PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

MODULE 4

EQUIPMENTS IN HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION

Equipments in highway construction: Various types of equipments for excavation, grading and compaction-
their working principles, advantages and limitations. Special equipment for bituminous and cement concrete
pavement and stabilized soil road construction.
Sub grade: Earthwork grading and Construction of embankments and cuts for roads, Preparation of subgrade,
quality control tests

Introduction
Highway engineering project involves different types of equipment for Earth Excavation, Earthmoving, and
Earth cutting, grading, and hauling of excavated earth, aggregate spreader, roller, binder sprayer and paver
finisher etc.

Necessity

• Increase the rate of output through work progress

• Reduce the overall construction costs
• Carry out activities which cannot be done manually
• Save construction time
• Maintain the planned rate of production
• Maintain the high quality standards
• Eliminate the various hazards and health issues
The selection of a machinery is based on the following factors;
• Purchase Cost
• Depreciation
• Maintenance
• Fuel

Classification of Construction Equipment

1. EXCAVATION EQUIPMENT
a) Dipper or Power shovel c) Clamshell
b) Dragline d) Hoe
Nisarga P, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, SJBIT
 PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

2. COMPACTION EQUIPMENT
a) Smooth wheel roller d) Vibratory roller
b) Pneumatic type roller e) Hand operated vibratory roller
c) Sheepsfoot roller

3. EARTH MOVING EQUIPMENT

a) Dozer d) Hydraulic Excavator
b) Grading e) Scrapper
c) Wheel Loader

4. PECIAL EQUIPMENT FOR CEMENT CONCRETE AND BITUMEN PAVEMENT:

a) Batching plant e) Concrete Pumps
b) Paver finisher f) Bitumen sprayer
c) Mixers g) Mini Mixers
d) Hot mix plant or Bitumen mixer h) Bitumen storage equipment

Tractors

Tractor is a multipurpose machine. It includes light models used for agricultural and small hauling works. It
is versatile equipment having a variety of uses in road construction, such as to pull rippers and rooters,
towed scrapers, sheepsfoot rollers, towed pneumatic rollers and to push load scrapers.

There are two main types of tractors:

1. Crawler type
2. Pneumatic wheel type

Crawler tractors have a low maximum speed, around 10kmph and are used primarily where high speeds are
sacrificed in order to obtain good traction and high draw-bar pull. They are also preferred where the ground
is not firm. Crawler mounted dozers have a digging and travelling with load speed of about 2.5kmph.

Pneumatic wheeled tractors are used for moving at high speeds (up to 50kmph) on firm ground. Pneumatic
wheeled dozers have a digging and travelling with load speed of about 4 to 5 kmph. Now a days, wheeled
tractor units are used commonly for all earth moving jobs.

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, SJBIT

 PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

Tractor Dozers (Bull Dozers)

A tractor dozer, popularly called bull-dozer, is a tractor with a 3-3.5m long, 0.9-1.2m height blade mounted
in front of it. If the blade of the equipment is set at angle, it is called an angledozer. The blade of some dozers
can be tilted in the vertical plane to a tilt of about 1 in 10. The equipment is versatile and can perform the
following operations:

1. Clearing and grubbing land of vegetation and tree stumps

2. Removing top soil from borrow areas.
3. Moving earth for short distances, say up to 100m.
4. Box- cutting a formation for laying pavement layers.
5. Opening up pilot road formations in steep hill sides to such a width that other equipment can move
in and complete the work.
6. Spreading earth in layers.

Type of dozers

1. Angle dozer: Meant to push its loads at an angle of approximately 30° to the direction of travel of the
tractor. Especially useful in side-hill work where the material is to be piled in a long wind row to one side of
the line of travel.

2. Tilt dozer: Designed such that the blade can be tilted by raising one corner up to 10inches above the other
so that the machine can open up an excavation in hard ground or start excavation for a ditch or a trench.

3. Tree dozer: It has a V-blade at the front end attachment so that trees can be pushed by the upper frame
of the blade while the lower edge is fitted with a stumper that can drive into the root.

Scrapers

Scrapers dig their own load, as they move forward. They combine the operations of digging, loading, hauling
and discharging.

There are main three operators performed by scrapers:

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, SJBIT

 PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

• Bowl or Bucket- The bowl is the loading and carrying component of a scraper. It has a cutting edge
that extends horizontally across its front bottom edge. The bow is lowered for loading and raised
during travel.
• Apron or Lip- The apron is the front wall of the bowl. It is independent of the bowl. It is raised during
the loading and dumping operations to enable the material to flow into or out of the bowl. The apron
is lowered during hauling to prevent material spillage.
• Ejector or Tail gate- The ejector is the rear vertical wall of the bowl. The ejector is in the rear position
during and hauling. During spreading, the ejector is activated and moves forward, providing positive
discharge of the material in bowl.

The working principle of scraper is a cutting blade, which can be raised or lowered up to 20cm, is pulled
through the earth causing it to travel up the face of the blade into the bowl of the scraper. Some of the earth
falls forward into a carrying apron. When the bowl is full, the aprons are lowered to prevent spillage and the
cutting edge is raised. After hauling, the material is dumped by lowering the cutting edge to the desired
height above the fill and opening the front apron.

Types of Scrappers:
There are two types of scrappers:
1. Towed scrapers: Towed scrapers are available in size of 7-12cum and used for short hauling, say 150-
500m, at a maximum speed of 10kmph
2. Motorized scrapers: Motorized scrapers of size up to 25cum and haul for 500-1500m with 30kmph
speed.

Applications:

1. Better loading ability in loose free flowing material

2. It can operate independently.
3. Additional of ripper teeth to cutting hard compacted mate.

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, SJBIT

 PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

Graders
It principally consists of a blade below a framework. The blade be lowered, lifted or rotated. Graders are used
for a number of purposes:

1. For spreading heaped earth into layers.

2. For shaping the cross-section during construction.
3. For maintaining the cross-section of embankment.
4. For maintaining gravel surface.

Graders are of two types:

Towed: The graders are towed is by a tractor and is usually made in small size.
Motorized: Motor grader has a blade of about 3.5m, but its effective length during spreading becomes 2.75m.

The blade can be set at any angle (360° horizontal) and sometime vertically tilted depend upon work. A 100-
110HP motor grader is a popular size. The normal grading speed is 3kmph.The output of a grader for
spreading the earth, which is achieved generally in 4 passes, is about 1300sqm per hour, assuming 65%
operating efficiency and a 50min working hour. Assuming a normal compacted thickness of layer of 15cm,
the output in terms of compacted volume becomes about 200cum per hour.

Applications:
1. Used for leveling or finishing earth work, making and maintaining project roads, construction of air
fields and land reclamation.
2. The rollers can be attached to the rear, to compact the graded surface.
3. Used in material mixing, hard surface cutting and snow clearance.
4. Used particularly in base course spreading, leveling bank cutting etc.

EXCAVATION EQUIPMENT

1. Dipper or Power shovel

Dippers/Power Shovels are used primarily to excavate earth & load into trucks or tractor pulled wagons. They
are capable of excavating all classes of earth, except solid rock without prior loosening. They are mounted on
crawlers tracks or mounted on rubber tyred wheel crawler mounted shovels have very low speed which
permit them to operate on soft ground.

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, SJBIT

 PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

The basic parts of a power shovel include:

1. Mounting
2. Cab
3. Boom
4. Dipper stick
5. Dipper
6. Hoist line
Working:

• With a shovel in the correct position (near the face of the earth to be excavated), the dipper is lowered
to the floor of the pit, with the teeth pointing into the face.
• A crowding force is applied through the shaft and at the same time tension is applied to the hoisting
line to pull the dipper up the face of the pit.
• If the depth of the face, referred to as the depth of cut, is right the dipper will be filled as it reaches
the top of the face.
• If the depth of the cut is too shallow, it will not be possible to fill the dipper completely without
excessive crowding and hoisting tension. This subjects the equipment to excessive strain and reduces
the output of the unit.
• If the depth of the cut is greater than is required to fill the dipper, it will be necessary to reduce the
depth of penetration of the dipper into the face if the full face is to be excavated or to start the
excavation above the floor of the pit. The material left near the floor of the pit will be excavated after
the upper portion of the face is removed.
Applications:
1. For large lifts to dump earth from basement into tracks will require long boom of a large shovel.
2. For excavating blasted rocks, large size dipper will easily handle bigger sizes.
3. For excavating hard and tough bed of soil, the dipper of large shovel which can exert greater
downward pressure will be more suitable.
4. If the project time is such that it needs high hourly output, large shovel should be used.

Limitations
1. The cost of transporting a large shovel is higher than for a smaller one.
2. Not possible to excavate soil below ground.
3. Not well suitable for wet soil.
Nisarga P, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, SJBIT
 PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

4. If high output rate is needed in the project a large shovel must be used
5. More wears parts, which requires frequent maintenance.

2. DRAGLINE:
In dragline, larger booms are provided, which allows digging & dumping over long distances as compared to
the power shovel. It in most suitable for excavating the channels & canal, can handle wet material & suitable
for excavation under water. One advantage of dragline is machine can be positioned on a higher elevation
where trenches are excavated. It can dig materials below its track level & can handle only soft material.
Capacity of the dragline is indicated by the bucket capacity measured in cum & generally available in 1 to15
cum capacities.

Basic parts of dragline are as illustrated in fig below:

Working:

• The bucket is lowered in fully dumped position, releasing both the hoist and drag cable, till it rests on
the ground with the teeth digging into the earth. The hoist cable is slackened slightly and then the
drag pull is applied.
• This action fills in the earth and the bucket take a horizontal position. It is then hoisted. When the
required dumping height is attained the boom is swung to the position of dumping and the drag brake
is released.
• This will dump the load of the bucket. The boom is then swung back to the digging position and the
same cycles of operation are repeated.

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, SJBIT

 PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

Draglines have following types of buckets:

Light: These are suitable for loose, dry soils, sand & gravel
Medium: These are used for clays & compacted gravel….etc. where bucket teeth penetrates with difficulty.
Heavy: These buckets are used for handling hard materials & broken rocks. It is necessary to consider the
weight of the bucket, since weight of the bucket with weight of the material in it is determined by the boom
strength.

Applications:

1. For digging softer material and below the track level, the dragline machine is the most suitable
machine.
2. Dragline is a very useful machine for excavating trenches when the sides are allowed to establish their
angle of repose without shoring.
3. The dragline machine has long reached.
4. In the excavation of canals and depositing the excavated earth on the embankment without hauling
units, a dragline machine is mostly used.
Limitations:
1. Major limitations of dragline excavators is the boom height and boom length, which limits where the
dragline can effectively dump waste material.
2. The equipment is also not ideal of dig depth, limited by the length of the rope associated with the
machinery.
3. The primary function, or dragline excavator uses focuses on construction and excavating material
below the level of the base. A rope shovel is typically more effective in loading piled up material.
3. CLAM SHELL
It is a machine having most of the characteristics of dragline & crane in common. Clam shell consists of a
bucket of two halves or shell which is hinged together at top. The shells may be attached to the shovel-crane
units or at the boom of a drag line. The open clam-shell bucket is thrown on the top of the loose material to
be dug and as the bucket is lifted, the two halves close entrapping the material into the bucket. This
equipment is useful for excavation of soft to medium materials and loose material at or below existing ground
surface.
Applications:
1. Where digging or dumping in a vertical plane i.e., below at or above ground level is required.
2. For digging trenches
Nisarga P, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, SJBIT
 PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

3. Where materials relatively soft or medium hard

4. For charging the materials in a bin or a stock pile
5. Where accurate dumping is required

4. HOE
This equipment also known as drag shovel or pull shovel. The equipment has ability to penetrate even the
toughest of material. Due to this ability these are commonly used in quarries which have tough digging
conditions & one prom to flooding. As the name itself indicates digging of the earth is done by dragging or
pulling of the earth is done by dragging or pulling of the bucket towards machine whereas in power shovel
bucket makes outward strokes while digging.

Working:
• This shovel consists of bucket & stick, a jack boom, the stick in hoe is hinged by a pin with a boom as
shown in the figure & thus enables to take any desired turn best suited for digging or dumping
operations.
• The lower end of the stick carries the bucket, while the upper end comes as heave having a hoist cable
supported on a jack boom at the other end & passes on to the hoist drum.
• Therefore, when a pull is applied to a hoist cable, the reaction at the hinge enables boom with stick
to move up or down. Thus, the boom can take any position in vertical plane

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, SJBIT

 PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

Application
1. For digging the trenched, footings or basements.
2. To dig materials which is hard.
3. When excavation is required below the ground level & digging done at the short span.
4. When close trimming is required during excavation.

Comparison of various excavating equipments

Point of consideration Dipper shovel Dragline Backhoe Clamshell

Operation in hard soil or
good poor good good
rock
Operation in wet soil or
poor fair poor fair
mud
Distance b/w footing and
small long small long
digging
Loading efficiency into Precise but
Very good fair good
the vehicles slow
At or above footing Below footing Below footing At or above
Digging level
level level level footing level
Cycle time as compared
- more Slightly more high
to dipper shovel

COMPACTION EQUIPMENT

1.Three-wheeled road roller

This is the most common rolling equipment and is versatile in applications. It is diesel powered; the diameter
of the front roll is around 105cm, its width being around 100cm. The diameter of the rare roll is around
145cm, its width being around 50cm. The rolling width is around 2m. The front roll gives a load of around 35-
40 kg/cm width and the front roll gives a load of 70-80kg/cm width. The speed of rolling is in the range 1.5-
6.0kmph. The output of a three-wheel roller, 8-10T, for various jobs. The smooth wheel roller is suitable to
roll a wide range of soil, preferably granular soil and pavement materials for the various layers. Generally, 6-
12 passes are needed.

2. Pneumatic tyred roller

Pneumatic tyred rollers consist of a box mounted over two axles, the rear axle having one more wheel than
the front and the wheels of the front axles so arranged that they are located in plan in b/w the rear wheels.

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, SJBIT

 PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

Generally, there are four wheels in front and five at rare. Weight is in the range of 12-45 tonnes. The roller is
suitable for compacting non-plastic soils and silty soils. The optimum speed is 4kmph.Pneumatic tyred rollers
are also used for intermediate rolling of dense asphaltic concrete. Rolling of 12-18 T is used. The tyre pressure
should be a minimum of 0.5MN/m. The no. of passes required is about 8-12.

3. Sheepsfoot rollers
Sheepsfoot rollers consist of hollow circular drums of steel 1.2-1.5m long and 0.9-1.2m dia, with legs or
tamping feet on the circumferential area at the rate of 12-18 per square meter of area. The tamping feet on
the drums are staggered into rows. The rollers can be ballasted with water or wet soil. The weight of a single
drum is in the range 1200-1800kg when empty and 2200-2800kgwhen ballasted. A tractor of 45HP can pull a
single drum. A speed of 4kmph is common.

Sheepsfoot rollers are suitable for cohesive soil and the moisture content of the soils should be preferably
near their plastic limit. The no. of passes of sheepsfoot rollers depends upon the type of soil, moisture content
and density desired. Generally, 8-16 passes are needed.

Using a sheepsfoot compactor has one definite benefit. Because the top lift of soil is always being fluffed,
the process helps aerate and dry out wet clays and silts. But the disadvantages of sheepsfoot compactors are
numerous. The loose top-lift material can act as a sponge when it rains and slow the compaction process.
The loose material also slows hauling units that deposit fill material, so haul cycle times are increased.

4. Vibratory rollers
Vibratory rollers have become very popular in highway engineering applications in recent years with the
growing need to compact pavement layers and subgrade to high density. Compacting to such high density by
static roller is very difficult and costly. Since vibratory rollers induce oscillations, they are able to 1. Achieve
break-down of internal friction between particles of road construction materials and 2. Bring about better
orientation of particles caused by cyclic deformation. Both cohesive and non-cohesive materials can be
compacted by vibratory rollers. Vibratory rollers are used for compacting soils and granular layers, a
frequency of 1500-2500vibrations per minute and amplitude of 0.8-1.5mm are recommended.

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, SJBIT

 PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

Comparison of various vibratory equipment

SL No Type of Roller Application

1 Smooth wheel roller 1. Earth rolling
2. Soil stabilization
3. Rolling granular base
4. Rolling surface dressing, premix carpet, mix seal, bituminous
macadam, built-up-spray grout
2 Sheepsfoot roller Rolling cohesive soils

3 Pneumatic tyred roller 1.

Rolling non-plastic silty and silty soils
2.
Intermediate rolling of asphaltic concrete
4 Vibratory roller 1.
Compacting sand and cohesionless soil
2.
Compacting all type of soils for obtaining high densities
3.
Compacting granular bases and sub-base to obtain high densities
4.
Compacting bituminous bases and surface to obtain high degree
of compaction
5 Hand operated vibratory 1. Compacting sand and cohesionless soil
roller 2. Compacting in restricted space

SPECIAL EQUIPMENT FOR BITUMEN AND CEMENT CONCRETE PAVEMENT

1. Bitumen storage equipment:

Bitumen is stored in drums or in special bulk handling depots. The capacity of one drum is 155-162kg of
bitumen. The bitumen tank-lorry has a capacity in the range of 6-12 T. A pump with a capacity of about 200-
300 liters per minute is provided. The tank is adequately insulated and arrangement for heating and pumping
is provided.

2. Bitumen boilers:
Bitumen boilers are needed for heating bitumen obtained in packed form. Boilers of a wide range of capacity
are available. 100-10,000 liters capacity boilers are standardized by ISI.

3.Bitumen pressure distributers:

A bitumen pressure distributer is a tank of capacity 5000-20,000 liters mounted on a lorry, having oil-fired
burners and a pump. Bitumen can be applied at a pressure on to the road surface in connection with
specifications like surface dressing, grouted macadam, built-up-spray grout, seal coat, tack coat etc. The

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, SJBIT

 PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

quantity of bitumen can be accurately controlled by a metering device and also with speed at which vehicle
operates.

4.Bituminous Hot-Mix Plants:

In a batch mixing plant, various sizes of hot aggregates in storage bins are withdrawn in pre-
determined quantities to make one ‘batch’ before mixing with a predetermined quantity of
bitumen. It comprises the following:

a) Cold aggregate storage bins of different aggregate sizes: These should be at least four in number, with
discharge gates to control the flow of aggregates of different sizes in the desired amounts.
b) Conveyor and cold elevator: The cold aggregate feeding system discharges onto a conveyor in pre-set
quantities to give the required grading and then into the cold elevator which discharges into the dryer.
c) Dryer: The main functions of a dryer are (i) removal of moisture from the aggregates, and this vapour
is drawn off by the draught (ii) to heat the aggregate so that they are of the right temperature for
mixing with bitumen in the pug mill.
d) Temperature measuring device: It is essential for the control of quality of the mixes.
e) Hot elevators: These consist of a system of bucket elevators housed within a covered chamber.
f) Hot screening unit: The hot materials carried by the elevators are discharged over a multi-deck
vibrating table screen which separates the different aggregate fractions into the different hot bins.
g) Hot aggregate bins: These are the temporary storage for the hot aggregates of different sizes. They
have discharge gates opening at the bottom.
h) Fill silo: Because of its fineness, the filler material is stored separately in a filler silo and, after
weighing, the hopper discharges the filler material into the mixer, generally after bitumen has been
admitted into the mixer.
i) Bitumen supply arrangement: bitumen is pumped into a special bucket of known weight and weighed
on a scale or it may be measured in volume by a meter. j.
j) Measuring and mixing of aggregate and bitumen: The aggregate is drawn from hot bins in
predetermined quantities and dropped into a pug mill mixer in batches; the required amount of
bitumen is added and mixed with aggregate. The hot aggregates and the hot bitumen are thoroughly
mixed in the pugmill mixer.
k) Discharge into truck or hot storage silo: After the mixing operation has been completed, the final
mixture is discharged from the bottom of the pug mill mixer directly to the hauling truck below or
taken to a hot storage silo for temporary storing the mix, before hauling.
Nisarga P, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, SJBIT
 PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

5. Paver finisher

• A paver finisher is indispensable for laying hot-mix hot-laid bituminous specifications. The equipment
is self-propelled and is capable of laying the bituminous material to any desired thickness and partially
compact it by means of a vibrating screed. The paver has a hopper into which the rear-dump trucks
can discharge the mix.
• The paver may be crawler mounted (tracked) or equipped with rubber tyres which permit a greater
degree of freedom for movement. The crawler-mounted machines are more stable and can support
greater width of the screed. The screed width can be adjusted, generally in the range 2 to 5m.
• The bituminous mix discharged for a tipper lorry into the receiving hopper in the front portion of the
paver is carried along the conveyor through flow control gates to the augers which distribute the
material in front of the screed, to the full width of the screed.
• A strike of beam, which also tamps the mat, controls the layer thickness. The paver finisher operates
at speeds 1.5-10m/min. A speed of 3-5m/min will be found generally acceptable. The width of the
mat can be adjusted in the range 2-5m. The cross- profile can be controlled by adjusting the screws
of the strike-off beam.
• Paver finisher of capacity45-75 T/hour are generally used for roadwork.

6. Batching and mixing plants:

The ingredients for concrete are always proportioned by weight in a weigh batching equipment. Mixing
of concrete is done by concrete mixers which are available in a variety of sizes, mixing is continued for a
period of not less than one and half minutes after all the materials are introduce. Tilting drum type mixers
are available in small sizes, whereas not-tilting drum type mixers are available in large sizes.

7. Transportation, placing and compaction concrete:

Generally, 5 to 10 m3tippers are ideal for transportation and placing concrete. Concrete discharged on
the carriageway is spread over the whole width with the help of screw spreader. Concrete paver finisher
consists of spreading, consolidating, screening, finishing, texturing and curing operation. Slip form pavers
are much heavier and more powerful equipment which move on tracks compared to the fixed form
machines. A typical slip form train consists of paver, intended for spreading the mix over the width of the
carriageway, a finisher which vibrates, forms an appropriate mould and finishes the surface and lastly, a
piece of equipment capable of texturing and spraying the curing compound. Slip form paving is more
popular than fixed form paving.
Nisarga P, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, SJBIT
 PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

STABILIZED SOIL ROAD CONSTRUCTION

Soil stabilization is a process by which a soils physical property is transformed to provide long-term
permanent strength gains. Stabilization is accomplished by increasing the shear strength and the overall
bearing capacity of a soil.

Soil stabilization is required to upgrade the low-cost roads to higher specification without involving
appreciable wastage & the construction cost can be decreased by selecting local materials for construction
of lower layers, if local soil is not adequate for supporting wheel beds, the properties are improved by soil
stabilization techniques.

Purpose of Soil Stabilization

1. To improve strength of sub-bases, bases and surface courses.

2. To bring economy in construction cost
3. To make use of locally available soils and other materials that are inferior.
4. To eliminate and improve certain undesirable properties of soil such as
5. compressibility, permeability, shrinkage, high plasticity and difficulty in compaction.
6. To control dust
7. To facilitate compaction and to improve bearing capacity.
8. To reduce frost susceptibility.
9. To reduce compressibility and hence to reduce settlements
10. To improve permeability characteristics

Soil Stabilization Methods -

a) Mechanical Soil Stabilization

b) Soil-Cement Stabilization
c) Soil-Lime Stabilization
d) Soil-Bitumen Stabilization

1. Mechanical Soil Stabilization

Mechanical stabilization is the oldest types of soil stabilization. Mechanical solutions involve physically
changing the property of the soil somehow, in order to affect its gradation, solidity, and other characteristics.
Ultimately, dense and well graded material can be achieved by mixing and compacting two or more soils of

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, SJBIT

 PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

different grades. Addition of a small quantity of fine materials such as silts or clays enables binding of the
non-cohesive soils which increases strength of the material.

Thus, two basic principle in mechanical soil stabilization are:

a) Proportioning: a soil contains negligible or no fines is mixed with a certain proportion of fine or binder
soil, it is possible to increase the stability. Similarly, the stability of a fine-grained soil could be
considerably increased by mixing with suitable proportion of granular soil.
b) Compaction: The soil of any nature with the suitable mixing is to be compacted to achieve adequate
density.

Properties of Soil Aggregate Mixture

The desirable properties of soil aggregates are strength, incompressibility, less changes in volume, stability,
good drainage, less frost, ease of compaction. Stability is increase by increasing dry density & hence
proportioning is done to increase MDD. Three typical states in which compacted soil aggregates mixes are
formed.

a) Compacted Aggregates with b) Compacted Aggregates c) Aggregate with excess

no fines with compacted fines just fines
filling the voids

Fig (a) shows state when the aggregates without fines. This gives mass which is stable only when confined,
highly permeable, no frost action. It is not easy to compact such a granular material.

Fig (b) shows state when the voids just filled with compacted binder thus retaining frictional component of
mass due to grain to grain contact of aggregate. There is increase stability even when unconfirmed due to
higher cohesion.

Fig (c) shows state when it is mixed with excess fines & compacted. As the aggregate have lost their contacts
with each other & they float in binder oil, stability is decreased & mix is less desirable with poor drainage.

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, SJBIT

 PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

Factors affecting Mechanical Stability

• Mechanical strength of aggregates: When the soil is used in small proportion to just fill up the voids
in aggregates, the crushing strength of aggregate is important
• Gradation: A well graded aggregate soil mix results in a mix with high dry density and stability values
• Properties of soil: A mix with high LL & PI, results poor stability under soaking conditions. Hence it is
desirable to limit the LL & PI of the soil
• Presence of chemicals: Presence of Salts like Sulphates and mica are undesirable. Presence of Calcium
Chloride is Beneficial.
• Compaction and climatic conditions: Effective Compaction is desirable to produce high density and
stability mix

Mix Design in Mechanical Stabilization

The factors to be considered are gradation, density, index properties & stability
1. Gradation: The particle size distribution that give max density. The theoretical gradation for maximum
density is given by P = 100 (d/D)n
where p = percent finer than diameter d(mm)
D = diameter of largest particle mm
n = Gradation index, value ranging from 0.5 to 0.3
Proportioning is very much necessary to get highest density. Two graphical methods use for
proportioning are triangular chart method & Rothfutch’s method.
2. Density: At least 95% standard dry density is aimed at field compaction.
3. Index Properties: If fine fraction of soil presents high LL & PI, the mix could be susceptible to changes in
moisture content. The desirable values of LL & PI for material passing 0.425mm sieve are as given in table
below.

Base Course Surface Course

Liquid Limit 25% max 35% max
Plasticity Index 6% max 5-10% max

4. Stability: It is desirable carryout stability test on designed mix under varying moisture content. The
commonly accepted stability test on soil carried out is soaked CBR test.

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, SJBIT

 PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

Construction Procedure

a) Materials: The construction materials are collected from the selected borrow pits and are stacked along
the sides of the road in the desired proportion

b) Equipment: Machinery such as bull dozer, power shovel, tipper, etc. may be used for excavation &
haulage. Rollers of suitable type and weight is used for compaction depending on the material to be used.

c) Construction steps:
• The subgrade is prepared.
• The materials are mixed to the desired proportions a per design.
• The existing moisture is checked by rapid method and additional; water required is spread and
material is remixed. The material is spread to required thickness and compacted by rollers.
• Rolling is started from edge and with adequate longitudinal overlap, it is continued up to center.
Rolling is continued till adequate compaction is achieved.

d) Field control tests:

• Determination of moisture content of mix before compaction
• Determination of field density after compaction.

2. Lime-Soil Stabilization
Lime-Soil stabilization is the process of adding lime to the soil to improve its properties like density, bearing
capacity etc. Lime-Soil stabilized mix are useful to construct sub-base and base course for pavement. Lime
treated soil is more suitable for warm regions where temperature is very high and for colder regions it is not
suitable. Lime soil stabilization is suitable for soils like clay, silty clay, clayey gravel etc. and is not suitable for
granular soil or sandy soil.

Principle of Soil-Lime stabilization

The principle involved in lime-soil stabilization is the exchange of ions between lime and soil when added.
When clayey soil is treated with lime, Cation exchange takes place between them which increases plastic
limit and reduces plasticity index which finally results in increase in stability of soil. If clay contains gravel in
it, then lime acts as binding material for clayey gravel.

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, SJBIT

 PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

Factors affecting Lime-Soil Stabilization

Factors affecting lime-soil stabilization are as follows:

a) Soil Type
b) Lime Content
c) Lime Type
d) Lime Content
e) Compaction
f) Curing
g) Additives

a) Soil Type: Properties of clay fraction in the soil affects the physical and other properties such as base
exchange capacity and pozzolanic action. The proportion increase in strength of lime-soil mix depends on
pozzolanic characteristics of soil.

b) Lime content: When lime content is added to soil in presence of water, plastic limit increases thereby
plasticity index decreases. When lime content is added further, after certain point the plastic limit starts
decreasing. This point is termed as lime fixation point. This is the appropriate lime content that is considered
to be used in modification of clay.

Fig: Effect of lime content on soil properties

With proper lime content, it is possible to bring plasticity index very low or zero which means, make the clay
or soil as non-plastic material.

c) Lime type: Quicklime [CaO] is more effective than hydraulic lime [Ca(OH)2] but however, there is only slight
difference in the final results. If Quick lime is using, care should be taken by workmen otherwise skin burns
etc. may occur. Thus, in most of the cases hydraulic lime is used either in dry powder form or by mixing water.
Nisarga P, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, SJBIT
 PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

d) Compaction: To obtain greater strength of lime-soil mix, density of mix should be greater. Lime-Soil mix
should be compacted at optimum moisture content (OMC), at which soil gets maximum compacted density.

e) Curing: Curing is also an important factor in achieving good stabilized lime-soil mix. Proper curing must be
provided for the mix especially during initial stages where rate of strength gain is rapid. The strength gain is
dependent of temperature of that area, for low temperature regions rate of strength gain is very less. For
freezing zones, it is almost zero. Humidity also effects curing and rate of strength gain of lime-soil mix.

f) Additives: Additives are the materials which are added to improve lime-soil mix to improve its strength.
Portland cement and pozzolanic material such as fly ash and surki are generally used. Chemical additives like
sodium metasilicate, sodium sulphate, sodium hydroxide etc. are also found to be useful in lime-soil
stabilization.

Construction of Lime-soil stabilized Sub-base course

• Prepare the subgrade

• Pulverize the soil to be stabilized
• Add the portion of lime in power, mix and spray water and remix. Lime may be added in slurry form.
• Allow the mixture for about a day for preconditioning the soil, and remixing when pulverization
becomes easy.
• Spread the lime treated mix to desired grade and compaction
• Soil-lime layer is protected from drying out and is allowed for moist curing.
• Field control test includes, checking moisture content at the time of compaction and dry density after
compaction.

3. Soil -Cement Stabilization

Cement stabilization of soil is done by mixing pulverized soil and Portland cement with water and compacting
the mix to attain a strong material. The material obtained by mixing soil and cement is known as soil-cement.
The soil cement becomes a hard and durable structural material as the cement hydrates and develops
strength.
Cement stabilization may be applied in fine or granular soil, however granular is preferable for cement
stabilization.

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, SJBIT

 PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

Factors affecting Soil-Cement Stabilization

a) Soil: The physical properties of soil such as particle size distribution, clay content, specific surface, LL,
and PF affects properties of soil-cement mix. Also, presence of organic matters and sulphate content
affect the properties and durability of soil-cement.
b) Quantity of cement: Cement content required for satisfactory stabilization of soil depends on the soil
type. Generally, cement content requirement in soil-cement mix increases with specific surface area
of soil.
c) Pulverization and Mixing: Better pulverization and degree of mixing results in higher strength.
Presence of unpulverized dry limps of soil reduces the strength and durability of soil-cement mix.
d) Compaction: The moisture that is added for adequate compaction or to achieve is maximum dry
density is recommended in soil-cement mix.
Hydration starts as soon as water is added, and it therefore is desirable to compact the material as
soon as mixing is completed. Any delay may result in loss of cementing action of the additive and in
need of extra compactive efforts.
e) Curing: During curing adequate moisture is to be retained by using suitable measures. The strength
of soil-cement increases with increase in curing period.
f) Additives: Additives improves properties of soil-cement mix. Lime is a useful additive when clayey soil
or organic soil is stabilized. Chemicals such as sodium hydroxide, sodium carbonate and calcium
chloride are also useful in soil-cement stabilization.

Design of Soil-Cement mix

Soil-cement specimens are prepared with different cement content in a constant volume mould of 5cm dia
and 10cm height, compacting at OMC and proctor density. The compressive strength of these specimens are
tested after 7days of curing. Graph is plotted between cement content and compressive strength as shown
in fig below:

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, SJBIT

 PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

The cement content corresponding to compressive strength of 17.5 kg/cm2 is taken as design cement content
for pavements with light to medium traffic. For heavy traffic, higher strength of 28-35 kg/cm2 is suggested.

Construction of Soil-Cement Base Course

There are two methods of construction:

a) Mix-in-place method
b) Plant mix method
The first method could be done manually using minor equipment by using simple agricultural equipment like
ripper, tractors and rippers. The steps are as follows:
• Subgrade is prepared.
• Soil is pulverized
• Cement is applied and dry mixing is done.
• Water is mixed by spraying
• The mix is spread and grading is done.
• Compaction is done with minimum possible delay
• The soil-cement layer is cured for the specified period by moist curing.
• Joints with old work must be done the edges otherwise they may get severely damaged.
• Field control tests as moisture content, cement content of the mix, degree pulverizing, mixing
efficiency, density of compaction and thickness of compacted layer.
The steps for the second method are as follows:
• Prepare the subgrade.
• Pulverize the soil, apply the cement and mix in dry condition
Nisarga P, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, SJBIT
 PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

• Add required proportion of water and remix the plant.

• Spread and grade using the machinery.
• Cure the soil layer for a specified period by suitable method.
• Field tests on density of compaction are to be done.

4. Stabilization of Soil using Bituminous Materials

Principle and Application

The basic principle of bituminous stabilization is also considered to be water proofing with binder action.
Water proofing will make the soil to retain its original properties. In granular soil, the coarser grains may be
individually coated and stuck together by a thin film of bituminous material. But in case of fine-grained soils,
the bituminous material completely the voids, thus water proofing the compacted soil bitumen.

Most commonly used bitumen includes cut-back and emulsion. As heating of large quantities of soil and
bitumen is not possible, a suitable grade of cutback is chosen depending on climatic and mixing conditions.
Emulsion may be used wherever there is scarcity of water.

Bituminous stabilized layer may be used as a sub-base or base course of low volume roads and even as surface
course roads with light vehicular flow in rainfall regions.

Factors affecting Properties of soil-bitumen mixes

The various factors on which the properties of stabilized mix are;

a) Soil type: The particle size and the gradation of the soil influences the properties of the soil bitumen
mix. A small proportion of fine-grained soil is preferred and high clay content is not desirable. The
relative attraction of soil particles and bitumen depends on surface chemical properties.
b) Type of bituminous binders: Cut-backs of different grades give different stability values for soil. The
highest grade that can be mixed with soil at the time of construction should be preferred. The type of
cutback is chosen depending on climatic conditions. Emulsion generally gives inferior combination
than cut back.
c) Quantity of bitumen binder: Increase in the proportion of bitumen causes a decrease in maximum dry
density of soil specimen, but the stability increases up to a certain value and then rapidly decreases.
Water absorption decreases with increase in bitumen content.

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, SJBIT

 PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

d) Mixing: Improved type of mixing with low duration is highly preferred. In order to have a proper
dispersion of bitumen, it is required to make the soil wet before adding the cutback. Mixing
temperature also affects.
e) Compaction: Better the compaction, higher will be stability and resistance to absorb water. The
compaction characteristics and the properties of the resulting mix depend on the moisture content
during compaction. The optimum moisture content values corresponding to maximum dry density,
maximum stability and minimum water absorption may differ slightly depending on the proportions
and properties of mix constituents.
f) Curing: By curing the soil bitumen layer, the water and the volatiles are allowed to evaporate, thereby
allowing the bitumen to be effective as a binder agent. The curing period depends on the curing
temperature, relative humidity and soil type.
g) Additives: Anti-stripping and other chemical additives have been tried. Portland cement is also used
sometimes used along with soil-bitumen to increase the stability of the mix.

Design of soil-bitumen mix

There is no standard soil-bitumen mix design. However, soil-bitumen-water mix are generally compacted at
the optimum water content corresponding to maximum dry density. These specimens are prepared with
various bitumen contents and are tested for stability and water absorption. A graph may be plotted with
bitumen content versus stability value. The optimum bitumen content corresponding to maximum stability
value maybe found.

Construction of stabilized layer

a) Materials: The selected soil is pulverized and stacked. The following properties are suggested for proper
stabilization:
Passing 4.75 mm < 50%
Passing 0.425: 35-100%
Passing 0.075 mm: 10-15%
Liquid limit :< 40%
Plasticity Index :<18%
c) Plants and Equipment: equipment is related to pulverizing, spraying bitumen, mixer and compacting
equipment
d)

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, SJBIT

 PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

c) Construction Steps
• Soil is pulverized.
• Water is sprayed and mixed, quantity of water to be added will be lesser if bituminous emulsion is
used for stabilization.
• Spraying of cutback or emulsion on the moist soil and remixing until the bituminous binder is well
distributed.
• The mix is spread, graded and compacted.
• The compacted layer is allowed to cure, allowing the moisture and volatiles of the solvent to
evaporate.
• The field tests to be conducted are checking of pulverization, checking of moisture content and
bituminous content and checking dry density after compaction.

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, SJBIT

 PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

SUBGRADE
Subgrade is that portion of the earth roadbed which after having been constructed to reasonably close
conformance with the lines, grades, and cross-sections indicated on the plans, receives the base or surface
material. In a fill section, the subgrade is the top of the embankment or the fill. Ina cut section the subgrade
is the bottom of the cut (Figure 1). The subgrade supports the sub base and/or the pavement section. To
ensure a stable, long-lasting, and maintenance free roadway, the subgrade is required to be constructed
using certain proven procedures that provide satisfactory results.

Construction Procedure

Setting out: After the site has been cleared, the work should be set out. The limits of embankment are marked
by fixing batter pegs on both sides at regular intervals. The subgrade should be wider than the design
dimension so that surplus material may be trimmed.

Dewatering: If the foundation of the embankment is in area with stagnant water, it is feasible to remove it
by bailing out or pumping.

Stripping & Storing top soil: In localities where most of the available embankment materials are not
conductive to plant growth, the top soil from all areas of cutting shall be stripped to specified depths not
exceeding 150mm & stored in stock piles of height not exceeding 2m forcovering embankment slopes.

Compacting ground supporting embankment / subgrade: where necessary, the original ground shall be
leveled to facilitate placement of first layer of embankment, scarified, mixed with water and then compacted
by rolling so as to achieve minimum dry density as given in Table 1. In case difference in subgrade level and
ground level is less than 0.5m & the ground does not have 97% relative compaction, the ground shall be
loosened up to a level 0.5m below the subgrade level, watered & compacted in layers to not less than 97%
of dry density.

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, SJBIT

 PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

Table 1: Density requirements of embankment & subgrade materials

Sl No Type of Work Max lab dry unit weight when

tested as per IS – 2720
1 Embankment upto 3m height, not subjected to Not less than 15.2 kN/cum
extensive flooding
2 Embankment exceeding 3m height or embankments Not less than 16.0 kN/cum
of any height subject to long period of inundation.
3 Subgrade & earthen shoulders / verger / backfill Not less than 17.5 kN/cum

Table 2: Compaction requirements for embankment & subgrade

Sl No Type of Work Relative Compaction s % of

max lab dry density
1 Subgrade & earthen shoulders Not less than 97
2 Embankment Not less than 95

3 Expansive soils
• Subgrade & 500mm portion just below the subgrade Not allowed
• Remaining portion of embankment Not less than 90

Spreading material in layers & bringing to appropriate moisture content

a. The embankment & subgrade material shall be spread in layers of uniform thickness not exceeding
200mm compacted thickness over the entire width of embankment by mechanical means, finished
by a motor grader & compacted.
b. Moisture content of the material shall be checked at this site of placement prior to commencement
of compaction, water shall be sprinkled from a water tanker filled with sprinkler capable of applying
water uniformly.
c. Moisture content of each layer should be checked with respect to table 1 in accordance with IS 2720.
d. Clods or hard lumps of earth shall be broken to have max size of 75mm when placed in embankment
& max size of 50 mm when placed in subgrade.
e. Embankments & other areas of unsupported fills shall not be constructed with steeper side slopes, or
to greater widths.

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, SJBIT

 PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

f. Whenever fill is to be deposited against the face of a natural slope, steeper than 1 vertical on 4
horizontal, such faces shall be benched.

Compaction

a. Smooth wheeled, vibratory, pneumatic tyred, sheep foot or pad foot rollers of suitable size and
capacity should be used for different types & grades of materials.
b. Compaction will be done with vibratory roller of 80 to 100KN static weight or heavy pneumatic tyred
roller.
c. Each layer of the material shall be thoroughly compacted to the densities in table 2, subsequent layers
should be laid only after the finished layer has been tested.
d. The measurement of field dry density is recorded by nuclear moisture / density gauge.
e. When density measurement revels any soft areas in embankment, further compaction is carried out.

Drainage

The surface of embankment at all times during construction shall be maintained at such across fall as will
shed water and prevent pending

Repairing of damages caused by rain / spillage of water

a. The soil in the affected portion shall be removed in such areas before next layer is laid &refilled in
layers & compacted using small vibratory roller, plate compactor or power rammer to achieve the
required density.
b. Tests shall be carried out to ascertain the density requirements of the repaired area.

Finishing operations

a. It shall include the work of shaping & dressing the shoulders / verge / road bed & side slopes to
conform to alignment, levels, cross sections & dimensions.
b. Both the upper & lower ends of side slopes shall be rounded off & to merge the embankment with
adjacent terrain to improve appearances.
c. The top soil, removed & conserved earlier shall spread over the fill slopes, before spreading the slopes
should be roughened and moistened slightly to provide bond and is provided at a depth of 75mm to
150mm for plant growth
d. When earthwork is completed, the road area shall be cleared of all debris & ugly scars.

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, SJBIT

 PAVEMENT MATERIALS AND CONSTRUCTION

Quality Control Tests

Quality control tests for Embankment, Subgrade construction

Sl No Type of test Frequency of tests
1 Sand content 2 tests per 3000 cubic meter of soil
2 Plasticity test 2 tests per 3000 cubic meter of soil
3 Density test 2 tests per 3000 cubic meter of soil
4 Deleterious content As & when required
5 Moisture content 1 test per 250 cubic meter of soil
6 CBR test (soaked & unoaked) 1 test per 3000 cubic meter of soil

Compaction Control: At least one measurement of density for each 1000sqm of compacted area, test
locations should be chosen with random sampling techniques. Control should be based on the mean value of
5 – 10 density determinations. The number of tests in one set of measurements shall be 6. For earth work in
shoulders at least one density measurement for every 500sqm for the compacted area should be made and
the number of tests in each set shall be at least 10.

Nisarga P, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, SJBIT