4.

FUNCTIONALISM

Functionalism is a theoretical framework that seeks to understand societies and cultures by examining the
functions of cultural traits. Every cultural aspect exists because it fulfils specific function, thus rejecting the idea of
survivals. Cultural behaviors are not arbitrary but have a specific purpose. This purpose is the satisfaction of
needs.
Based on whose need is being fulfilled the school can be divided
into two:
Bio-cultural Functionalism - Each and every cultural trait
exists to fulfill individual's needs.
Structural Functionalism - Cultural traits express themselves
through cultural institutions. The focus is thus on fulfilment
of society's needs.

Bronislaw Malinowski
&
Functionalism is influenced by the idea of Organic
Analogy by August Comte, Herbert Spencer, and
Bio-Cultural Functionalism Emile Durkheim.
In his book, Concept of Culture, Malinowski defines Culture as an
instrumental apparatus for satisfaction of individual needs. Institutions are
integrated responses to variety of needs, which he explains through the
Idea of Charter of an Institution. Charter refers to a system of values for
the pursuit of which human beings enter into an already existing institution.
The members of the institution are organized on principles of authority and division The goal is, briefly, to
of function and privileges and follow its norms. The material apparatus created by the grasp the native’s point of
view, his relation to life, to
institution performs functions which fulfills needs of the individual and the society as realise his vision of his
a whole. world.

Theory of Needs: Malinowski defines needs as a

system of conditions in human organism, in the e kernel
Culture is th
cultural setting and in relation of both to the w ski's
of Malino
. It is
natural environment, satisfaction of which is approach
u man.
necessary and sufficient for organism's survival. uniquely h
He identifies three levels of needs, in an
hierarchical order. He developed the theory of
need in his book, The Scientific Theory of Culture Malinowski & Economic Anthropology:
and Other Essays. Malinowski was against the
Primary/ These are biological requirements
evolutionist view that economic
Biological/ which ensure human survival. For activities are traits of modern
Basic e.g. Need for reproduction is developed societies. Economy
Needs fulfilled through kinship. according to him is the result of
people living together, leading to
The secondary environment imposes development of mechanisms of
new conditions on humans known as
Derived
derived needs. Responses to these
production, distribution, and
Needs
include economics, education, social consumption - birth of economic
control.
organization.
However, the primitive man was
Deal with cognitive and emotional
Integrative aspects of human life. They help in
not purely rational in his economic
Needs achieving psychological stability. transactions and it was dictated by
E.g. Magic, Myth, Religion, Art. social conventions and relations.
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Simple societies have highly organised and systematic division of labour. Trade and exchange are regular,
elaborate, and complex. The ownership of property is in terms of multiple rights of groups and individuals.

Functional aspects of Kula Ring Ceremony:

The items in Kula have no monetary value and cannot
be converted into consumer goods. They are merely
for display and prestige, like a trophy.
The time-lapse between the gift giving and receiving is
an expression of confidence on the part of the gift-
giver. It boosts social solidarity.
Men perform magic to ensure goodwill and affection
so that shells are returned, their prestige depends on it.
The Kula exchange welds together island economies.

It also has political implications. Internal status of a man depends on his Kula partners. The Chief who
sponsors the Kula exchange and hosts the partners when they come to exchange, enhances his status.
The exchange boosts political stability in the region, reinforces peace. Kula trading islands are highly reticent
to attack islanders who are partners in kula.

According to Malinowski, in his Argonauts of the Western Pacific, the many interactions which come under the
ambit of Kula (prestige, political influence, trade, and gift-giving) all form ‘one organic whole’.

Criticism:
Malinowski fails to explain why different societies employ different methods
to satisfy the same biological needs. Malinowski is not
interested in the
Malinowski's idea of culture fails to acknowledge conflicts, in the society. He
causality, but the
presents an over-harmonious picture. utility of institutions.
Biocultural functionalism is a crude theory in which all behaviors are reduced No new invention, no
revolution, no social
to simplistic notions of utility. or intellectual change
Malinowski extrapolated the case of Trobriand islanders to give a general and occurs except when
universal theory. new needs are
created
It is an ahistorical theory which fails to explain the social change.
Annette Weiner criticised Malinowski for neglecting role of women in
Trobriand.

Radcliffe Brown
&
Structural Functionalism

Structural functionalism is a theoretical understanding of the that shows social systems as the
collective means to fulfil society's needs. Brown was influenced by Durkheim's idea of social
fact.
The concept of social structure and its functional features has been described by Brown in his
work, Structure and Function in Primitive Society (1952). Social structures according to him
are relations or associations between individuals. They are arrangement of persons wrt each
other like the caste system in India. Social structure, for Brown, is a permanent reality, it
exists beyond the individuals.
A social institution is a recurrent form of activity which is socially established. It works to maintain the social
structure. For e.g. through social institution of Marriage, individuals of opposite sex are brought together and
society legitimizes their sexual relations.

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 Social Structure is a permanent entity and it exists beyond Case Studies:
individual. While individuals may come and go, the social
structure will remain the same. Ceremonial Weeping among the Andamanese:
Andamanese ceremonies are marked by formal
Elements of Social Structure: weeping. They weep on a number of occasions, like
when meeting a long separated friend, in funerals,
Normative Presents the society with ideas and values.
Individuals perform their roles accordingly. and marriages.
System
This expression and transmission of sentiments helps
in regulation of individual behaviour in conformity
Position Refers to a status assigned to an individual with needs of the society. Formal weeping takes place
System as per their capabilities and capacities. in situations in which social relations which have
been disturbed or interrupted are about to be
resumed, for example, ceremonial weeping at funerals
For proper enforcement of norms, every
Sanction society has a sanction system that controls
marks the final departure of the deceased, and soon
System individual behaviour. life would go on as usual.
Ancestor Worship
Anticipated Refers to duties an individual has to follow, In certain societies, people worship their dead
response system it calls upon the individuals to participate in ancestors. They believe that the ancestors keep an eye
the social system.
on the family even after their death. They are offered
prayers and sacrifices to escape their wrath. This is a
Action It is the goal to be arrived at by the social common practice, especially in those communities
System structure. The entire social structure
revolves around it. which have unilineal descent. Ancestor worship
ensures one's commitment and respect to their
lineage thereby ensuring its stability.
Kinship in Primitive Societies Kinship behaviour
Radcliffe Brown concentrated on Classificatory Kinship
Brown analyses the ways in which different societies
terminology and associated individual patterns of deal with tensions that are likely to develop among
behaviour with this. He highlighted three basic principles
people related through marriage. To reduce potential
of this system:
tensions the following is suggested:

Unity of sibling group - Brothers and sisters share a Joking Relations: They permit mutual
feeling of solidarity and are treated as one unit by disrespect and teasing between in-laws.
outsiders. (brother-in-law and sister-in-law)
Unity of lineage group - The descendants in a line Avoidance Relations: They dictate the
(traced either through male/female) of a single relations between in-laws of different
ancestor. Lineage members show solidarity and are generations and involves extreme respect.
treated as a single unit by outsiders. (father-in-law and daughter-in-law)
Generational Principle - In societies with unilineal
descent, there is a distance between members of
succeeding generation, while the members of
alternate generations have a warm relationship.

Notion of extension of sentiments:

In a patriarchal society, mother's brother and sister's son are seen to have a warm relationship. The
nephew is permitted to take liberties with his maternal uncle, who in turn takes care of him. In such
societies, father is regarded with fear and respect while mother is regarded with love and tenderness.
Thus, father's sister is treated with respect and reverence, and mother's brother is treated with
affection and love. Paternal aunt is an extension of one's father, same with maternal uncle.

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 Radcliffe Brown and Economic
Anthropology

According to Brown, economic system can be defined as a mechanism by which different kinds of goods and services are
consumed and exchanged. Economic exchange of goods and services is both a result of and a means for maintenance of
existing social structure. Like, in Indian villages economic relations between the caste groups can be explained through the
Jajmani system.
Here a service caste is obligated to provide specific services to the land-owning upper caste. The land owning caste pays
them in kind through grains. This exchange of goods and services between the caste group is a result of caste hierarchy
and also maintains it.

Criticism:
It is considered wrong to look at society as a living organism, because the society unlike an
organism is dynamic and keeps changing.
It is possible that certain customs and behaviors in the society are dysfunctional.
The theory fails to acknowledge elements of conflict in the society.
Fails to explain variations between social institutions of different societies.
Ahistorical in nature.
Supports inequality and hierarchy in society.

Notes:

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