Computer Network Models

Networking engineering is a complicated task, which involves software, firmware, chip

level engineering, hardware, and electric pulses. To ease network engineering, the whole
networking concept is divided into multiple layers. Each layer is involved in some particular
task and is independent of all other layers. But as a whole, almost all networking tasks
depend on all of these layers. Layers share data between them and they depend on each
other only to take input and send output.

Layered Tasks

In layered architecture of Network Model, one whole network process is divided into small
tasks. Each small task is then assigned to a particular layer which works dedicatedly to
process the task only. Every layer does only specific work.

In layered communication system, one layer of a host deals with the task done by or to be
done by its peer layer at the same level on the remote host. The task is either initiated by
layer at the lowest level or at the top most level. If the task is initiated by the-top most layer,
it is passed on to the layer below it for further processing. The lower layer does the same
thing, it processes the task and passes on to lower layer. If the task is initiated by lower
most layer, then the reverse path is taken.
Every layer clubs together all procedures, protocols, and methods which it requires to
execute its piece of task. All layers identify their counterparts by means of encapsulation
header and tail.

7 Layer of OSI Model - Open Systems Interconnection

Open System Interconnect is an open standard for all communication systems. OSI model
is established by International Standard Organization (ISO). This model has seven layers:

• Application Layer: This layer is responsible for providing interface to the application
user. This layer encompasses protocols which directly interact with the user.

The topmost layer in the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model is the
Application Layer. The Application Layer contains a number of protocols that users
frequently require. This layer also requests various types of information from its
bottom layer, which is the presentation layer. This layer serves as the foundation for
email forwarding and storage.

• Presentation Layer: This layer defines how data in the native format of remote host
should be presented in the native format of host.

The sixth layer in the Open System Interconnection (OSI) model is the Presentation
Layer. It ensures that the message is delivered to the upper layer in a consistent
format. It is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the messages. The data
received from the Application Layer is extracted and manipulated in this layer so
that it can be transmitted over the network.
• Session Layer: This layer maintains sessions between remote hosts. For example,
once user/password authentication is done, the remote host maintains this session
for a while and does not ask for authentication again in that time span.

The Session Layer is the layer of the ISO Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model
that governs computer dialogues (connections). It is in charge of establishing,
maintaining, synchronizing, and terminating sessions between end-user
applications. It makes use of the transport layer’s services, allowing applications to
establish and maintain sessions as well as synchronize them.

• Transport Layer: This layer is responsible for end-to-end delivery between hosts.

Layer 4 of the OSI Model, known as the transport layer, provides transparent data
transfer between end users while also providing reliable data transfer services to the
upper layers. The transport layer is in charge of delivering an entire message from a
source device application program to a destination device application program.

• Network Layer: This layer is responsible for address assignment and uniquely
addressing hosts in a network.

In the physical layer in OSI model, the network layer is the third layer. It serves two
primary purposes. The “network layer” of the Internet communications process is
where these connections are made by sending data packets back and forth between
different networks. Furthermore, the network layer defines an addressing scheme in
order to uniquely identify each device on the internetwork.

• Data Link Layer: This layer is responsible for reading and writing data from and onto
the line. Link errors are detected at this layer.

The second layer of the OSI model is the data link layer. It is also known as layer 2.
The data link layer controls the delivery of messages from node to node. The main
goal of this layer is to ensure error-free data transfer from one node to another
across the physical layer. The data link layer conceals the underlying hardware
details and represents itself as the communication medium to the upper layer.

• Physical Layer: This layer defines the hardware, cabling wiring, power output, pulse
rate etc.

In the Open System Interconnection (OSI) Model, the Physical Layer is the lowest
layer. The physical layer in OSI model is in charge of transmitting data from one
computer to another. It is not concerned with the data of these bits but rather with
the establishment of a physical connection to the network. It interacts with actual
hardware as well as signaling mechanisms.
Functions Performed by Physical Layer

The following are some important and basic functions that are performed by the
Physical Layer of the OSI Model –

1. The physical layer maintains the data rate (how many bits a sender can send
per second).

2. It performs the Synchronization of bits.

3. It helps in Transmission Medium decisions (direction of data transfer).

4. It helps in Physical Topology (Mesh, Star, Bus, Ring) decisions (Topology

through which we can connect the devices with each other).

5. It helps in providing Physical Medium and Interface decisions.

6. It provides two types of configuration Point Point configuration and Multi-

Point configuration.
 7. It provides an interface between devices (like PCs or computers) and
transmission medium.

8. It has a protocol data unit in bits.

9. Hubs, Ethernet, etc. device is used in this layer.

10. This layer comes under the category of Hardware Layers (since the hardware
layer is responsible for all the physical connection establishment and
processing too).

11. It provides an important aspect called Modulation, which is the process of

converting the data into radio waves by adding the information to an
electrical or optical nerve signal.

12. It also provides a Switching mechanism wherein data packets can be

forwarded from one port (sender port) to the leading destination port.

Modes of Transmission Medium

1. Simplex mode: In this mode, out of two devices, only one device can transmit the
data, and the other device can only receive the data. Example- Input from
keyboards, monitors, TV broadcasting, Radio broadcasting, etc.

2. Half Duplex mode: In this mode, out of two devices, both devices can send and
receive the data but only one at a time not simultaneously. Examples- Walkie-Talkie,
Railway Track, etc.

3. Full-Duplex mode: In this mode, both devices can send and receive the data
simultaneously. Examples- Telephone Systems, Chatting applications, etc.

Physical Layer Protocols Examples

Typically, a combination of hardware and software programming makes up the physical

layer. It consists of several protocols that control data transmissions on a network. The
following are some examples of Layer 1 protocols:

• Ethernet with 1000BASE-T.

• Ethernet with 1000BASE-SX.

• Ethernet at 100BaseT.

• Synchronous Digital Hierarchy/Optical Synchronisation.

• Physical-layer variations in 802.11.

 • Bluetooth.

• Networking for controllers.

• U.S. Serial Bus.

Internet Model

Internet uses TCP/IP protocol suite, also known as Internet suite. This defines Internet
Model which contains four layered architecture. OSI Model is general communication
model but Internet Model is what the internet uses for all its communication.The internet is
independent of its underlying network architecture so is its Model. This model has the
following layers:

• Application Layer: This layer defines the protocol which enables user to interact
with the network.For example, FTP, HTTP etc.

• Transport Layer: This layer defines how data should flow between hosts. Major
protocol at this layer is Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). This layer ensures data
delivered between hosts is in-order and is responsible for end-to-end delivery.

• Internet Layer: Internet Protocol (IP) works on this layer. This layer facilitates host
addressing and recognition. This layer defines routing.

• Link Layer: This layer provides mechanism of sending and receiving actual
data.Unlike its OSI Model counterpart, this layer is independent of underlying
network architecture and hardware.

Computer Network Security

During initial days of internet, its use was limited to military and universities for research
and development purpose. Later when all networks merged together and formed internet,
the data useds to travel through public transit network.Common people may send the data
that can be highly sensitive such as their bank credentials, username and passwords,
personal documents, online shopping details, or confidential documents.

All security threats are intentional i.e. they occur only if intentionally triggered. Security
threats can be divided into the following categories:

• Interruption

Interruption is a security threat in which availability of resources is attacked. For example, a

user is unable to access its web-server or the web-server is hijacked.

• Privacy-Breach

In this threat, the privacy of a user is compromised. Someone, who is not the authorized
person is accessing or intercepting data sent or received by the original authenticated user.

• Integrity

This type of threat includes any alteration or modification in the original context of
communication. The attacker intercepts and receives the data sent by the sender and the
attacker then either modifies or generates false data and sends to the receiver. The receiver
receives the data assuming that it is being sent by the original Sender.

• Authenticity

This threat occurs when an attacker or a security violator, poses as a genuine person and
accesses the resources or communicates with other genuine users.

No technique in the present world can provide 100% security. But steps can be taken to
secure data while it travels in unsecured network or internet. The most widely used
technique is Cryptography.
Cryptography is a technique to encrypt the plain-text data which makes it difficult to
understand and interpret. There are several cryptographic algorithms available present day
as described below:

• Secret Key

• Public Key

• Message Digest

Secret Key Encryption

Both sender and receiver have one secret key. This secret key is used to encrypt the data at
sender’s end. After the data is encrypted, it is sent on the public domain to the receiver.
Because the receiver knows and has the Secret Key, the encrypted data packets can easily
be decrypted.

Example of secret key encryption is Data Encryption Standard (DES). In Secret Key
encryption, it is required to have a separate key for each host on the network making it
difficult to manage.

Public Key Encryption

In this encryption system, every user has its own Secret Key and it is not in the shared
domain. The secret key is never revealed on public domain. Along with secret key, every
user has its own but public key. Public key is always made public and is used by Senders to
encrypt the data. When the user receives the encrypted data, he can easily decrypt it by
using its own Secret Key.

Example of public key encryption is Rivest-Shamir-Adleman (RSA).

Message Digest
In this method, actual data is not sent, instead a hash value is calculated and sent. The
other end user, computes its own hash value and compares with the one just received.If
both hash values are matched, then it is accepted otherwise rejected.

Example of Message Digest is MD5 hashing. It is mostly used in authentication where user
password is cross checked with the one saved on the server.