Computer Networks

Chapter – 2 Chapter – 3
1. Protocol Layering 1. Data and Signals
2. The OSI Model 2. Digital Signals
3. TCP/IP Protocol Suite 3. Transmission Impairment
4. Data Rate limits
5. Performance
 Protocol Layering
Protocol layering is a method used to design network communication in a structured and
modular way. By dividing the complex tasks of communication into separate layers, protocol
layering allows each layer to focus on specific responsibilities without having to deal with all
aspects of communication.

This modular structure provides several benefits :

1. Modularity : Each layer has a distinct role, making it easier to design, troubleshoot, and upgrade
the network.
2. Interoperability : Different vendors and devices can interact because the layers follow
standardized protocols.
3. Ease of Development : Developers can focus on a specific layer without needing to understand
the entire network stack.
4. Scalability : It’s easy to replace or upgrade one layer without affecting others, so networks can
evolve over time.
OSI Model and Layered Protocols
• The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) model is a seven-layer
protocol stack developed by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO). Each layer has a defined function and
communicates with the layers directly above and below it, passing data
and control information through the stack.

Mnemonic to remember :
Please do not throw sausage
pizza away.
 Physical Layer
• The Physical layer is responsible for the physical connection between devices,
defining the hardware elements involved in data transmission.
• It handles the transmission of raw binary data (bits) over a communication
medium (e.g., cables, fiber optics, radio waves).

Key Aspects:

1. Defines specifications for physical components like cables, connectors, and

transmission media.
2. Controls data rates (bit rate) and signal strength.
3. Manages encoding and signaling (determines whether binary data is transmitted
as light, electrical signals, etc.).

Examples: Ethernet cables, fiber optics, hubs, and repeaters.

Working of Physical Layer
 Data Link Layer
• The Physical layer is responsible for reliable data transfer between two directly connected nodes.
• It formats data into frames and adds error-checking to ensure data integrity during transfer across a
single network segment.
• The data link layer takes packets from the network layer and breaks them into smaller pieces called
frames. Like the network layer, the data link layer is also responsible for flow control and error
control in intra-network communication

Key Aspects:
1. Framing: Divides raw data from the Physical layer into frames.

2. Error Detection/Correction: Uses error-detection codes (e.g., CRC) to check and correct errors.

3. Flow Control: Ensures data is transmitted at a rate that the receiver can handle.

4. MAC (Media Access Control): Determines how devices share access to the medium.
Examples: Ethernet cables, fiber optics, hubs, and repeaters.
Working of Data-Link Layer
It provides reliable and efficient
communication between two or
more devices on a local network
(LAN) or a wide area network (WAN)
by using a unique identification of
each device. It also corrects errors that
may occur in the physical layer by
having the sender break up the input
data into data frames and transmit
them sequentially. Before the delivery
of each package (frame), a header – at
the beginning – and a trailer – is added
at the end. Data headers are added by
other layers, but the trailer is only
added at the data link level. It is used
for error detection and marks the end
of the frame. Duplication of frames is
also prevented by using this
mechanism.
 Network Layer
The Network layer manages logical addressing, routing, and packet forwarding across
different networks.
It directs packets to their destination across multiple nodes, even if they’re located on
different networks.

Key Aspects:

1. Logical Addressing: Adds source and destination IP addresses to packets for

unique identification.
2. Routing: Finds the best path from the source to the destination.
3. Packet Forwarding: Moves packets from one node to another across network
boundaries.

Examples: IP (Internet Protocol), routers, and IP addresses.

Working of Network Layer
Here, Network layer
transmits data segments
between networks in the form
of packets. When you
message your friend, this
layer assigns source and
destination IP addresses to
the data segments. Your IP
address is the source, and
your friend’s is the
destination
 Transport Layer
• The Transport layer is responsible for end-to-end communication, providing reliability,
error recovery, and flow control.
• It ensures that data is delivered error-free and in the correct order.
Key Aspects:

1. Segmentation and Reassembly: Divides large messages into segments and

reassembles them at the destination.
2. Error Detection/Correction: Ensures segments arrive intact, using
acknowledgments and retransmission when needed.
3. Flow Control: Manages data flow to prevent congestion and overload.
4. Multiplexing: Allows multiple communication streams to use the same network
connection.

Examples: TCP (Transmission Control Protocol), UDP (User Datagram Protocol), ports.
Working of Transport Layer
• Transport Layer is responsible for end-to-
end communication between the two
devices. This includes taking data from the
session layer and breaking it up into chunks
called segments before sending it to
Network Layer. The transport layer on the
receiving device is responsible for
reassembling the segments into data, where
the session layer can consume.
• The transport layer is also
responsible for flow control and
error control. Flow control
determines an optimal speed of
transmission to ensure that a
sender with a fast connection does
not overwhelm a receiver with a
slow connection.
 Session Layer
• The Session layer manages sessions between applications, establishing, maintaining,
and terminating connections as needed.
• It organizes the dialog between two applications, ensuring continuity and coordination.

Key Aspects:

1. Session Establishment: Initiates sessions and manages authentication and

authorization.
2. Synchronization: Provides checkpoints within a data stream to allow recovery in
case of a failure.
3. Session Termination: Gracefully closes sessions after communication is complete.

Examples: Remote procedure calls (RPC), NetBIOS, and session management

protocols.
 Working of Session Layer
• This is the layer responsible for opening and closing
communication between the two devices. The time
between when the communication is opened and closed
is known as the session. The session layer ensures that
the session stays open long enough to transfer all the data
being exchanged, and then promptly closes the session in
order to avoid wasting resources.
• The session layer also synchronizes data transfer with
checkpoints. For example, if a 100 megabyte file is being
transferred, the session layer could set a checkpoint every
5 megabytes. In the case of a disconnect or a crash after
52 megabytes have been transferred, the session could be
resumed from the last checkpoint, meaning only 50 more
megabytes of data need to be transferred. Without the
checkpoints, the entire transfer would have to begin again
from scratch.
 Presentation Layer
• The Presentation layer translates data between the application and the network,
ensuring the data is in a usable format for both.
• It handles data encryption, compression, and formatting, serving as a translator for
data formats.
Key Aspects:

1. Data Translation: Converts data to formats that applications can use (e.g.,
converting text encoding).
2. Encryption/Decryption: Secures data by encrypting it before transmission and
decrypting it at the destination.
3. Compression/Decompression: Reduces data size for efficient transmission and
decompresses at the receiving end.

Examples: SSL (Secure Sockets Layer), JPEG, ASCII, and data encoding standards.
 Working of Presentation Layer
• This layer is primarily responsible for preparing
data so that it can be used by the application layer.
• This Layer makes the data presentable for
applications to consume. The presentation layer is
responsible for translation, encryption, and
compression of data.
• Two communicating devices communicating may
be using different encoding methods, so layer 6 is
responsible for translating incoming data into a
syntax that the application layer of the receiving
device can understand. If the devices are
communicating over an encrypted connection,
layer 6 is responsible for adding the encryption on
the sender’s end as well as decoding the encryption
on the receiver's end so that it can present the
application layer with unencrypted, readable data.
 Application Layer
• The Application layer provides network services directly to end-user applications.

• It interfaces with application software, enabling applications to communicate over the

network.
• Key Aspects:

1. Network Services: Provides functions for end-users, such as email, file transfer, and
web browsing.
2. Resource Sharing: Allows applications to request and manage resources over the
network.
3. Authentication: Ensures only authorized users can access specific services.

Examples: HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), FTP (File Transfer Protocol), SMTP
(Simple Mail Transfer Protocol), and DNS (Domain Name System).
 Working of Application Layer
• This is the only layer that directly
interacts with data from the user.
Software applications like web
browsers and email clients rely on the
application layer to initiate
communications.
• But it should be made clear that
client software applications are not
part of the application layer; rather the
application layer is responsible for the
protocols and data manipulation that
the software relies on to present
meaningful data to the user.
 Practical Example : Web Browsing
When you access a webpage, here’s how data moves through the layers:

1. Application Layer (HTTP): Your browser sends an HTTP request.

2. Presentation Layer: The request is encrypted (HTTPS).
3. Session Layer: A session is established with the web server.
4. Transport Layer (TCP): The request is segmented and assigned port numbers.
5. Network Layer (IP): The packets are addressed and routed.
6. Data Link Layer: Frames are created for transmission over local networks.
7. Physical Layer: The data is converted to electrical signals or light for
transmission.
 TCP/IP Protocol Suite Layers
• The TCP/IP Protocol Suite (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet
Protocol) is a set of communication protocols used on the internet and
similar networks. It’s the basis for the modern internet and follows a
layered approach similar to the OSI model. TCP/IP defines how data
should be formatted, transmitted, routed, and received to ensure
communication across diverse systems.
• the TCP/IP protocol suite has four layers rather than seven. These four
layers provide a more streamlined approach that directly supports
internet communication.

TCP/IP Protocol Suite Layers

1. Network Interface Layer (Link Layer)

2. Internet Layer
3. Transport Layer
4. Application Layer
 Network Interface Layer
• The Network Interface Layer (sometimes called the Link or Network Access
Layer) is responsible for handling communication on the local network,
including the hardware and data link aspects of connecting to the network.

• It defines how data is physically sent through the network. It deals with both
hardware (e.g., cables) and protocols that help devices within the same network
segment communicate with each other.

Examples: Ethernet, Wi-Fi, ARP (Address Resolution Protocol).

• In this layer, data is encapsulated in frames and transmitted over a physical

medium (such as Ethernet or Wi-Fi) between devices on the same local network.
 Internet Layer
• The Internet Layer is responsible for addressing and routing packets across network boundaries,
allowing devices to communicate regardless of their physical location.
• It handles the logical addressing of data packets (primarily through IP addresses) and manages
data forwarding between networks, including routing and path selection.
• Key Aspects :
1. IP Addressing: Uses IP addresses to identify devices and networks.
2. Routing: Directs packets to the destination network using routing tables and routers.
3. Fragmentation/Reassembly: Breaks data into smaller packets when needed and
reassembles them at the destination.
• Protocols: IPv4 (Internet Protocol version 4), IPv6, ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol),
IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol).
• In the Internet Layer, each packet gets an IP header, which includes the source and destination IP
addresses. Routers examine this IP header to direct packets to the correct network segment.
 Transport Layer
• The Transport Layer ensures reliable data transfer between devices, managing data
segmentation, flow control, and error-checking to guarantee end-to-end communication.
• It’s responsible for delivering data from one application to another and provides
reliability, sequencing, and error-checking.

Key Aspects:

1. Port Addressing: Uses port numbers to distinguish between multiple applications

running on the same device.
2. Flow Control: Prevents data from overwhelming the receiving device.
3. Reliability: Provides acknowledgment and retransmission mechanisms to ensure data
integrity.
4. Connection Control: Supports both connection-oriented (TCP) and connectionless
(UDP) communication.
• Protocols:
1. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Provides reliable, ordered, and
error-checked delivery of data, supporting applications where data
integrity and order are critical (e.g., web browsing, email).
2. UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Offers a faster but less reliable service,
suitable for applications where speed is prioritized over reliability (e.g.,
video streaming, gaming).
• The Transport Layer adds headers to data to handle application-specific needs,
with TCP offering more reliability features than UDP. TCP establishes a
connection, monitors data delivery, and re-sends data if errors occur.
 Application Layer
• The Application Layer provides network services directly to end-user applications,
enabling data communication between software applications over the network.
• It includes a range of protocols that define how different types of data (web, email,
file transfer) are exchanged over the network.
Key Aspects:

1. Network Services: Provides functions such as file transfer, email, and web
browsing.
2. Data Encoding: Ensures data is encoded correctly for interpretation by both
sender and receiver applications.
3. Authentication and Permissions: Some protocols manage access and ensure
only authorized users can use specific services.
• Protocols:
1. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol): For accessing web pages.
2. FTP (File Transfer Protocol): For file transfer between client and server.
3. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol): For sending emails.
4. DNS (Domain Name System): For translating domain names into IP
addresses.
5. Telnet and SSH: For remote command-line access to servers.
• The Application Layer is where end-user processes interact directly with the
network. For example, a web browser using HTTP communicates with a web
server over TCP/IP to retrieve web pages.
Why TCP/IP is Popular than OSI Model ?
1. TCP/IP has a four-layer model compared to OSI’s seven layers, making it
simpler and more efficient for implementing internet protocols.
2. It is also highly compatible with a variety of operating systems and devices,
contributing to its wide adoption across different network hardware, systems,
and applications.
3. TCP/IP is an open standard, which means it’s widely accessible and isn’t
owned by any single organization. This openness helped encourage
development and adoption across the tech industry, including academic,
corporate, and government sectors.
4. TCP/IP is almost universally implemented in network devices, from routers
and switches to personal computers and smartphones. This ubiquity has
created a vast base of knowledge, experience, and support around TCP/IP,
further solidifying it as the preferred standard.
 Intro to Physical Layer
• The Physical Layer is the first and lowest layer in both the OSI and TCP/IP
models. It is responsible for the physical connection between devices and
defines the hardware requirements and functions for data transmission over a
physical medium, such as electrical signals over cables or wireless radio waves.
• It defines aspects like:
1. Hardware interfaces (e.g., cables, network interface cards, and connectors)
2. Transmission media (e.g., copper wire, fiber optic, wireless)
3. Signal modulation and encoding
4. Bit rate (the speed at which data is transmitted, typically in bits per second)
 Data and Signals
• Data represents the information we want to send, which is inherently
digital (like text, images, or video). To be transmitted, data must be
converted into signals that can travel over the physical medium.
• Signals are the electrical, optical, or electromagnetic forms that represent
the data in a transmission medium. Signals can be analog or digital:
1. Analog Signals are continuous waveforms that vary over time,
often used for audio and video transmission.
2. Digital Signals are discrete, representing data as a series of bits (0s
and 1s). Digital signals are increasingly common in modern
networks.
 Digital Signals
• Digital signals are the backbone of most data communication networks today. They
represent data in binary form, which can be easily processed by digital devices.
1. Binary Representation: Digital signals use two levels of voltage or current to
represent binary values (0 and 1). For example, a high voltage could represent 1,
and a low voltage could represent 0.
2. Encoding Schemes: Encoding schemes, such as Non-Return-to-Zero (NRZ),
Manchester encoding, and others, help format binary data into a signal format
suitable for transmission.
3. Clock Synchronization: For reliable transmission, both sender and receiver need to
be synchronized to correctly interpret the timing of bits in the digital signal.
• Digital signals are favored because they are less susceptible to noise and can be easily
regenerated to maintain signal integrity over long distances.
 Transmission Impairment
• When data is transmitted over a medium, it’s often affected by various impairments that can alter or
degrade the signal:
1. Attenuation: A gradual weakening of the signal strength as it travels over a distance. Amplifiers
or repeaters can help counteract this effect.
2. Noise: Random electrical signals or interference from external sources (like other electronic
devices) can add unwanted signals to the transmitted data, leading to errors.
1. Common types of noise include thermal noise, crosstalk (interference between adjacent
wires), and impulse noise (caused by sudden bursts, like electrical spikes).
3. Distortion: The alteration of the signal’s shape due to varying transmission speeds in different
parts of the medium. This can cause the signal to lose clarity and become harder to interpret
accurately.
• Transmission impairment limits the distance and speed at which data can travel reliably over a given
medium.
 Data Rate Limits
• The data rate is the maximum number of bits that can be transmitted over a network in a
given time, often measured in bits per second (bps). Data rate limits are determined by factors
like the bandwidth of the medium, signal-to-noise ratio, and transmission impairments.
• Key factors influencing data rate limits include:
1. Nyquist Theorem: For a noiseless channel with a limited bandwidth, the maximum data
rate is given by 2B log2 M Bps, where B is the bandwidth, and M is the number of discrete
signal levels.
2. Shannon Capacity: For channels with noise, Shannon's theorem defines the channel
capacity (maximum achievable data rate) as C = B log2(1+ S/N) where S/N is the signal-to-
noise ratio. This provides the upper bound on data rate considering noise.
• These limits are important for determining how fast data can be reliably transmitted in a given
environment.
 Performance
• The performance of the Physical Layer is often measured using several metrics:
1. Throughput: The actual rate at which data is successfully transmitted across the
network, typically lower than the data rate due to protocol overhead and retransmissions.
2. Latency (Delay): The time taken for data to travel from the sender to the receiver, which
can include propagation delay (the time for a signal to travel over the medium),
transmission delay (the time to push bits into the medium), and processing delays at
devices.
3. Jitter: Variability in packet arrival times, which can be an issue in applications like video
streaming or voice calls where consistent timing is essential.
4. Bit Error Rate (BER): The rate at which errors occur in the transmission. BER is
affected by factors like noise and distortion, impacting the reliability of the data transfer.