CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES

Module 1:
Mechanical and manual construction-
Manual Mechanical
1) Human and animal power assisted by 1) May be described as heavy machinery
simple implements like wheel barrows, operated by fuel and electricity.
normal pick axe and spade etc.
2) Not requiring any particular skill e.g., 2) Includes persons having training in
laborers, helpers, mates, cleaners, performing jobs needing skill e.g.:
oilmen, etc. operators of mechanical and electrical
equipment’s, drivers of all kinds, etc.
3) Manual excavation can excavate earth 3) Excavators can excavate earth over
over particular depth only. surface as well as below the earth
surface.
4) Their excavation speed is low. 4) Their excavation speed is high
compared to use of manual labor.
5) They can excavate only in soft soil. 5) They can excavate soft soil, hard rocky
strata canals, tunnels etc.
6) Requires less space at site. 6) Requires large space at site for
equipment’s.
7) Earthwork rates for manual are lower 7) Earthwork rates for machines are
than the corresponding rates through invariably higher than the
machines but the time required is corresponding rates through manual
more. labor but the time required is less.

Excavation in earth: Understanding basics and functions of equipment,

earthmoving equipment –
Tractors-
 Multi-purpose machines used mainly for pulling and pushing the other equipment.
 Important Equipment for earthmoving, worked by Diesel engines, having horse power
ranging from 20HP to 200HP.
 Tractors may be classified as
a) Crawler type tractor:
Used to move bull dozers, scrapers. The crawler has a chain by which these tractors
can be very effective even in the case of loose or muddy soils. The speed of this type
dose not exceed 12 kmph normally.
 Fig. 1.1: Crawler Type Tractor

b) Wheel type tractor-

The engine is mounted on four wheels. The main advantage is higher speed,
sometimes exceeding 50 kmph it is used for long-distance hauling and good roads.

Fig. 1.2: Wheel Type Tractor

Bulldozers-
 A bulldozer is a crawler (continuous tracked tractor) equipped with a substantial metal
plate (known as a blade) used to push large quantities of soil, sand, rubble, or other such
material during construction or conversion work and typically equipped at the rear with a
claw-like device (known as a ripper) to loosen densely-compacted materials.
 They are used for moving earth up to a distance of about 100m and act as a towing tractor
and pusher to scraper machines. They can be track-mounted or wheel-mounted.
 The heavy blade attached to the tractor pushes the material from one place to another.
 The tractor can be of the crawler or the wheeled type.
 Classification of bull dozer
1) Position of blades
• Bull dozers in which the blade perpendicular to the direction of movement
• Angle dozers in which the blade is set at an angle with the direction of movement.
2) Based on mountings
• Wheel mounted
• Crawler mounted
3) Based on the control
• Cable controlled
• Hydraulically controlled
 Wheel Dozer Crawler Dozer
Good on firm soils and concrete and abrasive Can work on a variety of soils; sharp-edged
soils that have no sharp-edged pieces pieces not as destructive to dozer, though
fine sand will increase running gear wear
Best for level and downhill work Wet Can work over almost any terrain
weather, causing soft and slick surface Can work on soft ground and over mud-
conditions, will slow or stop operation slick surfaces; will exert very low ground
pressures with special low ground pressure
undercarriage and track configuration
The concentrated wheel load will provide
compaction and kneading action to ground
surface
Good for long travel distances Good for short work distances
Best in handling loose soils Can handle tight soils
Fast return speeds, 8-26 mph Can handle only Slow return speeds, 5-10 mph
moderate blade loads Can push large blade loads

Fig. 1.3: Wheel Dozer

Fig. 1.4: Crawler Dozer

Scrapers-
 It is a device to scrap the ground & load it simultaneously, transport it over required
distance. It can dig, load, haul and discharge the material in uniformly thick layers.
 In civil engineering, a wheel tractor-scraper is a piece of heavy equipment used for
earthmoving.
 The rear part has a vertically moveable hopper (also known as the bowl) with a sharp
horizontal front edge. The hopper can be hydraulically lowered and raised. When the
hopper is lowered, the front edge cuts into the soil or clay like a plane and fills the
hopper.
 When the hopper is full it is raised, and closed with a vertical blade (known as the apron).
The scraper can transport its load to the fill area where the blade is raised, the back panel
of the hopper. or the ejector, is hydraulically pushed forward and the load tumbles out.
Then the empty scraper returns to the cut site and repeats the cycle. They are used for site
levelling, loading, hauling over distances varying between 150m-900m. They may be
towed, two-axle or three-axle type.
 Unique machine for digging and long-distance hauling of plough able materials.
 self-operating machine
 It is not dependent on other equipment.
 Wheels of machine cause some compaction.
 The basic parts of scrapers are the bowl, apron and tail gate or ejector.
 Types of Scrapers:
1) Pusher-loaded (conventional)
a) Single-powered axle

Fig. 1.5: Single-powered axle

b) Tandem-powdered axles

Fig. 1.6: Tandem-powered axle

 2) Self-loading
a) Push-pull, tandem-powered axles

Fig. 1.7: Push-pull, tandem-powered axles

b) Elevating

Fig. 1.8: Elevating

c) Auger

Fig. 1.9: Auger

 Operation
Operation of an elevating scraper is described hereunder. The working cycle is similar to
that of conventional scraper.
a) Loading:
For making a cut, the bowl is first lowered to a depth which can permit the elevator
and tractor to operate at high and constant engine speed. The cut will force material
towards the bowl and elevator buckets will sweep the material into the bowl. The
elevator has 4 forward and one reverse speed. Soft surfaces like, sand, silt and topsoil
are dug and loaded at high speeds. Low speeds are used for loading tough materials,
like, hard clay etc. When the bowl is fully loaded, stop the elevator to avoid sweeping
of the material from the face of the load and also to avoid spilling over to sides of the
bowl.
 b) Transporting:
When the scraper is loaded, the elevator should be stopped and bowl is raised until it
clears the ground, move the scraper and raise the bowl further during travelling.
Transport the material to the place of dumping.

c) Unloading:
The bowl is lowered to allow the desired depth of the spread. With the machine in
motion, the ejector floor is opened, thus allowing the bowl to unload itself and the
loading edge of the ejector floor will strike off the unloaded material in the bowl, in a
smooth and even layer.
When unloading is complete, the bowl can be raised, ejector floor is closed and the
scraper is returned for the next cycle.

Power shovel/ Front Shovel-

 A front shovel (also stripping shovel or power shovel or electric mining shovel or Dipper
Shovel's power shovel) is a bucket-equipped machine, usually electrically powered, used
for digging and loading earth or fragmented rock and for mineral extraction.
 They are mounted on crawler tracks.
 To excavate the earth and to load the trucks
 It is used to excavate earth of all classes except hard rock and load it into wagons.
 Size varies from 0.375m³ to 5ty'.
 Basics parts of power shovel including the track system, cabin, cables, rack, stick, boom
foot-pin, saddle block, boom, boom point sheaves and bucket.
 Power shovels are used principally for excavation and removal of overburden in open- cut
mining operations, though it may include loading of minerals, such as coal. They are the
modern equivalent of steam shovels, and operate in a similar fashion.
 Front shovel are mainly used for excavation purposes above its own track or wheel level.
 They are suitable for heavy positive cutting in all types of dry soils.

Fig. 1.10: Old Days Shovel

Fig. 1.11: New Power Shovel
Hoes/ Backhoes/ Back Shovel-
 Backhoes are mainly used to clean up construction areas, to dig holes in the ground, to
smooth uneven ground, to make trenches, ditches and to help remove deep roots from
trees.
 It can exert high tooth pressures and hence can excavate stiff material which normally
cannot be excavated by dragline. Out put of hoe is greatest when the excavation is done
near the machine, because cycle time of operation reduces.
 A backhoe, also called a rear actor or back actor, is a piece of excavating equipment or
digger consisting of a digging bucket on the end of a two-part articulated arm. They are
typically mounted on the back of a tractor or front louder.
 Also known as hoe, back shovel and pull shovel
 It is used to excavate below the natural surface on which it rests.
 Generally used to excavate trenches, pits for basements and also for grading works, which
requires precise control of depths.
 The basic parts are boom. Jack boom, Boom foot drum, Boom sheave, Stick sheave.
Stick, Bucket and Bucket sheaye.

Fig. 1.12: Hoe

The section of the arm closest to the vehicle is known as the boom, and the section which
carries the bucket is known as the dipper or dipper stick (the terms "boom" and "dipper"
having been used previously on steam shovels). The boom is attached to the vehicle through a
pivot known as the kingpost. which allows the arm to slew left and right, usually through a
total of around 200 degrees. Modem backhoes are powered by hydraulics.

Applications:
 It is the most suitable machine for digging below the machine level, such as, trenches,
footings, basements etc.
 It can be efficiently used to dress or trim the surface avoiding the use of manual effort for
dressing the excavated the surface.

Simple numerical problems based on cycle time and production rates-

Drag line-
 They are used to excavate soft earth from below ground and to deposit or to load in
wagons. Output of dragline is measured in Cubic Meters per hour.
 They are used for bulk excavation below its track level in loose soils, marshy land and
areas containing water.
 The drag line is so name because of its prominent operation of dragging the bucket
against the material to be dug.
 Unlike the shovel, it has a long light crane boom and the bucket is loosely attached to the
boom through cables.
 Because of this construction, a dragline can dig and dump over larger distances than a
shovel can do. ง
 Drag lines are useful for digging below its track level and handling softer materials.
 The basic parts of a drag line including the boom, hoist cable, drag cable, hoist chain,
drag chain and bucket.

Fig. 1.13: Dragline

Fig. 1.14: Dragline

Applications of Dragline:
 It is the most suitable machine for dragging softer material and below its track level
 It is very useful for excavating trenches when the sides are permitted to establish their
angle of repose without shoring.
 It has long reaches.
 It is mostly used in the excavation for canals and depositing on the embankment without
hauling units.

Clamshell-
 It consists of a hydraulically controlled bucket suspended from a lifting arm. It is mainly
used for deep confined cutting in pits and trenches.
 It is having bucket of two halves which are hinged together at top. It is used to excavate
soft to medium materials and loose materials.
 This is so named due to resemblance of its bucket to a clam which is like a shell-fish with
hinged double shell.
 The front end is essentially a crane boom with a specially designed bucket loosely
attached at the end through cables as in a drag line.
 The capacity of a clam shell bucket is usually given in cubic meters.
 The basic parts of clam shell bucket are the closing line, hoist line, sheaves, brackets.
tagline, shell and hinge.

Fig. 1.15: Chalshell

Trenchers-
These machines are used for digging trenches at a faster rate and with proper control of
depths and widths, and are capable of digging any type of soil except rock. They are available
in various sizes for digging trenches of various depths and widths. These are generally
crawler mounted having large range of speeds to permit the selection of the most suitable
speed for any job conditions, ranging from canal excavation to laying cables.
Trenchers are the equipments used for excavating trenches or ditches of variable width and
depth. The trenches of width upto 12 metres and depth upto 3 metres can be excavated in one
pass with the trenchers available now-a-days. A trencher consists of:
a) self-propelled tractor or carrier fitted with either crawler type or wheel-type running gear;
b) an excavating device consisting of several buckets on the periphery of a wheel or several
cutters attached to a chain for digging and discharging continuously
c) a means of conveying the excavated material to either side of the excavated trench and
depositing it in windrows.

Fig. 1.16: Trencher

Trenching machines are of two types, namely wheel trenchers and ladder trenchers and are
described hereunder:
1) Wheel-Type Trenching Machine:
These machines are available with maximum cutting depths exceeding 8 ft, with trench
widths from 12 in. to approximately 60 in. Many are available with 25 or more digging
speeds to enable the selection of the most suitable speed for almost any job condition.
The excavating part of the machine consists of a power-driven wheel on which are
mounted a number of removable buckets, equipped with cutter teeth. Buckets are
available in varying widths to which side cutters can be attached when it is necessary to
increase the width of a trench. The machine is operated by lowering the rotating wheel to
the desired depth, while the unit moves forward slowly. The earth is picked up by the
buckets and deposited onto an endless belt conveyor that can be adjusted to discharge the
earth on either side of the trench.
Wheel-type machines are especially suited to excavating trenches for utility services that
are placed in relatively shallow trenches.

Fig. 1.17: Wheel-Type Trencher

2) Ladder-Type Trenching Machine:
By installing exten- sions to the ladders or booms, and by adding more buckets and chain
links, it is possible to dig trenches in excess of 30 ft with large machines. Trench widths
in excess of 12 ft can be dug. Most of these machines have booms whose lengths can be
varied, thereby permitting a single machine to be used on trenches varying considerably
in depth. This eliminates the need to own a different machine for each depth range. A
machine may have 30 or more diging speeds to suit the needs of a given job.
The excavating part of the machine consists of two endless chains that travel along the
boom, to which are attached cutter buckets equipped with teeth. In addition, shaft-
mounted side cutters can be installed on each side of the boom to increase the width of a
trench. As the buckets travel up the underside of the boom, they bring out earth and
deposit it on a belt conveyor that discharges it along either side of the trench. As a
machine moves over uneven ground, it is possible to vary the depth of cut, by adjusting
the position, but not Tthe length of the boom.
Ladder-type trenching machines have considerable flexibility with regard to trench depths
and widths. However, these machines are not suitable for excavating trenches in rock or
where large quantities of groundwater, combined with unstable soil, prevent the walls of a
trench from remaining in place. If the soil, such as loose sand or mud, tends to flow into
the trench, it may be desirable to adopt some other method of excavating the trench.

Fig. 1.18: Ladder-Type Trencher

Compactors- types and performance, operating efficiencies, lifting
capacities-
Compactors are machines frequently used to compact materials such as soil in order to
increase its density for construction.
1) In addition, compactors are utilized in landfill tasks
2) Common varieties are plate tampers (also known as rammers)
3) Vibratory plates, compactors (also known as tamping foot rollers) &
4) Vibratory pad foot compactors.
These categories are further divided as follows:
1) Sheepsfoot Rollers:
These rollers are usually found as towed drum models. The sheepsfoot roller is suitable
for compacting all fined-grained materials, but is generally not suitable for use on
cohesionless granular materials. These rollers have steel wheels equipped with cylindrical
pads (or feet), normally less than 10 in. in length. Varying the weight of the roller by the
use of ballast in the drum will vary the foot-contact pressure.
The pads on a sheepsfoot drum penetrate through the top lift and actually compact the lift
below. When the drum rotates the pads out of the soil, they kick up or fluff the material
because of their shape. Sheepfoot rollers can work only at speeds from 4 to 6 mph.
Usually 6 to 10 passes will be needed to compact an 8-in. clay lift.
Since the sheepsfoot roller tends to aerate the soil as it compacts, it is ideally suited for
working soils that have moisture contents above the acceptable moisture range. The
sheepsfoot roller does not adequately compact the upper 2 to 3 in. of a lift, and it should,
therefore, be followed by a lighter pneumatic-tired or steel-wheeled roller if no
succeeding lift is to be placed.

Fig. 1.19 : Sheepsfoot Rollers

2) Tamping Roller:
Tamping foot compactors are high-speed, self-propelled, nonvibratory rollers. These
rollers usually have four steel-padded wheels and can be equipped with a small blade to
help level the lift. The pads are tapered with an oval or rectangular face. The pad face is
smaller than the base of the pad at the drum. As a tamping roller moves over the surface,
the feet penetrate the soil to produce a kneading action and a pressure to mix and compact
the soil from the bottom to the top of the layer. With repeated passages of the roller over
the surface, the penetration of the feet decreases until the roller is said to walk out of the
fill. Because the pads are tapered, a tamping foot roller can walk out of the lift without
fluffing the soil. If it does not walk out, the roller is too heavy or the soil is too wet and
the roller is shearing the soil.
The working speed for these rollers is in the 8- to 12-mph range. Generally two to three
passes over an 8- to 12-in. lift will achieve density, but this is dependent on the size of the
roller. Four passes may be necessary in poorly graded plastic silt or very fine clays. A
tamping foot roller is effective on all soils except pure sand. To realize their true
economical compaction potential, they need long uninterrupted passes so the roller can
build up speed, which generates high production.
Like the sheepsfoot roller, tamping-foot compactors do not adequately compact the upper
2 to 3 in. of a lift. Therefore, if a succeeding lift is not going to be placed, follow up with
a pneumatic-tired or smooth-drum roller to complete the compaction or to seal the
surface.

Fig. 1.20: Tamping Roller

3) Smooth-drum vibratory soil Compactors:
The smooth-drum compactors, whether single- or dual-drum models, generate three
compactive forces:
1. pressure,
2. impact, and
3. vibration.
These rollers are most effective on granular materials, with particle sizes ranging from
large rocks to fine sand. They can be used on semicohesive soils with up to about 10% of
the material having a PI of 5 or greater. Large steel-drum vibratory rollers can be
effective on rock lifts as thick as 3 ft.

Fig. 1.21: Single drum Smooth vibratory soil Compactors

Fig. 1.22: Double drum Smooth vibratory soil Compactors

4) Pad-drum vibratory soil Compactors:
These rollers are effective on soils with up to 50% of the mate- rial having a PI of 5 or
greater. The edges of the pads are rolled inward enabling them to walk out of the lift
without fluffing the soil. The typical lift thickness for padded-drum units on cohesive soil
is 12 to 18 in. These units are sometimes equipped with a leveling blade.
Small walk-behind and/or remotely controlled vibratory rollers having widths in the range
of 24 to 38 in. are available. These units are designed specifically for trench work or for
working in confined areas. The drums of the roller extend beyond the sides of the roller
body, so the compaction can be accomplished adjacent to the trench walls. Many of these
small compactors can be equipped with remote control systems so that the operator can
control the roller without having to enter the trench. Nearly all of the remote control
systems use a digitized radio frequency; this eliminates the need to have control cables
dragged around the construction site.

Fig. 1.23: Pad-drum vibratory soil Compactors

5) Pneumatic-tired Roller:
These are surface rollers that apply the principle of kneading action to affect compaction
below the surface. They may be self-propelled or towed. Pneumatics are used on small- to
medium-size soil compaction jobs, primarily on bladed granular base materials. Small
pneumatics are not suited for high-production, thick lift embankment compaction
projects. Pneumatic-tired rollers are also used in compacting asphalt, chip seals, recycled
pavement, and base and subbase materials. Because of their relatively gentle kneading
action they are well suited for intermediate and breakdown compaction of Superpave and
stone mastic asphalt mixes. The flexible tire surface permits conformance of the tire to
slightly irregular surfaces. This helps to maintain uniform density and bearing capacity
whereas a steel-drum roller would bridge over low spots while applying more pressure to
high spots.
The small-tired units usually have two tandem axles with four to five wheels on each
axle. The wheels oscillate, enabling them to follow the surface contour and reach into low
areas for uniform compaction. The rear tires are spaced to track over the uncompacted
surface left by the passage of the front tires. This path tracking produces complete
coverage of the surface. The wheels may be mounted slightly out of line with the axle,
giving them a weaying action (the name “wobbly wheel”) to increase the kneading action
of the soil. By adding ballast, the weight of a unit may be varied to suit the material being
compacted.
Large-tired rollers are available in sizes varying from 15 to 200 tons gross weight. They
utilize two or more big earth-moving tires on a single axle. The air pressure in the tires
may vary from 80 to 150 psi (pounds per square inch). Because of the heavy loads and
high tire pressures, they are capable of compacting all types of soils to greater depths. The
expense is in propelling these large units over the lift, as they require tractors having
considerable drawbar pull and traction.
These units are frequently used to proof roll roadway subgrades and airfields bases, and
on earth-fill dams. On the Painted Rock Dam in Arizona, 50-ton rubber-tired rollers were
used to compact sandy gravel embankment material. The pervious material was prewetted
in the borrow area and then placed in the embankment in 24-in. lifts. To achieve density,
four passes of the 50-ton roller were required.
Because the area of contact between a tire and the ground surface over which it passes
varies with the air pressure in the tire, specifying the total weight or the weight per wheel
is not necessarily a satisfactory method of indicating the compacting ability of a
pneumatic roller. Four parameters must be known to determine the compacting ability of
pneumatic rollers:
1. Wheel load
2. Tire size
3. Tire ply
4. Inflation pressure

Fig. 1.24: Pneumatic-tired Roller