Electric Vehicle - Basic Electrical and Electronics

Basic electrical principles

▪ The atom consists of a central nucleus made up of protons and neutrons.
Around this nucleus orbit electrons, like planets around the sun.

▪ The neutron is a very small part of the nucleus. It has equal positive and
negative charges and is therefore neutral and has no polarity.

▪ The proton is another small part of the nucleus, it is positively charged.

▪ The neutron is neutral and the proton is positively charged, which means
that the nucleus of the atom is positively charged.

▪ The electron is negatively charged. It orbits the nucleus and is held in

orbit by the attraction of the positively charged proton.
Conductors and Insulators
▪ When atoms are in a balanced state, the number of electrons
orbiting the nucleus equals the number of protons.

▪ The atoms of some materials have electrons that are easily

detached from the parent atom and can therefore join an
adjacent atom.

▪ These atoms move an electron from the parent atom to

another atom (like polarities repel) and so on through material.
This is a random movement and the electrons involved are
called free electrons.

▪ Materials are called conductors if the electrons can move easily.

In some materials it is extremely difficult to move electrons
from their parent atoms. These materials are called insulators.
Semiconductors
▪ Semiconductors are the materials which have a conductivity
between conductors (generally metals) and non-conductors
or insulators (such as ceramics).

▪ Semiconductors can be compounds such as gallium arsenide

or pure elements, such as germanium or silicon.

Examples of Semiconductors:

▪ Gallium arsenide, germanium, and silicon are some of the

most commonly used semiconductors. Silicon is used in
electronic circuit fabrication and gallium arsenide is used in
solar cells, laser diodes, etc.

12/19/2021
Electron and conventional flow

To cause an electron flow:

▪ A pressure source is needed, e.g. from a battery or generator.
▪ A complete conducting path in which the electrons can move should exist (e.g. wires).
Effects of current flow
When a current flows in a circuit, it can produce only three effects:
▪ heating
▪ magnetic
▪ chemical.

▪ The heating effect is the basis of electrical components such as lights and heater plugs.

▪ The magnetic effect is the basis of relays and motors and generators.

▪ The chemical effect is the basis for electroplating and battery charging.
Fundamental Quantities

Voltage = Current × Resistance

(V = IR) or (R = V/I ) or (I = V/R)

Power = Voltage × Current

(P = VI) or (I = P/V ) or (V = P/I)
Describing electrical circuits

Open circuit - This means the circuit is broken, therefore no current can flow.

Short circuit - This means that a fault has caused a wire to touch another conductor and the current uses
this as an easier way to complete the circuit.

High resistance - This means a part of the circuit has developed a high resistance (such as a dirty
connection), which will reduce the amount of current that can flow.
Factors affecting the resistance of a conductor

▪ Length – the greater the length of a conductor, the greater is the

resistance.

▪ Cross-sectional area – the larger the cross sectional area, the

smaller the resistance.

▪ The material from which the conductor is made – the resistance

offered by a conductor will vary according to the material from
which it is made. This is known as the resistivity or specific
resistance of the material.

▪ Temperature – most metals increase in resistance as temperature

increases.
Series and Parallel Circuits

➢ Current is the same in all parts of the circuit. ➢ The voltage across all components of a parallel
➢ The applied voltage equals the sum of the volt circuit is the same.
drops around the circuit. ➢ The total current equals the sum of the current
➢ Total resistance of the circuit (RT) equals the flowing in each branch.
sum of the individual resistance values ➢ The current splits up depending on each component
R1 + R 2 resistance.
➢ The total resistance of the circuit (RT) can be
calculated by:
1/RT = 1/R1 + 1/R2 or RT = (R1 × R2)/(R1 + R4)
Magnetism and electromagnetism – Some Basic rules

▪ Unlike poles attract. Like poles repel.

▪ Lines of force in the same direction repel sideways; in the opposite
direction they attract.
▪ Current flowing in a conductor will set up a magnetic field around the
conductor. The strength of the magnetic field is determined by how
much current is flowing.
▪ If a conductor is wound into a coil or solenoid, the resulting magnetism
is the same as that of a permanent bar magnet.
Electromagnetic induction
Basic laws:

✓ When a conductor cuts or is cut by magnetism, a voltage is induced in the conductor.

✓ The direction of the induced voltage depends on the direction of the magnetic field and the direction in which
the field moves relative to the conductor.
✓ The voltage level is proportional to the rate at which the conductor cuts or is cut by the magnetism.
Mutual induction
If two coils (known as the primary and secondary) are wound onto the same iron
core, then any change in magnetism of one coil will induce a voltage into the
other.

This happens when a current to the primary coil is switched on and off. If the
number of turns of wire on the secondary coil is more than the primary, a higher
voltage can be produced.

If the number of turns of wire on the secondary coil is less than the primary, a
lower voltage is obtained.

This is called ‘transformer action’ and is the principle of the ignition coil.

The value of this ‘mutually induced’ voltage depends on:

▪ The primary current.
▪ The turns ratio between primary and secondary coils.
▪ The speed at which the magnetism changes.
Basic motor principle

▪ Electric motors operate because of the interaction between

magnetic fields.

▪ The magnetic fields can be created by windings or be

permanent magnets, but one of them must be
electromagnetism.

▪ The force from the two fields is made to act in such a way as
to cause a shaft to turn
Definitions and laws
Ohm’s law

For most conductors, the current that will flow through them is directly proportional to
the voltage applied to them.

The ratio of voltage to current is referred to as resistance. If this ratio remains constant over a
wide range of voltages, the material is said to be ‘ohmic’.

R = V/I
I = current in amps,
V = voltage in volts,
R = resistance in ohms.
Lenz’s law
The EMF induced in an electric circuit always acts in a direction so that the current it creates around the
circuit will oppose the change in magnetic flux which caused it.

Lenz’s law gives the direction of the induced EMF resulting from electromagnetic induction. The ‘opposing
EMF’ is often described as a ‘back EMF’.

When the magnetic flux changes (ΔB), the magnetic field of the induced emf
(BInduced) works to counter the change.

Image credit: C. R. Nave, Georgia State University

Kirchhoff’s laws

Kirchhoff’s 1st law:

The current flowing into a junction in a circuit must equal the current flowing out of the junction.
This law is a direct result of the conservation of charge; no charge can be lost in the junction, so any charge
that flows in must also flow out.

Kirchhoff’s 2nd law:

For any closed loop path around a circuit, the sum of the voltage gains and drops always equals zero.
This is effectively the same as the series circuit statement that the sum of all the voltage drops will always
equal the supply voltage.
Faraday’s law

▪ Any change in the magnetic field around a coil of wire will cause an EMF (voltage) to be
induced in the coil.

▪ No matter how the change is produced, the voltage will be generated.

▪ The change could be produced by changing the magnetic field strength, moving the
magnetic field towards or away from the coil, moving the coil in or out of the magnetic
field, rotating the coil relative to the magnetic field and so on!
Fleming’s rules
▪ In an electrical machine, the first finger lines up with the magnetic Field, the
▪ second finger lines up with the Current and the thumb lines up with the Motion.

▪ Fleming’s rules relate to the direction of the magnetic field, current and motion in electrical machines.

▪ The left hand is used for motors, and the right hand for generators (remember gener-righters).
Ampere’s law
For any closed loop path, the sum of the length elements × the magnetic field in the direction of the
elements = the permeability × the electric current enclosed in the loop.

In other words, the magnetic field around an electric current is proportional to the electric current which
creates it and the electric field is proportional to the charge which creates it.
Hall Effect Principle
When a current-carrying conductor or a semiconductor is introduced to a perpendicular magnetic field, a
voltage can be measured at the right angle to the current path.

This effect of obtaining a measurable voltage is known as the Hall Effect.

Some Definitions and Units
Circuit and electronic symbols
End of the Lesson ☺