ELE2101: ELECTRICAL MACHINES I

LECTURE NOTES

PREPARED BY
ENGR. PROF. IBRAHIM SANI MADUGU

KAMPALA INTERNATIONAL UNIVERSITY, UGANDA

2023

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COURSE DESCRIPTION
This course covers the basic principles and electromechanical energy conversion applications,
generalized machine model, and the operating characteristics of DC machines; computer-aided
analysis, IEEE compliant.
COURSE JUSTIFICATION/RATIONALE
To give the students a fair knowledge on the working of various DC machines & Transformers
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this course, the student should be able to:
1. Describe the basic principles and electromechanical energy conversion of electrical machines.
2. Assimilate and use generalized models and characteristics of DC electrical machines.
3. Determine the most efficient utilization of DC machines
4. Start and Reverse of D.C. motors.
LEARNING OUTCOMES
A student completing the course is expected to:
1. Acquire problem-solving and analytical skills.
2. Use mathematical methods to describe DC electrical machines and electromechanical energy
conversion network problems and simulation.
3. Select the most efficient utilization of DC machines.
4. Build up voltage in D.C. generator.

COURSE CONTENT
Constructional features of DC machines (6 hours)
 Field systems,
 armature core, commutator and brushes
 armature windings
 EMF equation
 symbols and network representations
Methods of excitation (7 hours)
 Separate excitation
 magnetization characteristics
 self-excitation, no-load characteristics
 IEEE symbols and Provisions
Load characteristics of DC generators (5 hours)
 Types of load characteristics
 separately excited generators
 shunt generators, series generators
 compound generators
 applications, analysis using MATLAB
Parallel operation of DC generators (6 hours)
 Advantages, separately excited generator,
 shunt generators, series generators
 compound generators, applications
 analysis using MATLAB
Load characteristics of DC motors (6 hours)
 Types of load characteristics

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  shunt generators, series generators
 compound generators, applications
 analysis using MATLAB
Control of DC motors (8 hours)
 Starters
 speed controls
 Electrical braking
 Applications
Losses, efficiency, testing of DC machines (7 hours)
 Losses, voltage and speed regulations
 Power stages and efficiency
 Maximum efficiency
 Tests, applications
 Analysis using MATLAB

Practical (30 Hours)

Select at least 6 experiments from the list given below.
1. EMF Induced In DC Machine
2. External Characteristics of DC shunt/compound Motor- study relations between speed, field
current and armature voltage.
3. Brake test of a DC series motor.
4. Coil connection of a single phase transformer.
5. Starting and load characteristics of a 3-phase Induction Motor.
6. Building up voltage in D.C. generator.
7. Starting and Reversing of D.C. shunt motor.
8. Study and connection of D.C. motor starters
9. Formation of coils of armature winding.
10. Speed control of D.C. shunt motor (both above & below normal)
11. Swimburn‘s test and computation of eff-off D.C. motor
12. Determine equivalent circuit parameters of single-phase transformer by performing O.C. test &
S.C test and determination of loss, efficiency and regulation.
13. Determine the regulation & efficiency of single-phase transformer by direct loading.
14. Heat run test of single-phase transformer.
15. Parallel operation of single-phase transformers -- determine the sharing of loads.
16. Connect 3-phase transformer in ∆-∆, y-∆, y-y & ∆-y and to determine the relationship between
line voltages & phase voltages.

READING LISTS
1. K Murugesh Kumar, (2004). DC Machines and Transformers, 2nd ed., Vikas publishing
House Pvt Ltd, New Delhi
2. Theodore Wildi, (2005). Electrical Machines, Drives and Power Systems, 6th ed.
3. Charles Gross, (2006). Electric Machines: Electric Power Engineering, CRC Press
4. Stephen Chapman (2003). Electric Machinery Fundamentals, McGraw Hill
5. Alexander and Sadiku, (2004). Fundamentals of Electric Circuits, Mc-Graw Hill Co., USA
Cirrincione, M., Pucci, M., & Vitale, G. (2016). Power converters and AC electrical drives with
linear neural networks. CRC Press.
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
A machine is a device or tool that possesses a unique purpose in augmenting or substituting human or
animal efforts in carrying out physical tasks. Thus, the categories of machine consists of simple devices
(inclined plane, wedge, lever, wheel, axle, pulley, screw and so on) and complex machine such as
automobile, robots and so on.
All machines have an input, an output and a transforming or modifying or modifying and transmitting
device. The operation of a machine may contain the transformation of chemical, thermal, electrical or
nuclear energy into mechanical energy or vice versa.
Prime mover is a machines that receive their input energy from natural resources (air current, moving
water, coal, petroleum or uranium) and transforms it into mechanical energy. Examples are windmills,
waterwheels, turbines, steam engines and internal combustion engines. The input here may vary but
usually, the output is rotating shafts that can also be used as inputs to other machines, such as electric
generators (with electrical as output), hydraulic pumps (with hydraulic as output), or air compressors
(with pneumatic energy as output). All are classified as generators. Most of the other types of machines
may be classified as operators such as calculating machines and typewriters.
In this course therefore, we will discuss on the first type that is the generators or motors, that can be
used to drive machines with varieties of outputs such as material processing, packaging, conveying
machinery, sewing machine, washing machine and so on.

1.2 DC GENERATOR
An electrical Generator is a machine which converts mechanical energy (or power) into electrical
energy (or power). The generator operates on the principle of the production of dynamically induced
emf i.e., whenever flux is cut by the conductor, dynamically induced emf is produced in it according
to the Faraday’s laws of electromagnetic induction, which will cause a flow of current in the
conductor if the circuit is closed.
Hence, the basic essential parts of an electric generator are:
 A magnetic field and
 A conductor or conductors which can so move as to cut the flux
In dc generators the field is produced by the field magnets which are stationary. Permanent magnets
are used for very small-capacity machines and electromagnets are used for large machines to create
magnetic flux. The conductors are situated on the periphery of the armature being rotated by the
prime-mover.

Figure 1.1 Basics of a DC Generators

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1.3 Practical DC generator construction

Fig. 1.2 Cut-away view of dc practical generators

The actual DC generator consists of the following essential parts:

 Magnetic frame or Yoke
 Pole Cores and Pole Shoes
 Pole Coils or Field Coils
 Armature Core
 Armature Windings or Conductors
 Commutator
 Brushes and Bearings

a) Magnetic frame or Yoke

Purpose of Yoke is
1. It act as a protecting cover for whole machine
2. It provides mechanical support for poles
3. It carries the magnetic flux produced by poles

b) Pole Cores and Pole Shoes

The field magnets consist of pole cores and pole shoes. The Pole shoes serve two purposes:

1. They spread out the flux in the air gap

2. They support the exciting coils

c) Armature
When current is passed through field coils, they electro-magnetize the poles which produce the
necessary flux.
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The Armature serves two purposes:
1. Armature houses the armature conductors or coils
2. It provides low reluctance path for flux
It is drum shaped and is built up of laminations made sheet steel to reduce eddy current loss. Slots are
punched on the outer periphery of the disc. The Armature windings or conductors are wound in the
form of flat rectangular coils and are placed in the slots of the Armature. The Armature windings are
insulated from the armature body by insulating materials.
The armature windings are vital part of a DC Machine. This is where emf is induced in the case of a
Generator and and force is developed that results in the turning of the rotor in the case of a Motor. The
design of the armature winding is more critical than the design of other parts of a DC machine. The
armature winding is housed in slots made on the armature surface. Formed coils are placed on slots.
The ends of the coils are joined with commutator segments.
There basically 2 types of armature winding the lap and wave windings
i. In a lap winding, the finishing end of one coil is connected via the commutator segment to the
starting end of the adjacent coil situated under the same pole. In this way all the coils are connected.
The winding is known as lap winding because the sides of successive coils overlap each other (see
Fig. below). A coil may consist of any number of turns. The number of slots required on the
armature is equal to the number of coil sides if two coil-sides are placed in each slot. With two coil-
sides in each slot, a two layer winding is obtained. While making a winding diagram in a two-layer
winding, all top coil-sides are numbered odd whereas the bottom coil-sides are numbered even
(shown by dotted lines) as shown in Fig.. For an eight-coil armature, therefore, eight slots are
required on the armature surface. The following terminologies are required to be understood for
preparing an armature winding diagram.
ii. In a wave winding a coil-side under one pole is connected to a second coil-side which occupies
approximately the same position under the next pole through back connection. The second coil-
side is then connected forward to another coil-side under the next pole (in the case of lap winding
the second coil is connected back through the commutator segment to a coil-side under the original
pole).
Coil and Coil-side: The DC armature windings are double-layer type having at least two coil-sides per
slot. Each coil consists of an upper coil-side at the top of one slot and a lower coil-side situated at the
bottom of another slot. The distance between the two coil-sides of a coil is approximately equal to the
pole pitch. A coil may be of single turn or of many turns. If two coil-sides are placed in one slot, then
the number of slots required on the armature for housing the coils is equal to the number of coils of the
winding. For low-speed high-voltage winding, however, the number of coil-sides per slot is more than
two. This is because the winding will have a large number of coils and it may not be possible to have
an equal number of slots on the armature.
Back Pitch: The distance measured in terms of the number of armature conductors (coil sides) between
the two coil-sides of a coil measured around the back of the armature, i.e., away from the commutator
end of the armature is called the back pitch, Yb.
Front Pitch: The distance between two coil-sides connected to the same commutator segment is called
the front pitch, Yf . Resultant Pitch: It is defined as the distance in terms of the number of coil-sides
between the start of one coil and the start of the next coil to which it is connected.
Commutator Pitch: It is defined as the distance measured in terms of commutator segments between
the segments to which the two ends of a coil are connected. For calculating back pitch Yb and front
pitch Yf for a lap winding, the following relations are used:
(i) Yb – Yf = ± 2m Also, Yb = (Z/P)± 1

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where m = 1 for simplex winding
= 2 for duplex winding
When Yb is greater than Yf, the winding is a progressive one, i.e., it progresses from left to right. If Y b
is less than Yf, the winding is called a retrogressive one, i.e., it progresses from right to left.
(ii) The back pitch and front pitch must be odd.
(iii) The average pitch, Ya = (Yb + Yf)/2 should be equal to the pole pitch, i.e., equal to Z/P, where Z is
the number of coil sides.
(iv) The commutator pitch is equal to m, i.e., equal to 1, 2, etc. for simplex, duplex etc. type of winding.
(v) The number of parallel paths in the armature winding for a simplex lap winding is equal to the
number of poles, P.
(vi) The resultant pitch is always even, being the difference of two odd numbers.
The characteristics of a wave winding are:
(i) Average pitch, Ya = (Yb ± Yf)/2 = (Z ±2)/P If Ya is taken equal to Z/P, as is the case in a lap winding
the winding after one round will close itself without including all the coils which is not desirable.
Hence the product of the average pitch and the number of pairs of poles must be two greater or less
than the number of coil-sides. Average pitch should be a whole number.
(ii) Both back pitch and front pitch should he odd numbers.
(iii)To make the average pitch a whole number, wave winding is not possible with any number of coil-
sides. For example if Z = 32 and P = 4, Ya = (Z±2)/P = (32±2)/4 = 8 ½ or 7 ½
Thus wave winding is not possible with 32 coil-sides. In this case the number of effective coil-sides
needs to be 30.
The difference in lap and wave winding connections has been illustrated in Figure 1.4 (a) and (b).

Figure 1.4: Showing back Shows back pitch Yb, front pitch yf resultant pitch Yr, and commutator pitch Yc in
(a) lap winding (b) wave winding

Armature Reaction: If the magnetic field windings of a DC machine are connected to a power supply
and the rotor of the machine is turned by an external source of mechanical power, then a voltage will
be induced in the conductors of the rotor. This voltage will be rectified into a DC output by the action
of the machine's commutator. Now connect a load to the terminals of the machine, and a current will
flow in its armature windings. This current flow will produce a magnetic field of its own, which will
distort the original magnetic field from the machine's poles. This distortion of the flux in a machine as
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the load is increased is called armature reaction.

d) Commutator and brushes

The function of Commutator is to facilitate collection of current from the armature conductors and
converts the alternating current induced in the armature conductors into unidirectional current in the
external load circuit. The commutator is made up of insulated copper segments. Two brushes are
pressed to the commutator to permit current flow. The Brushes are made of carbon or Graphite.
Bearings are used for smooth running of the machine.

A cross-sectional view of a DC machine is shown in Figure 1.5

Figure 1.5: A cross-sectional View of a DC Machine

1.2 E.M.F. equation

Let, 𝜙 be flux per pole in weber

z be the total number of armature conductors defined as
𝑧 = 𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡𝑠 × 𝑁𝑜 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑠/𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑡 (1)
P be the no. of generator poles
A be the no. of parallel paths in armature
N be the armature rotation in revolutions per minute (rpm)
E be the emf induced in any parallel path in armature
Generated emf, Eg = emf generated in any one of the parallel path i.e. E
Average emf generated/conductor = (2)
in volts, For n=1
Now, flux cut per conductor in one revolution,
𝑑𝜙 = 𝜙𝑃, in weber (3)
the number of revolution per second is given by:

No. of revolutions per second = (4)

the time for one revolution in second is given as,
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 𝑑𝑡 = (5)
Hence, according to Faradays laws of Electromagnetic induction in volts,
𝐸𝑀𝐹𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑/𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = (6)
For a simplex lap-wound generator:
No. of parallel paths = P (7)
Therefore the No. of conductors in one path is given by:
No. of conductors in one path = (8)
Hence,
EMF generated/path = × = (9)
For a simplex wave-wound generator: No. of parallel paths = 2
No. of conductors in one path = (10)

Hence, EMF generated/path = × = (11)

In general generated EMF is given as:
𝐸 = × (12)

1.3 Types of generator

DC generators are usually classified according to the way in which their fields are excited. DC
generators may be divided into, (a) separately excited dc generators, and (b) self-excited dc generators
as shown in Figure 1.6.

Figure 1.6: DC generators classification

a) Separately Excited DC Generators

Separately excited generators are those whose field magnets are energized from an independent
external source of dc current.
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 b) Self-Excited DC Generators
Self-excited generators are those whose field magnets are energized by the current produced by the
generators themselves. Due to residual magnetism, there is always present some flux in the poles. When
the armature is rotated, some emf and hence some current flows which is partly or fullypassed through
the field coils thereby strengthening the residual pole flux.
There are three types of self-excited dc generators named according to the manner in which their field
coils (or windings) are connected to the armature. In shunt the two windings, field and armature are in
parallel while in series type the two windings are in series. In compound type the part of the field
winding is in parallel while other part in series with the armature winding.

1.4 D.C. Motor

An electric motor is a machine which converts electrical energy into mechanical energy.

1.4.1 Principle of operation

It is based on the principle that when a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, it
experiences a mechanical force whose direction is given by Fleming's Left-hand rule and whose
magnitude, force in Newton is given by:
𝐹 = 𝐵𝐼𝐿 (12)
Where 𝐵 the magnetic field in weber/m2 is, 𝐼 is the current in amperes and 𝐿 is the length of the coil
in meter.
Fleming’s left hand rule says that if we extend the index finger, middle finger and thumb of our left
hand in such a way that the current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field (represented
bythe index finger) is perpendicular to the direction of current (represented by the middle finger),
then the conductor experiences a force in the direction (represented by the thumb) mutually
perpendicular to both the direction of field and the current in the conductor.

Figure 1.7: Force in DC Motor Figure 1.8: Magnetic Field in DC Motor

Constructionally, there is no basic difference between a dc generator and motor. In fact, the same dc
machine can be used interchangeably as a generator or as a motor. The basic construction of a dc motor
contains a current carrying armature which is connected to the supply end through commutator
segments and brushes and placed within the north south poles of a permanent or an electro-magnet

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 Figure 1.9: Torque in DC Motor Figure 1.10: Current Flow in DC Motor

.
Figure 1.11: Flemings Left hand rule

1.4 Back E.M.F

When the motor armature rotates, the conductors also rotate and hence cut the flux. In accordancewith
the laws of electromagnetic induction, emf is induced in them whose direction, as found by Fleming’s
Right hand Rule, is in opposition to the applied voltage. Because of its opposing direction, it is referred
to as counter emf of back emf Eb. V has to drive I a against the opposition of Eb The power required
to overcome this opposition is Eb I a.

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 1.5 Voltage Equation of a Motor
The voltage V applied across the motor armature has to,
(a) Overcome the back emf Eb, and
(b) Supply the armature ohmic drop IaRa
Hence,
𝑉 =𝐸 +𝐼 𝑅 (13)
Equation (13) is known as voltage equation of a dc motor
Now, multiplying both sides by 𝐼 , we get
𝑉𝐼 = 𝐸 𝐼 + 𝐼 𝑅 (14)
Where; 𝑉𝐼 is the electrical power input to the armature, 𝐸 𝐼 Electrical equivalent of mechanical
power developed in the armature and 𝐼 𝑅 is the copper loss in the armature.

1.6 Condition for maximum efficiency

The gross mechanical power developed by motor is given in equation (15)

𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼 − 𝐼 𝑅 (15)
Differentiating both side with respect to 𝐼 and equating the result to zero, we get
= 𝑉 − 2𝐼 𝑅 = 0 (16)
Hence,
𝐼 𝑅 = 𝑉/2 (17)
As 𝑉 = 𝐸 + 𝐼 𝑅 and 𝐼 𝑅 = 𝑉/2
Therefore,
𝐸 = 𝑉/2 (18)
Thus gross mechanical power developed by a motor is maximum when back emf is equal to half
the supply voltage. This condition is, however, not realized in practice, because in that case
current wouldbe much beyond the normal current of the motor. Moreover, half the input would
be wasted in the form of heat and taking other losses (mechanical and magnetic) into
consideration, the motor efficiency will be well below 50 percent.

1.7 Torque
The turning or twisting moment of a force about an axis is called torque. It is measured by the
product of the force and the radius at which this force acts.
Consider a pulley of radius r meter acted upon by a circumferential force of F newton which
causes it to rotate at N rpm. Then Torque is given by:
𝑇 =𝐹×𝑟 (19)
The work done in joule by this force in one revolution is;
𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝐹 × 2𝜋𝑟 (20)
So power developed in Joule/second or watt
𝑃 = 𝐹 × 2𝜋𝑟 × 𝑁 (21)
For 2N  angular velocity  in radian per second and F  r =torque T, then the power
developed is given as:
𝑃 = 𝑇𝜔 (22)

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Moreover, if N is in rpm and   2N / 60 rad/s then power developed is:

𝑃= ×𝑇 = (23)
.

1.7.1 Armature torque of a motor

Let Ta be the torque developed by the armature of a motor running at N rps. If Ta is in N-m, then
power developed = Ta x 2𝜋N watt
We also know that the electrical power converted into mechanical power in the armature  Eb I a watt
Comparing above equations, we get Ta x 2𝜋N = Eb I a
After simplification, if N in rps,
𝑇 = (24)

If N is in rpm, then
𝑇 = 9.55 𝑁−𝑚 (25)
Also,
𝑇 = 0.159𝜙𝑍𝐼 × (𝑃/𝐴) 𝑁 − 𝑚 (26)

1.7.2 Shaft Torque

The whole of the armature torque, as calculated above, is not available for doing useful work,
because of iron and friction losses in the motor. The torque which is available for doing useful
work is known as shaft torque Tsh . The motor output is given by:
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 = 𝑇 2𝜋𝑁 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑡 (27)
provided 𝑇 is in N-m and N in rps, Hence:
( )
𝑇 = (28)
If N is in rpm then:
( )
𝑇 = = 9.55 (29)
/

1.7.3 Speed Control of DC Motor

Speed control means intentional change of the drive speed to a value required for performing the specific
work process. Speed control is a different concept from speed regulation where there is natural change
in speed due to change in load on the shaft. Speed control is either done manually by the operator or by
means of some automatic control device.
One of the important features of dc motor is that its speed can be controlled with relative ease. We know
that the expression of speed control dc motor is given as,
𝑁= =𝐾 𝑟𝑝𝑠 (30)
Where, 𝑅 armature circuit resistance.
Therefore speed, N of 3 types of dc motor – SERIES, SHUNT AND COMPOUND can be controlled by
changing the quantities on RHS of the expression in equation 30. So speed can be varied by changing
(i) Terminal voltage of the armature V,
(ii) Armature circuit resistance R and
(iii) Flux per pole,  . The first two cases involve change that affects armature circuit and the
third one involves change in magnetic field. Therefore speed control of dc motor is classified
as
1. armature control methods and
2. field control methods.

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1.7.4 Motor Starters
The starting of DC motor is somewhat different from the starting of all other types of electrical
motors. This difference is credited to the fact that a dc motor unlike other types of motor has a
very high starting current that has the potential of damaging the internal circuit of the armature
winding of dc motor if not restricted to some limited value. This limitation to the starting current
of dc motor is brought about by means of the starter. Thus the distinguishing fact about the starting
methods of dc motor is that it is facilitated by means of a starter. Or rather a device containing a
variable resistance connected in series to the armature winding so as to limit the starting current of
dc motor to a desired optimum value taking into consideration the safety aspect of the motor.
Starters can be of several types and requires a great deal of explanation and some intricate level
understanding. But on a brief over-view the main types of starters used in the industry today can
be illustrated as:
1. A 3 point starter (shown in Figure 1.12)
2. A 4 point starter (shown in Figure 1.13)

Figure 1.12: A 3 Point Starter

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 Figure 1.13: A 4 Point Starter

Figure 1.14: Series Motor Starter, no-Load Release

Example 1: Prepare a layout winding diagram for a simplex lap-type DC armature winding. The
winding is for 4 poles. The armature has 16 slots and 16 commutator segments.
Solution:
Data Given: Number of poles, P = 4, m=1 (for simplex lap-type)
Number of armature coils = Number of commutator segments = 16
Number of coil-sides (conductors) Z = 16 × 2 = 32
Back pitch Yb =(Z/P) ±1 = (32/4) ±1 = 9 or 7
Yb – Yf = 2
Yf = Yb – 2 = 9 – 2 (using Yb = 9) = 7
Yb = 9
Yf = 7
Since Yb > Yf, the winding is a progressive one.

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As there are 32 coil-sides and 16 slots, the number of coil-sides per slot is 2. The connection
scheme of the coil-sides is shown in Figure Ex1.

Figure Ex1: Scheme for connections of the coil-sides of a DC armature windings

Remember: Coil-side 1 is connected to coil-side 10 on the other side of the commutator (since Y b
is 9, coil-side 1 is connected to coil-side 1 + 9, i.e., 10). Coil-side 10 is connected to coil-side 3 on
the commutator end (Since Yf is 7, coil-side 10 is connected to coilside10–7, i.e., 3). The winding
progresses according to the above scheme. It may be noted that each coil is used once and the
winding is a closed one.

Example 2: Calculate the winding pitches and draw developed and sequence diagrams of the
winding for a four-pole wave connected armature winding of a dc generator having seven coils. In
the diagram, show the position of poles and the position and polarity of brushes.

Solution:
Number of coil-sides = 7 × 2 = 14
Ya = (Z ±2)/P = (14 ±2)/4 = 3 or 4
Ya should be an integer, Yb and Yf should be odd numbers.
Therefore, we choose Ya = Yb = Yf = 3
The sequence and layout diagrams of the winding are shown in Figure Ex2

Figure Ex2: Layout and sequence diagram for a wave wound DC armature.

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1.8 Symbols and Network Representations
The DC-machine device is a 1-phase device. In the figure 1.15 presents an equivalent DC machine.

Figure 1.15: DC Machine Equivalence

1.8.1 Main Model Equation of a DC machine

Two voltage equations define the machine model. The field voltage equation in time-domain is
given as:
(𝑡) = − 𝑖 (𝑡) + 𝑉 (𝑡) (30)
The armature voltage equation is given by:
(𝑡) = − 𝑖 (𝑡) − (𝑡)𝜔 (𝑡) + 𝑉 (𝑡) (31)
Where 𝐿 and 𝐿 are the self-inductances of the field and armature windings respectively. The
rotor speed is denoted as 𝜔 , and 𝐿 is the mutual inductance between the field and the rotating
armature coils. The above equations correspond to the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 1.16.

Figure1.16: Equivalent circuit of a DC-machine

The electromagnetic torque developed by a DC machine is given by:

𝑇 =𝐿 𝑖 𝑖 (32)
The equivalent circuit for the steady state solution is the same as the circuit shown in Figure 1.17,
only now phasor (frequency domain) quantities are used.

1.8.2 Mechanical equations

The simplest model for the mechanical part is the single mass representation as used in stability
studies:

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 𝐽 + 𝐷𝜔 = 𝑇 − 𝑇 (33)
where:
J is the moment of inertia of rotating turbine-generator mass
𝜔 is the mechanical speed
D is the damping coefficient for viscous and wind friction
𝑇 is the torque input to turbine
𝑇 is the electromagnetic torque of the generator
Modeling the mechanical part of a DC-machine with a single mass representation is not
sufficiently accurate in some situations. Unlimited number of masses can be specified to define
the rotor shaft. Each major element is considered to be a rigid mass connected to adjacent elements
by mass less springs. An external torque can be applied on each individual mass. Figure 1.16 shows
a typical 6-mass model.

Figure 1.17: Diagram of the turbine/alternator assembly of the mechanical part

The n-spring-connected rotating masses are then described by the rotational form of Newton’s
second law:
𝐽 + 𝐷𝜔 + 𝐻𝑆𝑃 𝜃 = 𝑇 − 𝑇 (34)
where
J is the diagonal matrix of moments of inertia (J 1 to J5 in Figure 1.17)
𝜔 is the vector of mechanical speeds
𝜃 is the vector of angular positions
𝐻𝑆𝑃 is the tridiagonal matrix of stiffness coefficients
D is the tridiagonal matrix of damping coefficients
𝑇 is the vector of torques applied to the turbine stages (Tm 1 to Tm4 in Figure 1.17)
𝑇 is the vector of electromagnetic torques of generator (Tm5 in Figure 1.17)

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2.0 Methods of Excitation
In the earlier period, prior to the discovery of magnetism and electricity an electrostatic generators
were used to provide electricity. The electrostatic generators provide very high voltage and low
current through the use of moving electrically charged belts, disks, and plates that carried charge
to a high potential electrode. These charges was generated via either electrostatic induction or the
triboelectric effect. But, this method was inefficient and could not be used for the generation of
commercially significant electric power due to difficulty of insulating machines that produced very
high voltages and low power ratings.
The operating principle of electromagnetic generators was discovered in the years of 1831–1832
by Michael Faraday. The principle, later called Faraday's law, is that an electromotive force is
generated in an electrical conductor which encircles a varying magnetic flux. He also built the first
electromagnetic generator, called the Faraday disk, a type of homopolar generator, using a copper
disc rotating between the poles of a horseshoe magnet. It produced a small DC voltage.
As stated inter-alia electric generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy to electrical
energy by forcing electrons to flow through an external electrical circuit. It is similar to a water
pump that creates a flow of water but does not create the water inside. While the mechanical energy
source may be the prime mover, may be reciprocating or turbine steam engine, water falling
through a turbine or waterwheel, an internal combustion engine,, a wind turbine, a hand crank,
compressed air or any other source of an electrical machine.
In mechanical terms, the rotor is the rotating part, and the stator is the stationary part of an electrical
machine. In electrical terms, the armature is the power-producing component and the field is the
magnetic field component of an electrical machine. The armature can be on either the rotor or the
stator. The magnetic field can be provided by either electromagnets or permanent magnets
mounted on either the rotor or the stator. Generators are classified into two types, AC generators
and DC generators. “Energy can be converted from one form to other form” – A generator does
the same – it converts mechanical energy to electrical energy. Mechanical energy can be created
by using water turbines, steam turbines, internal combustion engines etc. And a generator converts
this mechanical energy to electrical energy. Generators can be broadly classified as AC generators
and DC generators.
DC generators are classified based on their method of excitation (according to the manner in which
the flux is produced). So on this basis there are two types of DC generators:
1. Separately excited DC generator
2. Self excited DC generator
The Self excited DC generator can again be classified as
a) DC Series generator
b) DC Shunt generator
c) DC Compound generator.

However, the following notation is uniformly used for all the circuits/characteristics:
𝑉 is the terminal voltage
𝐼 is the load or line current
𝐼 is the armature current

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𝐸 is the Armature Voltage
𝑅 is the Armature Resistance
𝑅 is the field resistance
𝑉 is the field voltage
𝐼 is the field current.

2.1 Separately Excited DC Generator: This is a DC generator that has a field magnet winding
that is excited using a separate voltage source (like battery) as shown in Figure 2.1. The output
voltage depends on the speed of rotation of armature and field current. The higher the speed of
rotation and current – the higher the output EMF. Since the operation of a dc machine depends
upon a fixed polarity of the poles which does not vary with time, the field coils needs
energization from a dc source.

Figure 2.1: Separately Excited DC Generator

𝐼 =𝐼 (2.1)
𝑉 =𝐸 −𝐼 𝑅 (2.2)
𝐼 = (2.3)
The Power is given by:
𝑃 =𝐸 𝐼 (2.4)
Power delivered is found to be:
𝑃 =𝑉 𝐼 (2.5)

2.1.1 Characteristics of Separately Excited DC Generator: The curve (Figure 2.2) gives the relation
between the terminal voltage (V) and load current. The external characteristic curve lies
below the internal characteristic curve. Here, AD line is indicating the change in terminal
voltage (V) with increasing load current. It can be seen from Figure 2.2 that when load
current increases then the terminal voltage decreases slightly. This decrease in terminal
voltage can be maintained easily by increasing the field current and thus increasing the
generated voltage. Therefore, we can get constant terminal voltage. Since the internally
generated voltage is independent of IA, the terminal characteristic of a Separately Excited
Generator is a straight line as shown in the Figure 2.2.

Separately excited DC generators have many advantages over self-excited DC generators. It can
operate in stable condition with any field excitation and gives wide range of output voltage. The
main disadvantage of these kinds of generators is that it is very expensive of providing a separate
excitation source.

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 Figure 2.2: Internal and External Characteristics of Separately Excited DC Generator

2.2 Self Excited DC Generator A field generator whose field winding is excited by the current
supplied by the generator itself, is called a self excited dc generator. This can be classified as:
2.2.1 Shunt DC Generator: This is shown in Figure 2.3, in which the field winding is wired parallel
to armature winding so that the voltage across both are same. The field winding has high
resistance and more number of turns so that only a part of armature current passes through
field winding and the rest passes through load. In this the field flux is derived by connecting
the Field directly across the Armature terminals.

Figure 2.3: Equivalent Circuit of a DC Shunt Generator

The governing equations of a shunt Dc generator is given by:
𝐼 =𝐼 +𝐼 (2.6)
𝑉 =𝐸 −𝐼 𝑅 (2.7)
𝐼 = (2.8)
The advantage of the DC shunt generator is that no external supply is required for the field circuit.
But this leaves an important question. If the generator supplies its own field current how does it
get the initial field flux that is required to start the machine and generate voltage when it is first
turned on. This can be achieved through the Build‐up of E.M.F, Critical Field Resistance and
Critical Speed.
1. Voltage build up in a Shunt Generator: The voltage build up in a shunt generator depends
upon the presence of a residual flux in the poles of the generator. When a Shunt generator first
starts to turn on an internal voltage is generated which is given by 𝐸 = 𝑘𝜙 𝜔. This voltage
(which may be just one or two volts) appears at the generator terminals. This causes a current

21
 to flow in the generator’s field coil 𝐼 = . This produces an mmf. in the poles which in turn
increases the flux in them. The increase in the flux causes an increase in 𝐸 = 𝑘𝜙 ↑ 𝜔
which in turn increases the terminal voltage 𝑉 . When 𝑉 rises, 𝐼 increases further, increasing
the flux more which increases EA and so on. This voltage build up phenomenon is shown in
the Figure 2.4. It is to be noted here that it is effect of magnetic saturation in the Pole faces
which eventually limits the build of the terminal voltage.

Figure 2.4: Voltage build up on Starting in a DC Shunt Generator

2. Critical Resistance: For understanding the terms critical Resistance and critical speed, the
open circuit characteristic (OCC) or the magnetization characteristic of a DC machine is shown
again in the figure below along with air gap line and RF line. The extension of the liner portion
of the magnetization curve, shown dotted in the Figure 2.5 is known as the air-gap line as it
represents mainly the magnetic behaviour of the machine’s air-gap.

Figure 2.5: Open Circuit Characteristic of DC Machine Along with Air Gap and RF Lines
3. Critical speed: Consider now the operation with fixed Rf and variable armature speed as
illustrated in the figure below. It can be observed that as the speed is reduced, the OCC
proportionally slides downwards so that the no-load voltage reduces. At a particular speed,
called the critical speed, the OCC becomes tangential to the RF line and as a result the generator
would fail to excite.

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 Figure 2.6: Effect of speed on No load voltage
Causes of failure to excite in a Shunt Generator: A shunt generator may not get excited in
certain conditions. The causes of such failure to excite, the method of detection and the
corresponding remedial measures are given in the Table 2.1.
Table 2.1: Causes, Method of Detection and Remedy of Failure in a Shunt Generator
S/N Cause Method of Detection Remedy
1 Absence of residual magnetism Zero reading on Voltmeter Operate the Generator as
due to ageing. after rotating the machine separately excited machine first
and then as separately excited
2 Wrong field winding Voltmeter reading Interchange the field
connections. Due to this the flux decreases rather than connections
gets produced in opposite increasing as the field
direction to that of the residual current is increased
flux and they cancel each other.
3 Field resistance is more than the Voltmeter shows zero Field resistance to be reduced
Critical field resistance. reading using suitable field diverter
4 Generator is driven in opposite This wipes out the residual Generator to be driven in the
direction flux and the machine fails proper direction
to excite

The terminal characteristics of the shunt generator differ from that of the separately excited
generator because the amount of field current depends on its terminal voltage. As the generator
load is increased, the load current IL increases and so IA = IF + IL↑ also increases. An increase in
IA increases the IARA drop causing VT = (EA - IA ↑RA) to decrease. This is precisely the same
behavior we have seen in the case of separately excited generator. However, in the shunt generator
when VT decreases the field current decreases, hence the field flux deceases thus decreasing the
generated Voltage EA. Decreasing the EA causes a further decrease in the terminal voltage
VT=(EA↓-IA RA). The resulting characteristic is shown in the Figure 2.7.

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It can be noticed that the drop with load is steeper than that of a separately excited motor due to
the field weakening affect. This means that the regulation of a Shunt Generator is worse than that
of a Separately Excited Generator.

Figure 2.7: Terminal Characteristic of DC Shunt Generator

2.2.2 Series DC generator: In this the field flux is derived by connecting the Field coil in series
with the Armature of the Generator as shown in the Figure 2.8.

Figure 2.8: Equivalent circuit of DC Series Generator

The governing equations of this type of DC generator arrangement is given as:
𝐼 =𝐼 =𝐼 (2.9)
𝑉 = 𝐸 − 𝐼 (𝑅 + 𝑅 ) (2.10)

As shown, the armature current, load current and field current are same in a DC series generator.
i.e IA = IF = IL. Since the mmf produced by the fields is given by Φ= NI and the field current is
more in the DC series generator, the field winding is wound with lesser number of turns and also
with a thicker gauge so as to offer less field resistance since full load current flows through the
field winding . The terminal characteristic of a DC Series Generator looks very much like the
magnetization curve of any other type of generator and is shown in the Figure 2.9.
At no load however since there is no field current, armature voltage EA and also the terminal
voltage VT are very small (generated by the small amount of residual flux.) As the load increases,
field current rises hence EA also increases rapidly. The IA (RA+RF) drop also goes up but this rise

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is less predominant compared to the rise in EA initially and hence VT also rises initially. After some
time field flux gets saturated and hence the induced voltage EA will be constant without any further
rise. At this stage the resistive drop predominates and hence the terminal voltage VT starts
drooping.

Figure 2.9: Terminal Characteristic of DC Series Generator

2.2.3 DC Compound generator: As we know in DC shunt Generator the terminal Voltage falls
and in a DC series generator the terminal voltage increases on loading. A compound DC
Generator is the one in which there will be both Series and shunt field coils. If they are
wound such that they aid each other then it is called a Cumulative Compound DC Generator
and if they are wound such that the two fields oppose each other, then it is called a
differential Compound DC Generator. The equivalent circuit diagram of such Cumulative
DC Generator along with relevant governing equations is shown in the Figure 2.10.

Figure 2.10: Equivalent circuit of a Cumulative Compound DC Generator

The equations for this type of generator excitation is found to be:

𝐼 =𝐼 +𝐼 (2.11)
𝑉 = 𝐸 − 𝐼 (𝑅 + 𝑅 ) (2.12)
𝐼 = (2.13)
ℱ =𝑁 𝐼 +𝑁 𝐼 −ℱ (2.14)
The circuit diagram is shown with standard dot convention on the field windings. i.e. The current
flowing into the dot side of the winding produces a positive mmf . And as can be seen that both IF
in the shunt winding and IA in the series winding flow into the dot side and hence both produce
magnetic fields which are positive and hence aid each other. When the two fields are aiding each
other we get a characteristic which will have the combined effect of drooping (due to the shunt
coil) and rising (due to the field coil). Whichever coil current is more its effect will be more

25
predominant. The terminal characteristics of a cumulative compound DC Generator are shown in
the Figure 2.11 for all the three cases.
1. If the Series field effect is more dominating than that of the Shunt field coil then we get the
Over compounded characteristic where the full load terminal voltage is higher than the no load
terminal voltage.
2. If the Series field effect is equal to that of the Shunt field coil then we get the Flat compounded
characteristic where the full load terminal voltage is equal to the no load terminal voltage.
3. If the Shunt field effect is more dominating than that of the Series field coil then we get the
Under compounded characteristic where the full load terminal voltage is lower than the no load
terminal voltage. The normal shunt characteristic is also shown in the figure for comparison.

Figure 2.11: Terminal Characteristics of a DC Compound Generator

Important Concepts and Formulae:

Voltage generated in a DC machine is given by:
𝐸 = (Φ𝑍𝑁/60). (𝑃/𝑎) (2.15)
And in terms of angular speed 𝜔 is given by:
𝐸 = 𝐾 𝜙𝜔 (2.16)
Where
𝐾 = 𝑍𝑃/2𝜋𝑎 (2.17)

Example 3: Calculate the emf generated by a 6 pole DC Generator having 480 conductors and
driven at a speed of 1200 RPM. The flux per pole is 0.012 webers.
(a) When the machine is lap wound
(b) When the machine is wave wound

Solution: We know that the e.m.f. generated by a DC Generator is given by, 𝐸 =

(Φ𝑍𝑁/60). (𝑃/𝑎)
Data:
Flux per pole (webers), Φ = 0.012Wb;
Total number of conductors on the armature, Z = 480;

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The number of parallel paths = No of Poles P ( a= 6 ) when Lap wound and a= 2 when wave
wound;
Speed of rotation of the machine (RPM), P=12000 RPM;
The number of poles, P=6;
(a) For Lap wound machine a = P = 6
𝐸 = (Φ𝑍𝑁/60). (𝑃/𝑎) = [(0.012x480x1200)/60].[6/6] = 115.2V

(b) For wave wound machine a = 2

𝐸 = [(0.012x480x1200)/60].[6/2] = 345.6V

Example 4: A 50 Kw, 250 V shunt generator operates at 1500 RPM .The armature has 6 poles
and is lap wound with 200 turns. Find the induced e.m.f and the flux per pole at full load given
that the armature and the field resistances are 0.01 Ω and 125 Ω respectively.

Solution:
Output line current = Output power / Line voltage = 50 x 1000 / 250 = 200 A
Field current = Line Voltage / Field resistance = 250 / 125 = 2 A
Armature current in a shunt generator: = Il + If = 200 + 2 = 202 A
Induced e.m.f, Ea : = Line Voltage + Armature drop (IaRa drop) = 250 + 202 x 0.01 = 252.02 V
But we know that armature voltage in terms of the basic machine parameters is also given by
𝐸 = (Φ𝑍𝑁/60). (𝑃/𝑎)
Where
Z: Total number of conductors on the armature = Number of turns x 2 (since each turn has two
conductors) = 200 x 2 = 400
a: The number of parallel paths = No of Poles P ( = 6 ) (since Lap wound )
N: Speed of rotation of the machine (RPM) = 1500 RPM
P: The number of poles = 6
We find Φ as
Φ = (𝐸 × 60 × 𝑎/𝑍𝑁𝑃)=252.02x60x6/400x1500x6=0.025202Wb

Example 5: A shunt generator connected in parallel to supply mains is delivering a power of 50

Kw at 250 V while running at 750 RPM. Suddenly its prime mover fails and the machine continues
to run as a motor taking the same 50 Kw power from 250 V mains supply. Calculate the speed of
the machine when running as a motor given that Ra = 0.01 Ω, R f = 100 Ω and brush drop is 1 V
per brush.

Solution:
First let us calculate the Voltage generated by the machine while running as a generator under the
given conditions:
Output line current = Output power / Line voltage = 50 x 1000 / 250 = 200 A
Field current = Line Voltage / Field resistance = 250 / 100 = 2.5 A
Armature current: IL + IF = 200 + 2.5 = 202.5 A

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Induced e.m.f Ea: = Line Voltage + Armature drop (IARA drop)+ Brush drop(two brushes ) = 250
+ 202.5 x 0.01 + 2 x1 = 254.025 V
Next let us calculate the Voltage generated by the machine while running as a motor under the
given conditions:
Input line current = Input power / Line voltage = 50 x 1000 / 250 = 200 A
Field current = Line Voltage / Field resistance = 250 / 100 = 2.5 A
Armature current: IL - IF = 200 - 2.5 = 197.5 A
Induced e.m.f or back e.m.f Eb: = Line Voltage - Armature drop (IARA drop) - Brush drop (two
brushes) = 250 – 197.5 x 0.01 - 2 x1 = 246.025 V
We know that the voltage induced in the machine is proportional to the speed i. e
Generator armature voltage is proportional to Generator speed: Ea ∝ NG and similarly
Motor back e.m.f is proportional to Motor speed: E b ∝ NM
Hence Ea / NG = Eb / NM or NM = (Eb / Ea )NG = (246.025 / 254.025) x 750 = 726 RPM

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