aluminum, Boron
 The trivalent atom is called as an acceptor atom because it accepts one
electron from the semiconductor atom
Extrinsic Semiconductor
An impure semiconductor, which is formed by doping a pure semiconductor is
called as an extrinsic semiconductor. There are two types of extrinsic
semiconductors depending upon the type of impurity added. They are N-type
extrinsic semiconductor and P-Type extrinsic semiconductor.

N-Type Extrinsic Semiconductor

A small amount of pentavalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor to
result in Ntype extrinsic semiconductor. The added impurity has 5 valence
electrons.
For example, if Arsenic atom is added to the germanium atom, four of the
valence electrons get attached with the Ge atoms while one electron remains
as a free electron.

All of these free electrons constitute electron current. Hence, the impurity
when added to pure semiconductor, provides electrons for conduction.
  In N-type extrinsic semiconductor, as the conduction takes place through
electrons, the electrons are majority carriers and the holes are minority
carriers.
 As there is no addition of positive or negative charges, the electrons are
electrically neutral.
 When an electric field is applied to an N-type semiconductor, to which a
pentavalent impurity is added, the free electrons travel towards positive
electrode. This is called as negative or N-type conductivity.

P-Type Extrinsic Semiconductor

A small amount of trivalent impurity is added to a pure semiconductor to result
in P-type extrinsic semiconductor. The added impurity has 3 valence electrons.
For example, if Boron atom is added to the germanium atom, three of the
valence electrons get attached with the Ge atoms, to form three covalent
bonds. But, one more electron in germanium remains without forming any
bond. As there is no electron in boron remaining to form a covalent bond, the
space is treated as a hole
This is as shown in th following figures
The boron impurity when added in a small amount, provides a number of holes
which helps in the conduction. All of these holes constitute hole current.
 In P-type extrinsic semiconductor, as the conduction takes place through
holes, the holes are majority carriers while the electrons are minority
carriers.
 The impurity added here provides holes which are called as acceptors,
because they accept electrons from the germanium atoms.
 As the number of mobile holes remains equal to the number of acceptors,
the Ptype semiconductor remains electrically neutral.
 When an electric field is applied to a P-type semiconductor, to which a
trivalent impurity is added, the holes travel towards negative electrode,
but with a slow pace than electrons. This is called as P-type conductivity.
 In this P-type conductivity, the valence electrons move from one covalent
bond to another, unlike N-type.
 Conduction in Semiconductors
After having some knowledge on the electrons, we came to know that the
outermost shell has the valence electrons which are loosely attached to the
nucleus. Such an atom, having valence electrons when brought close to the
other atom, the valence electrons of both these atoms combine to form
“Electron pairs”. This bonding is not so very strong and hence it is a Covalent
bond.

For example, a germanium atom has 32 electrons. 2 electrons in first orbit, 8 in

second orbit, 18 in third orbit, while 4 in last orbit. These 4 electrons are
valence electrons of germanium atom. These electrons tend to combine with
valence electrons of adjoining atoms, to form the el

This bonding is not so very strong and hence it is a Covalent bond.

For example, a germanium atom has 32 electrons. 2 electrons in first orbit, 8 in
second orbit, 18 in third orbit, while 4 in last orbit. These 4 electrons are
valence electrons of germanium atom. These electrons tend to combine with
valence electrons of adjoining atoms, to form the electron pairs.
Creation of Hole
Due to the thermal energy supplied to the crystal, some electrons tend to
move out of their place and break the covalent bonds. These broken covalent
bonds, result in free electrons which wander randomly. But the moved away
electrons creates an empty space or valence behind, which is called as a hole.
This hole which represents a missing electron can be considered as a unit
positive charge while the electron is considered as a unit negative charge. The
liberated electrons move randomly but when some external electric field is
applied, these electrons move in opposite direction to the applied field. But
the holes created due to absence of electrons, move in the direction of applied
field.
Hole Current
It is already understood that when a covalent bond is broken, a hole is created.
Actually, there is a strong tendency of semiconductor crystal to form a
covalent bond. So, a hole doesn’t tend to exist in a crystal. This can be better
understood by the following figure, showing a semiconductor crystal lattice .
 An electron, when gets shifted from a place A, a hole is formed. Due to
the tendency for the formation of covalent bond, an electron from B gets
shifted to A. Now, again to balance the covalent bond at B, an electron gets
shifted from C to B. This continues to build a path. This movement of hole in
the absence of an applied field is random. But when electric field is applied,
the hole drifts along the applied field, which constitutes the hole current. This
is called as hole current but not electron current because, the movement of
holes contribute the current flow.
Electrons and holes while in random motion, may encounter with each other,
to form pairs. This recombination results in the release of heat, which breaks
another covalent bond. When the temperature increases, the rate of
generation of electrons and holes increase, thus rate of recombination
increases, which results in the increase of densities of electrons and holes. As a
result, conductivity of semiconductor increases and resistivity decreases, which
means the negative temperature coefficient.
Types of Currents in Semiconductors
Coming to the types of currents in semiconductors, there are two terms need
to be discussed. They are Diffusion Current and Drift Current.
Diffusion current
When doping is done, there occurs a difference in the concentration of
electrons and holes. These electrons and holes tend to diffuse from higher
concentration of charge density, to lower concentration level. As these are
charge carriers, they constitute a current called diffusion current.
To know about this in detail, let us consider an N-type material and a P-type
material.
 N-type material has electrons as majority carriers and few holes as
minority carriers.
 P-type material has holes as majority carriers and few electrons as
minority carriers.
If these two materials are brought too close to each other to join, then few
electrons from valence band of N-type material, tend to move towards P-type
material and few holes from valence band of P-type material, tend to move
towards N-type material. The region between these two materials where this
diffusion takes place, is called as Depletion region.
Hence, the current formed due to the diffusion of these electrons and holes,
without the application of any kind of external energy, can be termed
as Diffusion Current.
Drift Current
The current formed due drift movement of charged particie or holes due to
applied electric field is called drift current.
The amount of current flow depends upon the charge applied. The width of
depletion region also gets affected, by this drift current. To make a component
function in an active circuit, this drift current plays an important role.