EE110 - Chapter 1 - Notes

Ch: 1- Electrical Circuits
Introduction:
An electrical system generally transmits energy due to the movement of electric charge. Electricity
appears in one of two forms which, by convention, are called negative and positive electricity. Electric
charge is the excess of negative or positive electricity on a body or in space. If the excess is negative,
the body is said to have a negative charge and vice versa. An electron is an elementary particle
charged with a small and constant quantity of negative electricity. A proton is similarly defined but
charged with positive electricity whereas the neutron is uncharged and is therefore neutral.
All electrons have a certain potential energy. Given a suitable medium to exist, they move freely from
one energy level to another and this movement, when undertaken in a concerted manner, is termed as
an electric current flow. Conventionally it is said that the current flows from a point of high energy
level to a point of low energy level. These points are said to have high potential and low potential
respectively. For convenience the point of high potential is termed the positive and the point of low
potential is termed the negative, hence conventionally a current is said to flow from positive to
negative. Unfortunately it was found that electrons move in the other direction since the negatively
charged electron is attracted to the positive potential. Thus conventional current flows in the opposite
direction to that of electron current.
The transfer of electrons takes place more readily in a medium in which atoms can readily release
electrons; such a material is termed a conductor e.g. copper, aluminium, silver. A material that does
not readily permit electron flow is termed an insulator, e.g. porcelain, nylon, rubber.
The following conditions are to be fulfilled for the flow of current:

1. There must be a complete circuit around which the electrons may move. If the electrons cannot
return to the point of starting, then eventually they will all congregate together and the flow will
cease.
2. There must be a driving influence to cause the continuous flow. This influence is provided by the
source which causes the current to leave at a high potential and to move round the circuit until it
returns to the source at a low potential.
The driving influence is termed the electromotive force, called the e.m.f. Each time the charge passes
through the source, more energy is provided by the source to permit it to continue round once more.
This is a continuous process since the current flow is continuous. It should be noted that the current
is the rate of flow of charge through a section of the circuit.
The e.m.f. represents the driving influence that causes a current to flow. The e.m.f. is not a force, but
represents the energy expended during the passing of a unit charge through the source; an e.m.f. is
always connected with energy conversion. The energy introduced into a circuit is transferred to the
load unit by the transmission system, and the energy transferred due to the passage of unit charge
between two points in a circuit is termed the potential difference
(p.d.). If all the energy is transferred to the load unit, the p.d. across the load unit is equal to the source
e.m.f.
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Important Terminologies:
Current: An electric current is a flow of electric charge.
Symbol: I
Unit: Ampere (A)
The ampere is defined as that current which, if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of
infinite length, of negligible circular cross-section, and placed 1 meter apart in a vacuum, would
produce between these conductors a force of 2 X10−7 Newtons per meter of length.
Quantity of electricity/Charge: Electric charge is the physical property of matter that causes it to
experience a force when placed in an electromagnetic field
Symbol: Q
Unit: Coulomb (C)
It is the quantity of electricity passing a given point in a circuit when a current of 1 ampere is
maintained for 1 second. Hence
Q [coulombs] = I [amperes] × t [seconds]
∴Q=Ixt
Electric Potential: Electrical potential is defined as the capability of the charged body to do work.
When the body is charged, either electrons are supplied to it, or they are removed from it. In both
the cases, the work is done. This work is stored in the body in the form of electric potential.
Symbol: V
Unit: Volt (V)
Potential difference: The electrical potential difference is defined as the amount of work done in
carrying a unit charge from one point to another in an electric field. In other words, the potential
difference is defined as the difference in the electric potential of the two charged bodies.
Symbol: V
Unit: Volt (V)
It is the difference of potential between two points of a conducting wire carrying a current of 1
ampere, when the power dissipated between these points is equal to 1 watt.
Resistance: It is the property of the component which restricts the flow of electric current.
Symbol: R
Unit: ohm (Ω)
It is the resistance between two points of a conductor when a potential difference of 1 volt, applied
between these points, produces a current of 1 ampere, the conductor not being a source of any
electromotive force
Electromotive force: An electromotive force is that which tends to produce an electric current in a
circuit, and the unit of e.m.f is the volt.
Symbol: E
Unit: Volt (V)
Ohm’s Law:
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Ohm’s law states that the potential difference across the ends of a conductor is directly proportional
to the current flowing between them provided that temperature and other physical quantity remain
constant. Since the symbol for potential difference is V and current is I, this relationship may be
expressed as
VαI
This is the expression of Ohm’s law.
Since the relationship is assumed constant, we can write

V=IR
Where, R is a constant termed the resistance of the conductor.
It should be noted that this relationship is derived from Ohm’s law and is not a symbolic expression
for it. Ohm’s law only notes the constancy of p.d. to current provided that other physical factors
remain unchanged, i.e. for a given p.d. the current will vary in consequence of variation of external
physical factors.
Kirchhoff’s laws
We know that in a series circuit, the sum of the voltages across each of the components is equal to
the applied voltage; and the sum of the currents in the branches of a parallel network is equal to the
supply current. Gustav Kirchhoff, a German physicist, observed that these were particular instances
of two general conditions fundamental to the analysis of any electrical network. These conditions
may be stated as follows:
First (current) law: At any instant the algebraic sum of the currents at a junction in a network is
zero. Different signs are allocated to currents flowing towards the junction and to those flowing away
from it.
Second (voltage) law: At any instant in a closed loop, the algebraic sum of the e.m.f.s acting round
the loop is equal to the algebraic sum of the potential differences round the loop.
Kirchhoff Current Law: It states that at any instant the algebraic sum of the currents at a
junction in a network is zero.
Example: Consider a simple example as shown in figure,
Illustration of Kirchhoff Current Law
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Let the currents flowing towards the junction be considered positive and those flowing away from
the junction are negative, hence according to the statement the equation can be written as:
I1- I2 + I3 - I4 + I5 = 0
OR
I1 + I3 + I5 = I2 + I4
Kirchhoff Voltage Law: It states that at any instant in a closed loop, the algebraic sum of the
emfs acting round the loop is equal to the algebraic sum of the potential differences round the loop.
(OR)
The algebraic sum of the products of currents and resistances in each of the conductors in any closed
path (or mesh) in a network plus the algebraic sum of the emfs in that path is zero.
∑ IR +∑ emf = 0 …………………………..round the mesh
Assumptions/Sign conventions:
i) Rise in voltage (If we go from negative terminal of the battery to positive terminal) = positive
ii) Fall in voltage (If we go from positive terminal of the battery to negative terminal) = negative
iii)If we go through the resistor in the same direction as current, then there is a fall in potential.
Hence this voltage is taken as negative.
iv)If we go through the resistor against the direction of current then there is a rise in potential.
Hence this voltage drop is taken as positive.
Example: Write the loop equation for the given circuit shown below
Illustration of Kirchhoff Voltage Law
Appling KVL to the loop we can write
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Voltage Source and Current Source

A Source is a device which converts mechanical, chemical, thermal or some other form of energy
into electrical energy. In other words, the source is an active network element meant for generating
electrical energy.
Dependant and Independent sources: The Independent and Dependent source means, whether the
voltage or current sources are either depending upon some other source or they are acting
independently.
Independent Voltage and Current Source: Independent sources are that which does not depend on any
other quantity in the circuit. They are two terminal devices and have a constant value, i.e. the voltage
across the two terminals remains constant irrespective of all circuit conditions. The strength of voltage
or current is not changed by any variation in the connected network the source is said to be either
independent voltage or independent current source. In this, the value of voltage or current is fixed
and is not adjustable
Voltage Source: A voltage source is a two-terminal device whose voltage at any instant of time is
constant and is independent of the current drawn from it. Such a voltage source is called an Ideal
Voltage Source and has zero internal resistance. Practically an ideal voltage source cannot be
obtained.
Sources having some amount of internal resistances are known as Practical Voltage Source due to
this internal resistance; voltage drop takes place, and it causes the terminal voltage to reduce. The
symbolic representation of the ideal and practical voltage source is shown below. The example of
voltage sources are batteries and alternators.
Ideal Voltage Source Practical Voltage Source
Current Source: An Ideal current source is a two-terminal circuit element which supplies the same
current to any load resistance connected across its terminals. It is important to keep in mind that the
current supplied by the current source is independent of the voltage of source terminals. It has infinite
resistance.
A practical current source is represented as an ideal current source connected with the resistance in
parallel. The symbolic representation is as shown below.
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The example of current sources is photoelectric cells, collector currents of transistors.
Ideal Current Source Practical Current Source
Dependent Voltage and Current Source: The sources whose output voltage or current is not fixed but
depends on the voltage or current in another part of the circuit is called Dependent or Controlled
source. They are four terminal devices. When the strength of voltage or current changes in the source
for any change in the connected network, they are called dependent sources. The dependent sources
are represented by a diamond shape.
The dependent sources are further categorized as:

1. Voltage Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS): In voltage controlled voltage source the voltage
source is dependent on any element of the circuit.
Voltage Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS)

In the above figure, the voltage across the source terminal Vab is dependent on the voltage across
the terminal Vcd, from figure we can write
Where k is a constant
2. Voltage Controlled Current Source (VCCS): In the voltage controlled current source, the current of
the source iab depends on the voltage across the terminal cd (Vcd) as shown in the figure below.
Voltage Controlled Current Source (VCCS)
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Where ƞ is a constant known as transconductance and its unit is mho.
3. Current Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS): In the current controlled voltage source voltage source
of the network depends upon the current of the network as shown in the figure below
Current Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS):
Here the voltage of source Vab depends on the current of the branch cd
Where r is a constant.
4. Current Controlled Current Source (CCCS): In the Current Controlled Current Source, the current
source is dependent on the current of the branch another branch as shown in the figure below
Current Controlled Current Source (CCCS)
Where β is a constant
Source Transformation: Source Transformation simply means replacing one source by an

equivalent source. A practical voltage source can be transformed into an equivalent practical current
source and similarly a practical current source into voltage source.
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1. Conversion of Voltage Source into Current Source: When the voltage source is connected with
the resistance in series and it has to be converted into the current source than the resistance
is connected in parallel with the current source as shown in the below figure.
Conversion of Voltage Source into Current Source

Where, Is = Vs /R
2. Conversion of Current Source into Voltage Source: In the below circuit diagram a current source
which is connected in parallel with the resistance is transformed into a voltage source by
placing the resistance in series with the voltage source.
Conversion of Current Source into Voltage Source

Where, Vs = Is R
Analysis of resistive circuits excited by D.C. source/s by Loop Current Method

and Node Voltage Method by writing network equilibrium equations in matrix
form
To write network equilibrium equations based on KVL/KCL in a systematic way, the following
methods are available –
1. Loop Current Method (also known as Mesh Analysis)

2. Node Voltage Method (also known as Node Analysis)
As the network size increases, Loop Current Method becomes more cumbersome. But Node
Voltage Method does not have this drawback.
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Mesh Analysis or Loop Current Method

This method is given a number of different names – all of which are an indication of the analysis
technique employed. It is variously known as Maxwell’s circulating current method, loop analysis or
Mesh current analysis. The terminology is chosen to distinguish it from the familiar ‘branch current’
technique, in which currents are assigned to individual branches of a circuit.
The technique proceeds as follows:

• Circulating currents are allocated to closed loops or meshes in the circuit rather than to
branches.
• An equation for each loop of the circuit is then obtained by equating the algebraic sum of the
e.m.f.s round that loop to the algebraic sum of the potential differences (in the direction of the
loop, mesh or circulating current), as required by Kirchhoff ’s voltage (second) law.
• Branch currents are found thereafter by taking the algebraic sum of the loop currents common
to individual branches.
Explanation:
Consider a network as shown in figure below. It contains two meshes. Let I1 and I2 are the loop/mesh
currents of two meshes directed in clockwise.
Applying KVL to mesh-1, we get

V1 –I1 R1 – (I1 –I2) R3 =0
Applying KVL to mesh-2, we get

–I2 R2 –V2 – (I2 –I1) R3 =0
Steps for Loop Current Method

1. Replace practical current sources if any, by equivalent voltage sources.
2. Find number of independent loops L= b – n + 1.
An independent loop is a closed path which has at least one branch which is not present in
other loops. Here b = number of branches, and n = number of nodes.
Each component can be taken as a branch. A node is a junction point of two or more
branches. Points which are shorted should be treated as a single node.
3. Mark independent loop currents intelligently to reduce computation and number them
sequentially.
4. Write loop equations in matrix form by inspection.5
5. Solve for the required loop currents and find the response.
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Writing Loop Equations in Matrix form by Inspection
Loop equations in matrix form can be written as:

[R] [I] = [V]
Here the elements of L x L matrix [R] can be written by inspection using the formula
Rjj = (sum of all the resistances in the loop j), and
Rjk = ± (sum of all the resistances common to loops j and k).
(+) sign to be used if Ij and Ik are in same direction in common branches. Else (–) sign to be used.
[I] is a Lx1 column matrix containing loop currents Ik which are to be calculated.
[V] is also a Lx1 column matrix. The elements of this matrix can be written by inspection using the
formula Vk = sum of all the voltage sources acting in the direction of Ik in loop k.
Node Analysis or Node Voltage Method:
This technique of circuit solution, also known as the Node Voltage method, is based on the application
of Kirchhoff’s current law at each junction (node) of the circuit, to find the node voltages. It should
be noted that, in contrast, both the branch current and Mesh current techniques of circuit analysis are
based on the applications of Kirchhoff’s voltage law, often to find unknown currents.
The Node Voltage method generally proceeds as follows:

Step 1: Choose a reference node to which all node voltages can be referred. Label all the other
nodes with (unknown) values of voltage, V1, V2, etc.
Step 2: Assign currents in each connection to each node, except the reference node, in terms of
the node voltages, V1, V2, etc.
Step 3: Apply Kirchhoff ’s current law at each node, obtaining as many equations as there are
unknown node voltages.
Step 4: Solve the resulting equations to find the node voltages.
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Applying KCL at node B we have
I1 + I2 = I3
By Ohm’s Law
I1= Va-Vb I2 = Vc-Vb I3 = Vb

R1 R2 R3
Therefore, Va-Vb + Vc-Vb = Vb

R1 R2 R3
Va - Vb + Vc - Vb = Vb
R1 R1 R2 R2 R3
Va - Vb - Vb - Vb + Vc = 0
R1 R1 R2 R3 R2
Steps for Node Voltage Method
1. Replace all practical voltage sources by equivalent current sources.

2. Find number of independent nodes using N = n -1.
3. Select a datum node, mark it with a ground symbol, and number sequentially other
independent nodes.
4. Write node equations in matrix form by inspection.
5. Solve for the required node voltages and find the response.
Writing Node Equations in Matrix form by Inspection:
Node equations in matrix form can be written as

[G] [V] = [I]
Here the elements of N x N matrix [G] can be written by inspection using the formula
Gjj = (sum of all the conductances connected to node j), and
Gjk = - (sum of all conductances connected between nodes j and k).
[V] is a N x 1 column matrix containing node voltages Vk which are to be calculated.
[I] is also a Nx1 column matrix. The elements of this matrix can be written by inspection using the
formula Ik = sum of all the current sources directed towards node k.
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Generation of sinusoidal E.M.F in a rotating coil.

Generation of Alternating Voltages and Currents
Alternating voltages may be generated in the following two ways:
1. By rotating a coil in a stationary magnetic field.
2. By rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil.
The value of the voltage generated in each case depends upon the following factors:
(i) The number of turns in the coils
(ii) The strength of the field
(iii) The speed at which the coil or magnetic field rotates.
The alternating voltage generated has regular changes in magnitude and direction. If a load
resistance is connected across this alternating voltage, an alternating current flows in the circuit.
When there is reversal of polarity of the alternating voltage, the direction of current in the circuit
also reverses. Out of the above two methods the rotating-field method is mostly used in practice.
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13
So, the e.m.f induced varies as the sine function of the time angle ωt and if e.m.f. induced is plotted
against time, a curve of sine wave shape is obtained as shown in figure below. Such an e.m.f. is called
sinusoidal when the coil moves through the angle of 2п radians
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When an alternating voltage, e = Em sin ωt is applied across a load, alternating current flows through
the circuit which will also have sinusoidal variation. The expression for alternating current is given
by
i = Im sin ωt
In this case load is assumed to be resistive.
Important Definitions
The important terms/definitions which are frequently used while dealing with a.c circuits are
1. Alternating quantity: An alternating quantity is one which acts in alternate positive and
negative directions, whose magnitude undergoes a definite series of changes in definite intervals of
time and in which the sequence of changes while negative is identical with the sequence of changes
while positive.
2. Waveform: “The graph between an alternating quantity (voltage or current) and time is called
waveform”, generally, alternating quantity is depicted along the Y-axis and time along the X-axis.
3. Instantaneous value: The value of an alternating quantity at any instant is called instantaneous
value. The instantaneous values of alternating voltages and current are represented by ‘e’ and ‘i’
respectively.
4. Alternation: When an alternating quantity goes through one half cycle (complete set of +ve or –
ve values) it completes an alternation.
5. Cycle: When an alternating quantity goes a complete set of +ve and –ve values, it is said to have
completed one cycle.
6. Periodic Time: The time taken in seconds by an alternating quantity to complete one cycle is
known as periodic time and is denoted by ‘T’.
7. Frequency: The number of cycles completed per second by an alternating quantity is known as
frequency and is denoted by ‘f’. In the SI system, the frequency is expressed in hertz.
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In India, the standard frequency for power supply is 50 Hz. It means that alternating voltage or current
completes 50 cycles in one second.
Amplitude: The maximum value, positive or negative, which an alternating quantity attains during
one complete cycle, is called amplitude or peak value or maximum value. The amplitude of
alternating voltage and current is represented by Em and Im respectively.
Root-mean-square (R.M.S.) Value:
The r.m.s. or effective value, of an alternating current is defined as that steady current which when
flowing through a given resistance for a given time produces the same amount of heat as produced
by the alternating current, when flowing through the same resistance for the same time.
Let us take two circuits with identical resistance, but one is connected to a battery and the other to a
sinusoidal voltage source. Wattmeters are employed to measure heat power in each circuit. The
voltage applied to each circuit is so adjusted that the heat power produced in each circuit is the same.
In this event the direct current ‘I’ will be equal to Im/√2 , which is termed as r.m.s. value of the
sinusoidal current.
The following method is used for finding the r.m.s. or effective value of sinusoidal waves.
The equation of an alternating current varying sinusoid ally is given by i = Im sin θ.
Let us consider an elementary strip of thickness dθ in the first cycle of the squared wave, as shown
in figure. Let i2 be mid-ordinate of this strip.
Area of the strip = i2 d θ
Area of first half-cycle of squared wave is
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I= Im = 0.707 Im
√2
E= Em = 0.707 Em
√2
Average Value: The arithmetical average of all the values of an alternating quantity over one cycle
is called average value.
In the case of a symmetrical wave e.g. sinusoidal current or voltage wave, the positive half is exactly
equal to the negative half, so that the average value over the entire cycle is zero. Hence, in this case,
the average value is obtained by adding or integrating the instantaneous values of current over one
alternation (half-cycle) only. The equation of a sinusoidally varying voltage is given by e = Em sin θ.
Let us take an elementary strip of thickness dθ in the first half-cycle as shown in figure.
Let the mid-ordinate of this strip be ‘e’.
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Area of the strip = e dθ
Area of first half-cycle is
Average Value, Eav= Area of half cycle = 2Em

Base п
Or, Eav = 0.637 Em
In a similar manner, we can prove that, for alternating current varying sinusoidally,
Iav = 0.637 Im
Form Factor and crest or peak or Amplitude Factor (Kf)
Form Factor: The ratio of effective value (or r.m.s. value) to average value of an alternating
quantity (voltage or current) is called form factor, i.e.
From Factor, Kf = r ms value of an alternating quantity

Average value of an alternating quantity
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For sinusoidal alternating current,
Kf = 0.707Im = 1.11
0.637 Im
For sinusoidal alternating voltage,
Kf = 0.707Em = 1.11
0.637 Em
Hence, the R.M.S. value (of current or voltage) is 1.11 times its average value.
Crest or Peak or Amplitude Factor (Ka): It is defined as the ratio of maximum value to the
effective value (r.m.s. value) of an alternating quantity. i.e.,
Peak factor, Ka = Maximum value of an alternating quantity

r ms value of an alternating quantity
For sinusoidal alternating current,
Ka = Im = = 1.414
Im/√2
For sinusoidal alternating voltage,
Ka = Em = = 1.414
Em/√2
The knowledge of Crest Factor is particularly important in the testing of dielectric strength of
insulating materials; this is because the breakdown of insulating materials depends upon the
maximum value of voltage.
Phasor Representation:
An alternating quantity can be represented using
i) Waveform
ii) Equations
iii) Phasor
A sinusoidal alternating quantity can be represented by a rotating line called a Phasor. A
phasor is a line of definite length rotating in anticlockwise direction at a constant angular
velocity
The waveform and equation representation of an alternating current is as shown. This
sinusoidal quantity can also be represented using phasors.
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In phasor form the above wave is written as Im= Im∠0o

Draw a line OP of length equal to Im. This line OP rotates in the anticlockwise direction with
a uniform angular velocity ω rad/sec and follows the circular trajectory shown in figure. At
any instant, the projection of OP on the y-axis is given by OM=OPsinθ = Imsinωt. Hence the
line OP is the phasor representation of the sinusoidal current.
Phase: Phase is defined as the fractional part of time period or cycle through which the quantity has
advanced from the selected zero position of reference
Phase of +Em is π/2 rad or T/4 sec

Phase of -Em is π/2 rad or 3T/4 sec
Phase Difference: When two alternating quantities of the same frequency have different zero
points, they are said to have a phase difference. The angle between the zero points is the angle of
phase difference.
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In Phase
Two waveforms are said to be in phase, when the phase difference between them is zero.
That is the zero points of both the waveforms are same. The waveform, phasor and equation
representation of two sinusoidal quantities which are in phase is as shown. The figure shows
that the voltage and current are in phase.
v =Vm sin ωt
i=Im sin ωt
Lagging
In the figure shown, the zero point of the current waveform is after the zero point of the voltage
waveform. Hence the current is lagging behind the voltage. The waveform, phasor and equation
representation is as shown.
v=Vm sin ωt i=Im sin (ωt- )
Leading
In the figure shown, the zero point of the current waveform is before the zero point of the voltage
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waveform. Hence the current is leading the voltage. The waveform, phasor and equation
representation is as shown.
v=Vm sin ωt
i=Im sin (ωt+ )
Steady State Analysis of A.C. circuits

The path for the flow of alternating current is called on a.c. circuit. In a d.c. circuit, the current/flowing
through the circuit is given by the simple relation I = V/R. However, in an a.c. circuit, voltage and
current change from instant to instant and so give rise to magnetic (inductive) and electrostatic
(capacitive) effects. So, in an a.c. circuit, inductance and capacitance must be considered in addition
to resistance.
We shall now deal with the following a.c. circuits:

1. AC circuit containing pure ohmic resistance only.
2. AC circuit containing pure inductance only.
3. AC circuit containing pure capacitance only.
AC through pure resistive circuit

When an alternating voltage is applied to a pure resistive circuit, electrons flow in one direction
during first-half cycle and in opposite direction during second-half cycle, thus constituting
alternating current in the circuit
Let us consider an a.c circuit with pure resistance R, as shown in figure
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From equations (i) and (iii) it is apparent that voltage and current are in phase with each other and it
is represented in waveform as shown below.
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Power in a pure resistive circuit
The voltage and current are changing at every instant
Power curve: The power curve for a purely resistive circuit is as shown in figure below
From the figure it is apparent that power in such a circuit is zero only at the instants a, b and c,
when both the voltage and current are zero, it is positive at all other instants. In other words, power
is never negative, so that power is always lost in a resistive ac circuit. This power is dissipated as
heat.
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AC through pure inductive circuit

An inductive coil is a coil with or without an iron core and has negligible resistance. In practice,
pure inductance can never be found as inductive coil always has a small resistance. However for the
study purpose we will consider a purely inductive coil with zero resistance exited by a ac source as
shown in the figure below
On the application of an alternating voltage to the circuit containing a pure inductance, a back e.m.f
is produced due to the self inductance of the coil. This back e.m.f. opposes the rise and fall of the
current at every stage. The applied voltage has to overcome this self induced e.m.f.
Let the applied voltage be v= Vm sin ωt

The self-inductance of the coil = L Henry
𝑑𝑖
Self induced e.m.f in the coil is = eL = - L
𝑑𝑡
Since the applied voltage is equal and opposite to the self induced e.m.f at every instant we have
V = - eL
Where A is a constant of integration and found to be zero from initial condition
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From the expressions for the instantaneous voltage and instantaneous current flowing through a
purely inductive coil, it is clear the the current lags the voltage by п/2 as shown in the waveform
below
Inductive Reactance: ωL in the expression Im=Vm/ ωL is known as inductive reactance and is denoted
by XL, i.e., XL= ωL. If L is in Henry, ω is in radians per second, then XL is in Ohms. So, inductive
reactance plays a role of resistance.
Power: Instantaneous power is given by
The power measured by a wattmeter is the average value of ‘p’ which is zero, since average value
of a sinusoidal quantity of double frequency over a complete cycle is zero. In mathematical form it
can be expressed as
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Hence the average power absorbed by a pure inductive circuit is zero.
Power Curve: The power curve for a pure inductive circuit is as shown in figure below.
This indicates that power absorbed by the circuit is zero. At the instants a, c and e, voltage is zero
so the power is zero; at instants b and d also the power is zero as the current is zero. Between a and
b voltage and current are in opposite directions, so that power is negative and energy is taken from
the circuit. Between b and c voltage and current are in same directions, so that power is positive and
energy is put back to the circuit. Similarly, between c and d, power is taken from the circuit and
between d and e it is put back into the circuit. Hence net power over a complete cycle is zero.
AC through pure capacitive circuit

When an alternating voltage is applied across the plates of the capacitor, it charges in one direction
during first-half cycle and then charges in opposite direction as the voltage reverses
Let alternating voltage v=Vm sin ωt be applied across a capacitor of capacitance C Farad as shown
in the figure
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Capacitive Reactance: 1/ωC in the expression Im=Vm/ (1/ωC) is known ascapacitive reactance and
is denoted by XC, i.e., XC= 1/ωC. If C is in Farad, ω is in radians per second, then XC is in Ohms.
So, capacitive reactance plays a role of resistance.
From the expressions for the instantaneous voltage and instantaneous current flowing through a
purely capacitive circuit, it is clear that the current leads the voltage by п/2 as shown in the
waveform below
28
The power measured by a wattmeter is the average value of ‘p’ which is zero, since average value
of a sinusoidal quantity of double frequency over a complete cycle is zero. In mathematical form it
can be expressed as
Hence the average power consumed by a pure capacitive circuit is zero
Power Curve: The power curve for a pure inductive circuit is as shown in figure below.
This indicates that power absorbed by the circuit is zero. At the instants a, c and e, voltage is zero
so the power is zero; at instants b and d also the power is zero as the current is zero. Between a and
b voltage and current are in same directions, so that power is positive and energy is put back to the
circuit. Between b and c voltage and current are in opposite directions, so that power is negative
and energy is taken from the circuit. Similarly, between c and d, power is put back to the circuit and
between d and e it is taken from the circuit. Hence net power over a complete cycle is zero.
29
AC through series RL circuit:

Let us consider an a.c circuit containing a pure resistance R and pure inductance L, as shown in the
figure
Let , V be the r.m.s value of applied voltage

I be the r.m.s value of current
Let the , Voltage drop across R, VR=IR (in-phase with I)

Voltage drop across L, VL=IXL( Leading I by 900)
The voltage drops across these two circuit components are as shown in figure
Voltage vector
From figure vector OA indicates VR and AB indicate VL. The applied voltage V is the vector sum
of the two i.e. OB
OB is given by
OB2= OA2+AB2
30
Referring to the impedance triangle ABC
Z2= R2+XL2
Referring to the voltage vector we observe that the applied voltage V leads the current I by an angle
∅
This is as shown in the waveforms below
Power :
31
This consists of two parts
Where, V and I are the r.m.s values
Power consumed can be represented in waveform as shown below.
AC through series RC circuit:

Let us consider an a.c circuit containing a pure resistance R and pure capacitance C, as shown in the
figure
32
Let, V be the r.m.s value of applied voltage

Let the, Voltage drop across R, VR=IR (in-phase with I)

Voltage drop across C, VC=IXC( Lagging I by 900)
The capacitive reactance is negative, so Vc is in the negative direction of Y-axis, as shown in figure
Referring to the impedance triangle ABC
Referring to the voltage vector we observe that the applied voltage V lags the current I by an angle
∅
This is as shown in the waveforms below
33
Where, V and I are the r.m.s values
Power consumed can be represented in waveform as shown below.
AC through series RLC circuit

Let us consider an a.c circuit containing a pure resistance R, pure inductance L and pure
capacitance C, as shown in the figure
34
Let, V be the r.m.s value of applied voltage

Let the, Voltage drop across R, VR=IR (in-phase with I)

Voltage drop across L, VL=IXL( Leading I by 900)
Voltage drop across C, VC=IXC( Lagging I by 900)
Referring to the voltage triangle OA represents VR, AB and AC represents inductive and capacitive
drops respectively. We observe that VL and VC are 180o out of phase.
Thus, the net reactive drop across the combination is
AD = AB – AC
= AB – BD
= VL - VC
=I (XL -X)
OD, which represents the applied voltage is the vector sum of OA and AD
35
If applied voltage is represented by v=Vm sin ωt, then the resulting current in a series R-L-C circuit
is given by
i= Im sin(ωt± )
If XC> XL, then the current leads and the (+)sign is to be used
If XL> XC, then the current lags and the (-) sign is to be used
tan = X/R
36
POWER: In an AC circuit, the various powers can be classified as

1. Real or Active power
2. Reactive power
3. Apparent power
Power Triangle: Power triangle is the representation of a right angle triangle showing the relation
between active power, reactive power and apparent power. When each component of the current
that is the active component (Icosϕ) or the reactive component (Isinϕ) is multiplied by the voltage
V, a power triangle is obtained shown in the figure below
True power/Real power/Active power: The power due to the active component of current is called as
the active power or real power. It is the power that is actually consumed or utilized in an AC Circuit and
does useful power. It is denoted by ‘P’ and measured in kilowatt (kW) or MW.
P = V ∗ I cos = I2R cos

Where V= rms value of voltage
I= rms value of current
cos = power factor
Reactive power: The power due to the reactive component of current is called as the reactive
power. It is denoted by Q. Reactive power does not do any useful work. It is the circulating power
in the L and C components. The unit for reactive power is Volt Amperes Reactive (VAr).
Q = V ∗ I sin = I2XL sin
Apparent power: The apparent power is the total power in the circuit. It is the product of root
mean square (RMS) value of voltage and current. It is denoted by ‘S’. The unit for apparent power
is Volt Amperes (VA) and measured in KVA or MVA.
S = VI = I2 Z
S2 = P2+ Q2
37
Power factor: It is the cosine of the angle between V and I. From the power triangle shown above
the power, the factor may be determined by taking the ratio of true power to the apparent power.
Power factor, cos = Real Power = kW

Apparent Power kVA
Or, cos = Resistance = R

Impedance Z
Importance of Power Factor: A power factor of one or "unity power factor" is the goal of any
electric utility company since if the power factor is less than one, they have to supply more current
to the user for a given amount of power use. In so doing, they incur more line losses. They also must
have larger capacity equipment in place than would be otherwise necessary. As a result, an industrial
facility will be charged a penalty if its power factor is much different from 1.
Causes of Low power factor: The reason for the low power factor is because of the inductive load. The
current in the inductive load lag behind the voltage. The power factor is therefore lagging. The
important inductive loads responsible for the low power factor are the three-phase induction
motors (which operate at a 0.8 lagging power factor), transformer, lamps and welding equipment
operate at low lagging power factors. Power factor improvement methods are used for improving the
value of power factor in a power system.
Disadvantages of low power factor
 Higher current is required by the equipment, due to which the economic cost of the equipment is
increased.
 At low power factor, the current is high which gives rise to high copper losses in the system and
therefore the efficiency of the system is reduced.
 Higher current produced a large voltage drop in the apparatus. This results in the poor voltage
regulation.
Power Factor Improvement: If the power factor is low or poor, it is necessary to improve or correct it.
It may be improved by injecting a leading current into the circuit so as to neutralize the effect of
lagging current. The power factor may be improved by using static capacitors or synchronous motors.
38
Three Phase A.C Circuits:

Advantages of three phase system: In the three phase system, the alternator armature has three
windings and it produces three independent alternating voltages. The magnitude and frequency of all
of them are equal but they have a phase difference of 120o between each other. Such a three phase
system has following advantages over single phase system:
1. The output of three phase machine is always greater than single phase machine of same size,
approximately 1.5 times. So for a given size and voltage a three phase alternator occupies less
space and costs less than single phase having same rating.
2. For transmission and distribution, three phase system needs less copper or less conducting
material than single phase system for given volt amperes and voltage rating, so transmission
becomes very much economical.
3. It is possible to produce rotating magnetic field with stationary coils by using three phase
system. Hence three phase motors are self-starting.
4. In single phase system, the instantaneous power is a function of time and hence fluctuates
with respect to time. This fluctuating power causes considerable vibrations in single phase
motors. Hence performance of single phase motors is poor. While instantaneous power in
symmetrical three phase system is constant.
5. Single phase supply can be obtained from three phase but three phase cannot be obtained from
single phase.
6. Power factor of single phase motor is poor than three phase motors of same rating.
But it is found that optimum number of phases required to get all above said advantages is three. Any
further increase in number of phases cause a lot of complications. Hence three phase system is
accepted as standard poly-phase system throughout the world.
Generation of 3-phase E.M.F.

In the 3-phase system, there are three equal voltages of the same frequency but displaced from one
another by 1200 electrical. These voltages are produced by a three-phase generator which has three
identical windings or phases displaced 1200 electrical apart. When these windings are rotated in a
magnetic field, e.m.f. is induced in each winding or phase. These e.m.f.s are of the same magnitude
and frequency but are displaced from one another by 1200 electrical.
Consider three identical coils a1a2, b1b2 and c1c2 as shown in the above figure. In this figure a1, b1 and
c1 are the starting terminals, whereas a2, b2 and c2are the finish terminals of the three coils. The phase
difference of 120o has to be maintained between the starts terminals a1, b1 and c1. Now, let the three
coils mounted on the same axis, and they are rotated by either keeping coil stationary and moving the
magnetic field or vice versa in an anticlockwise direction at (ω) radians per seconds. Three e.m.f.s
are induced in the three coils respectively.
39
Figure A: Three-phase e.m.f generation
When the coil a1a2, is in the position AB shown in the above figure, the magnitude and direction of
the e.m.f. s induced in the various coils is as under:
Figure B: Three-phase Sinusoidal waveform
The e.m.f. induced in the coil a1a2 is zero and is increasing in the positive direction as shown by the
waveform represented as ea1a2.
The coil b1b2 is 120oelectrically behind the coil a1a2. The e.m.f induced in this coil is negative and is
becoming maximum negative as shown by the wave eb1b2.
Similarly, the coil c1c2 is 120o electrically behind the coil b1b2, or we can also say that the coil c1c2 is
240o behind the coil a1a2. The e.m.f induced in the coil is positive and is decreasing as represented by
the waveform ec1c2.
40
Phasor Diagram
The e.m.f.s induced in the three coils in a 3 phase circuits are of the same magnitude and frequency
and are displaced by an angle of 120o from each other as shown below in the phasor diagram.
These EMFs of a 3 phase circuits can be expressed in the form of the various equations given
below.
Phase sequence: The order in which the voltages in the three phase system reach their maximum
positive values is called the phase sequence.
For example, in Fig. (A) the three coils a1a2, b1b2 and c1c2, are rotating in anticlockwise direction in
the magnetic field. The coil a1a2 is 1200 electrical ahead of coil b1b2 and 2400 electrical ahead of coil
c1c2.
Therefore, e.m.f. in coil a1a2 leads the e.m.f. in coil b1b2 by 1200 and that in coil c1c2 by 2400. It is
evident from Fig (B) that ea1a2 attains maximum positive first, then eb1b2 and ec1c2 . Hence, the phase
sequence is a,b,c. The 3 phases may be numbered (1, 2, 3) or lettered (a, b, c) or specified by colors
(R Y B). By normal convention, sequence RYB is considered positive and R B Y negative.
It is necessary to employ some systematic notation for the solution of a.c. circuits and systems
containing a number of e.m.f.s acting and currents flowing so that the process of solution is simplified
and less prone to errors. It is normally preferred to employ double-subscript notation while dealing
with a.c. electrical circuits. In this system, the order in which the subscripts are written indicates the
direction in which e.m.f. acts or current flows.
41
For example, if e.m.f. is expressed as Eab, it indicates that e.m.f. acts from a to b; if it is expressed as
Eba , then the e.m.f. acts in a direction opposite to that in which Eab acts.
i.e, Eba = - Eab
Similarly, Iab indicates that current flows in the direction from a to b but Iba indicates that current
flows in the direction from b to a;
i.e., Iba = -Iab.
Balanced Supply and Load
Balanced Supply: A supply is said to be balanced when the three phase voltages are equal, and the
phase difference is 1200 between one another.
Balanced load: A load is said to be balanced if the impedance of the three phases or three circuit
loads are equal.
When a balanced supply, where the three phase voltages are equal, and the phase difference is 1200
between one another, supplies balanced load, where the impedance of the three phases or three circuit
loads are equal, then the current flowing through these three phases will also be equal in magnitude,
and will also have a phase difference of 1200 with one another. Such an arrangement is called a
balanced load.
Star Connection in a 3 Phase System

In the Star Connection, the similar ends (either start or finish) of the three windings are connected
to a common point called star or neutral point. The other three conductors run from the remaining
three free terminals called line conductors. The wires are carried to the external circuit, giving three
phase, three wire star connected systems. However, sometimes a fourth wire is carried from the star
point to the external circuit, called neutral wire, forming three phase, four wire star connected
systems. The star connection is shown in the diagram below.
42
The finish terminals a2, b2, and c2 of the three windings are connected to form a star or neutral point.
The three conductors named as R, Y and B run from the remaining three free terminals as shown in
the above figure.
The current flowing through each phase is called Phase current Iph, and the current flowing through
each line conductor is called Line Current IL. Similarly, the voltage across each phase is called Phase
Voltage Vph, and the voltage across two line conductors is known as the Line Voltage VL.
Relation between Phase Voltage and Line Voltage in Star Connection
1. Line voltage is root 3 times of phase voltage.

i.e, Line voltage=√3 Phase voltage
VL= √3 Vph
2. Line Current is equal to Phase Current.

i.e, Line current = Phase current
IL=Iph
3.Power output per phase = VPhIPh cos
Total power output, P = 3VPh IPh cos
or, Power = √3 VL IL cos
Where, cos is the power factor of the load
Delta Connection in a 3 Phase System

In Delta (Δ) or Mesh connection, the finished terminal of one winding is connected to start
terminal of the other phase and so on which gives a closed circuit. The three conductors running
from the three junctions of the mesh are called Line Conductors. The connection in Delta form is
shown in the figure below.
To obtain the Delta connection, a2 is connected with b1, b2 is connected with c1 and c2 is connected with
a1 as shown in the above figure. The three conductors R, Y and B are running from the three junctions
known as Line Conductors. The current flowing through each phase is called Phase Current (Iph), and
the current flowing through each line conductor is called Line Current (IL). The voltage across each
43
phase is called Phase Voltage (Vph), and the voltage across two line conductors is called Line Voltage
(VL).
Relation between Phase Voltage and Line Voltage in Delta Connection
1. Line Voltage is equal to Phase Voltage

i.e, VL=Vph
2. Line current is root three times of phase current.

Line current =√3 Phase current
IL= √3 Iph
3. Power output per phase = VPhIPh cos

Total power output, P = 3VPh IPh cos
or, Power = √3 VL IL cos
Where, cos is the power factor of the load
Power Generation:
Without electricity, our lives would have come to a halt. Electricity is generated from sources such
as water, coal, nuclear, wind, and the sun's rays. Turbines are the devices mostly propelled by a fluid
or gas that acts as an energy carrier. Turbines can be propelled by wind or flowing water. Steam is
one of the sources that can power turbines, and for this medium, water is boiled with the help of heat
from methods involving nuclear fission, burning coal, natural gas, or petroleum. The main methods
of generating electricity have been discussed in further sections.
Typical Layout and Working of a Hydroelectric Power Plant:
Generation of electricity by hydropower (potential energy in stored water) is one of the cleanest
methods of producing electric power. Hydroelectricity is the most widely used form of renewable
energy. It is a flexible source of electricity and also the cost of electricity generation is relatively low.
The figure below shows the typical layout of a hydroelectric power plant and its basic components.
44
Typical Layout of a Hydro-Electric Power Plant
Dam and Reservoir: The dam is constructed on a large river in hilly areas to ensure sufficient water
storage at height. The dam forms a large reservoir. The height of water level (called as water head)
in the reservoir determines how much of potential energy is stored in it.
Control Gate: Water from the reservoir is allowed to flow through the penstock to the turbine. The
amount of water which is to be released in the penstock can be controlled by a control gate. When
the control gate is fully opened, maximum amount of water is released through the penstock.
Penstock: A penstock is a huge steel pipe which carries water from the reservoir to the turbine.
Potential energy of the water is converted into kinetic energy as it flows down through the penstock
due to gravity.
Water Turbine: Water from the penstock is taken into the water turbine. The turbine is mechanically
coupled to an electric generator. Kinetic energy of the water drives the turbine and consequently the
generator gets driven. There are two main types of water turbine; (i) Impulse turbine and (ii) Reaction
turbine. Impulse turbines are used for large heads and reaction turbines are used for low and medium
heads.
Generator: A generator is mounted in the power house and it is mechanically coupled to the turbine
shaft. When the turbine blades are rotated, it drives the generator and electricity is generated which
is then stepped up with the help of a transformer for the transmission purpose.
Surge Tank: Surge tanks are usually provided in high or medium head power plants when
considerably long penstock is required. A surge tank is a small reservoir or tank which is open at the
top. It is fitted between the reservoir and the power house. The water level in the surge tank rises or
falls to reduce the pressure swings in the penstock. When there is sudden reduction in load on the
turbine, the governor closes the gates of the turbine to reduce the water flow. This causes pressure to
increase abnormally in the penstock. This is prevented by using a surge tank, in which the water level
45
rises to reduce the pressure. On the other hand, the surge tank provides excess water needed when the
gates are suddenly opened to meet the increased load demand.
Working: Hydroelectric power plants capture the energy of falling water to generate electricity. A
turbine converts the kinetic energy of falling water into mechanical energy. Then a generator converts
the mechanical energy from the turbine into electrical energy.
Typical Layout and Working of a Thermal Power Plant:
Almost two third of electricity requirement of the world is fulfilled by thermal power
plants (or thermal power stations). In these power stations, steam is produced by burning some fossil
fuel (e.g. coal) and then used to run a steam turbine, and this rotation is transferred to a generator to
produce electricity. Thus, a thermal power station may sometimes called as a steam power station.
After the steam passes through the steam turbine, it is condensed in a condenser and again fed back
into the boiler to become steam.
A simplified layout of a thermal power station is shown below.
46
Typical layout of a thermal power plant
47
The thermal power plant can be subdivided in to several smaller units namely,
(1). Fuel handling unit.
(2). Ash handling unit.
(3). Boiler unit.
(4). Feed water unit.
(5). Cooling water unit.
(6). Generator unit.
(7). Turbine unit.
Main flow circuits: The flow circuit can be divided in to four main circuits.
a) Fuel & Ash circuit.
b) Air & Gas circuit.
c) Feed water & Steam circuit.
d) Cooling water circuit.
a) Fuel & Ash circuit.

Steam can be generated from coal, gas, or oil as the main fuel. Fuel is stored in the fuel storage
unit and fed to the boiler through conveyor belt. The coal is burnt to heat the water in the boiler and
the ash produced after the combustion of coal is removed and then delivered to the ash storage unit
for disposal.
b) Air & Gas circuit.

Air is required for the complete combustion of the fuel which is supplied through the forced
draught (FD) fans and induced draught (ID) fans. The air, which is fed to the boiler, is passed through
the air pre-heater to extract some energy of flue gases coming out from the boiler after burning the
coal. It also helps in the proper burning of the coal. The flue gases consist of gases and ash, which
are passed through the precipitator (or dust collector) and then finally go to atmosphere through
chimney.
c) Feed water & Steam circuit.

If the steam power plant is of condensing type, the steam is converted to water by condenser.
Some part of steam and water is lost while passing through the different components of the system
due to leakages. This can be compensated by adding the makeup water in feed water system. The
boiler feed pump (BFP) feeds the water into the boiler drum where it is heated to form the steam. The
wet steam from the drum is again heated in super heater, before it is passed to the turbine. The super
heated steam is expanded in the turbine to run it.
Depending upon the size of the power plant unit, there are different stages of prime mover.
 High pressure (HP) turbine.
 Intermediate pressure (IP) turbine.
 Low pressure (LP) turbine.
The steam after the expansion in HP turbine is sent back to boiler for reheating to increase the
temperature and pressure. After coming out from LP turbine, steam is passed through the condenser
in the hot well and finally to boiler through the boiler feed pump.
d) Cooling water circuit.

To condensate the steam in condenser and maintaining low pressure in it, a large quantity of
cooling water is required, which is taken from the river or pondage. After passing it through the
condenser, it is fed back to the river or pond.
48
Solar Power Generation:
A solar power system is a system used to transform solar radiation directly into electricity. The heart
of a solar power system or solar photovoltaic (PV) system are solar cells, which are interconnected
to form solar modules (solar panels) and solar arrays. Modules and arrays can be used to charge
batteries, operate motors, and to power any number of electrical loads. With the appropriate power
conversion equipment, solar power systems can produce alternating current (AC) compatible with
any conventional appliances, and can operate in parallel with, and interconnected to the utility.
Block diagram of solar energy conversion systems:
A grid-connected photovoltaic power system is an electricity generation system that is connected to

the utility grid. A grid-connected PV system typically consists of following components:
1. Solar panels
2. DC to DC converter
3. DC to AC converter
4. Grid connection equipment
How solar power works

 The sun light falling on the solar panels is converted into DC electricity
 This DC is stepped up using DC to DC converter. DC loads can be fed directly from this
supply.
 Then DC electricity is fed into a inverter that converts DC to AC electricity.
 AC loads can be fed directly from this supply.
 Surplus electricity is fed back into the main grid.
Whenever the sun light falls on the solar panel, the solar cells generate electricity. This is DC in
nature. The grid connected inverter converts the DC electricity produced by the solar panels into
240V AC electricity, which can then be used to feed the AC loads.
If a grid connect system is producing more power than is being consumed, the surplus is fed into the
mains power grid. When the solar cells are not producing power, for example at night, your power is
supplied by the main power grid as usual. As all of the components in a grid connected system have
no moving parts, you can expect a long and hassle free life from your solar power system.
49
Wind Turbines
Using wind energy is another way of producing electricity. Windmills are devices that harness wind
energy, and act like turbines in order to produce electricity. The rotating blades are connected to
generators via cables, which transfer kinetic energy to the generators.
Wind turbines operate on a simple principle. Wind is merely air in motion. Wind turbines convert
kinetic energy from the wind that passes over the rotors into electricity. The kinetic energy in the
wind turns two or three propeller-like blades around a rotor. The rotor is connected to the main shaft,
which spins a generator to create electricity. Wind turbines are mounted on a tower to capture the
most energy. At 100 feet (30 meters) or more above ground, they can take advantage of faster and
less turbulent wind. Wind turbines can be used to produce electricity for a single home or building,
or they can be connected to an electricity grid for more widespread electricity distribution. Wind
turbines harness the power of the wind and use it to generate electricity. Simply stated, a wind turbine
works the opposite of a fan. Instead of using electricity to make wind, like a fan, wind turbines use
wind to make electricity
The turbine rotor, gear box and generator are the main three components for energy conversion. •
Rotor converts wind energy to mechanical energy. • Gear box is used to adapt to the rotor speed to
generator speed. • Generator with the variable speed wind turbine along with electronic inverter
absorbs mechanical power and convert to electrical energy. • The power converter can not only
transfer the power from a wind generator, but also improve the stability and safety of the system.
Electrical energy, after being produced at generating stations is transmitted to the consumers for
utilization.
Single Line Diagram Of AC Power Transmission System

A typical single line diagram that represents the flow of energy in a given power system is shown
below:
50
Electrical power is normally generated at 11kV in a power station. While in some cases, power may
be generated at 33 kV. This generating voltage is then stepped up to 132kV, 220kV, 400kV or 765kV
etc. Stepping up the voltage level depends upon the distance at which power is to be transmitted.
Longer the distance, higher will be the voltage level. Stepping up of voltage is to reduce the I2R losses
in transmitting the power (when voltage is stepped up, the current reduces by a relative amount so
that the power remains constant, and hence I2R loss also reduces). This stage is called as primary
transmission.
The voltage is the stepped down at a receiving station to 33kV or 66kV. Secondary transmission
lines emerge from this receiving station to connect substations located near load centers (cities etc.).
51
The voltage is stepped down again to 11kV at a substation. Large industrial consumers can be
supplied at 11kV directly from these substations. Also, feeders emerge from these substations. This
stage is called as primary distribution.
Feeders are either overhead lines or underground cables which carry power close to the load points
(end consumers) up to a couple of kilometers. Finally, the voltage is stepped down to 415 volts by a
pole-mounted distribution transformer and delivered to the distributors. End consumers are supplied
through a service mains line from distributors. The secondary distribution system consists of
feeders, distributors and service mains.
COMPARISON BETWEEN OVERHEAD AND UNDERGROUND TRANSMISSION

LINES:
Electric Power needs to be carried over long distances from the point of generation to the
point of consumption. This Transmission is done either through overhead lines or underground
cables. Each of these two methods of transmission has its own advantages and disadvantages.
1. Overhead Transmission lines are cheaper as the insulation cost is lesser and the conductor material
cost is lesser too. They also have better heat dissipation. However, they have significant
disadvantages. Over headlines are vulnerable to lightning strikes which can cause
interruption. Overhead lines use bare conductors and can cause damage if they break. They are
considered to be unsightly as they mar the scenery of the landscape. The maintenance cost of
overhead lines is more and the voltage drop in overhead lines is more.
2. Underground transmission due to cables is expensive than overhead transmission as the ground
needs to be excavated. This can be difficult when passing though geographic obstructions such as
hills, marshes and rivers. Special trenches need to be constructed when passing through loose
soil. Besides, heat dissipation in underground cables is an issue. Hence, the conductors have to be
thicker. The insulation required for the cables is expensive. Hence, it is difficult to use
underground cables for voltages at higher levels (> 33 kV).
3. Underground cables may have to be rerouted to accommodate other underground structures such
as water pipelines, sewage lines, etc. It is necessary that the routes of underground lines are clearly
marked with signboards to prevent accidents when excavations are carried out for other reasons at a
later date.
4. Underground cables have less chance of faults. Because all cables are under the ground and usually
better insulation is provided on the other hand overhead transmission lines have more chances of
faults due to effect of weather
5. Usually it is difficult to find faults and other problems in underground transmission lines than
overhead transmission lines.
52
6. Underground transmission lines have more useful life than Overhead transmission lines.
7. For public safety, underground transmission lines are better than overhead transmission lines.
8. Maintenance cost of overhead transmission lines are more than underground transmission because
there is no lighting problem in underground transmission lines.
9. Overhead transmission lines interface with the communication system. As a result the electric
potential of Communication paths increases to a distortion level.
53

EE110 - Chapter 1 - Notes

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Ch: 1- Electrical Circuits

Ch: 1- Electrical Circuits

The following conditions are to be fulfilled for the flow of current:

Since the relationship is assumed constant, we can write

Example: Consider a simple example as shown in figure,

Illustration of Kirchhoff Current Law

∑ IR +∑ emf = 0 …………………………..round the mesh

Illustration of Kirchhoff Voltage Law

Appling KVL to the loop we can write

Voltage Source and Current Source

Ideal Voltage Source Practical Voltage Source

The example of current sources is photoelectric cells, collector currents of transistors.

Ideal Current Source Practical Current Source

The dependent sources are further categorized as:

Voltage Controlled Voltage Source (VCVS)

Voltage Controlled Current Source (VCCS)

Where ƞ is a constant known as transconductance and its unit is mho.

Current Controlled Voltage Source (CCVS):

Current Controlled Current Source (CCCS)

Source Transformation: Source Transformation simply means replacing one source by an

Conversion of Voltage Source into Current Source

Conversion of Current Source into Voltage Source

Analysis of resistive circuits excited by D.C. source/s by Loop Current Method

1. Loop Current Method (also known as Mesh Analysis)

Mesh Analysis or Loop Current Method

The technique proceeds as follows:

Applying KVL to mesh-1, we get

Applying KVL to mesh-2, we get

Steps for Loop Current Method

Writing Loop Equations in Matrix form by Inspection

Loop equations in matrix form can be written as:

Node Analysis or Node Voltage Method:

The Node Voltage method generally proceeds as follows:

Applying KCL at node B we have

I1= Va-Vb I2 = Vc-Vb I3 = Vb

Therefore, Va-Vb + Vc-Vb = Vb

Steps for Node Voltage Method

1. Replace all practical voltage sources by equivalent current sources.

Writing Node Equations in Matrix form by Inspection:

Node equations in matrix form can be written as

[V] is a N x 1 column matrix containing node voltages Vk which are to be calculated.

Generation of sinusoidal E.M.F in a rotating coil.

Root-mean-square (R.M.S.) Value:

Area of the strip = i2 d θ

Area of first half-cycle of squared wave is

Let the mid-ordinate of this strip be ‘e’.

Area of the strip = e dθ

Area of first half-cycle is

Average Value, Eav= Area of half cycle = 2Em

Form Factor and crest or peak or Amplitude Factor (Kf)

From Factor, Kf = r ms value of an alternating quantity

For sinusoidal alternating current,

Peak factor, Ka = Maximum value of an alternating quantity

For sinusoidal alternating current,

In phasor form the above wave is written as Im= Im∠0o

Phase of +Em is π/2 rad or T/4 sec

v=Vm sin ωt i=Im sin (ωt- )

Steady State Analysis of A.C. circuits

We shall now deal with the following a.c. circuits: