DTSP QB SOLs (THEORY)

Q1. What is meant by Finite Word length effects in digital filter?

Ans : Finite Word Length (FWL) effects in digital filters refer to the errors and distortions
introduced due to the limitations in representing numbers with a fixed number of bits (finite
word length) in digital hardware. These effects arise because digital systems can only store
and process numbers with limited precision, typically using fixed-point or floating-point
arithmetic.

Q2. What do you mean by zero input limit oscillation system?

Ans : A zero input limit cycle oscillation refers to a phenomenon in digital systems,
particularly in recursive (IIR) digital filters, where the system produces a periodic, oscillating
output even when the input is zero. This oscillation occurs due to the finite word length (FWL)
effects, especially quantization errors, in the system's internal feedback loops.

Q3. What do you understand by input quantization error?

Ans : Input quantization error refers to the error introduced when a continuous or high-
resolution input signal is represented by a finite number of discrete levels in a digital system,
due to the limited precision of the digital representation. This process of converting the input
signal from an analog or high-resolution form to a digital form involves quantization, which
inevitably introduces some level of error.

Q4. What are the quantization errors due to finite word length registers in digital filters?

Ans : In digital filters, finite word length effects arise because numbers are stored and
processed with limited precision, leading to several types of quantization errors:

1. Coefficient Quantization Error: Rounding or truncating filter coefficients alters the filter's
frequency response and can affect stability, especially in IIR filters.
2. Arithmetic Round-off Error: Rounding errors during arithmetic operations introduce
noise, known as round-off noise, which degrades the output.
3. Input Quantization Error: The input signal is quantized, causing small errors that
propagate through the filter, affecting output quality.
4. Output Quantization Error: Quantizing the output can reduce the fidelity of the filter's
response.
 5. Limit Cycles: Recursive filters (IIR) may exhibit unwanted oscillations due to finite
precision in internal states.
6. Overflow and Saturation Error: Fixed-point registers may overflow during calculations,
leading to significant distortion.

These errors affect the accuracy and performance of digital filters.

Q5. Obtain the cascade and parallel form realization of the system

Y(n)= -0.1y(n-1) +0.2y(n-2) +3x(n)+3.6x(n-1) +0.6x(n-2)

Q6. Obtain lattice realization for FIR filter given by

Q7. Derive the equation for steady state noise power due to input quantization.

Q8. Explain application of DSP for Echo cancellation.

Ans : In echo cancellation, DSP is applied to remove echoes that degrade communication
quality, commonly in telephony and conferencing. Echoes occur when a speaker’s voice
reflects off surfaces (acoustic echo) or bounces back in networks (line echo).

DSP-based echo cancellation works by using adaptive filters, such as the Least Mean
Squares (LMS) algorithm. These filters estimate the echo path by analyzing the outgoing
signal, creating an echo model. The estimated echo is then subtracted from the incoming
signal. If there's a residual echo, the adaptive filter adjusts in real time to improve accuracy.

The main components are:

1. Adaptive filtering to model and adjust for the echo path.

2. Echo estimation where the echo is predicted based on the outgoing signal.
3. Echo subtraction, removing the estimated echo from the incoming signal to provide
clean, echo-free audio.

DSP's real-time adaptability makes it effective in dynamic environments where conditions

change.

Q9. Describe sub-band coding of speech signals.

Ans : Sub-band coding (SBC) is a speech compression technique where the speech signal is
split into multiple frequency bands (sub-bands) using a filter bank. Each sub-band is then
processed independently, enabling more efficient encoding. Here’s the process in detail:

1. Analysis Filter Bank: The speech signal is divided into different frequency bands using
band-pass filters. Each sub-band captures a specific part of the signal's frequency range.
2. Decimation: After filtering, each sub-band is downsampled (decimated) to reduce the
number of samples since the bandwidth of each sub-band is smaller than the original
signal's.
3. Quantization and Encoding: Each sub-band is quantized, with more bits assigned to
perceptually important sub-bands (usually the lower frequencies). This step compresses
the signal by reducing redundant data, and further encoding (like entropy coding)
enhances compression.
4. Synthesis Filter Bank: At the receiver end, the sub-bands are upsampled and passed
through a synthesis filter bank to reconstruct the original speech signal.

Q10. Explain the effects of coefficient quantization in FIR filters.

Ans : Coefficient quantization in FIR filters introduces several effects due to the finite
precision of representing filter coefficients:

1. Frequency Response Deviation: The quantized coefficients alter the filter's frequency
response, leading to potential changes in passband and stopband characteristics.
2. Increased Ripple: Quantization increases ripple in both the passband and stopband,
reducing the flatness and sharpness of the filter.
3. Attenuation Loss: The stopband attenuation decreases, allowing more unwanted
frequencies to pass through.
4. Phase Distortion: Slight phase response distortion may occur, but this effect is generally
small in FIR filters.
5. Stability: FIR filters remain stable despite coefficient quantization, unlike IIR filters.
6. Noise Sensitivity: Quantization introduces round-off noise, but FIR filters are relatively
robust due to their non-recursive nature.

In summary, quantization impacts FIR filter accuracy but doesn't affect stability.

Q11. Why rounding is preferred over truncation in realizing digital filter?

Ans : Rounding is preferred over truncation in realizing digital filters for several key reasons:

1. Reduced Bias: Rounding minimizes systematic errors by averaging quantization errors,

leading to a lower mean error compared to truncation, which consistently discards bits.
2. Improved Signal Fidelity: Rounding preserves more original signal characteristics,
resulting in better overall fidelity, essential for accurate signal representation.
 3. Lower Peak-to-Average Power Ratio (PAPR): Rounding reduces PAPR in the quantized
signal, minimizing distortion and improving filter performance.
4. Enhanced Non-Linear Performance: In non-linear systems, rounding reduces
quantization noise impact, contributing to more stable and reliable performance.
5. Adaptive Filtering Stability: Rounding helps maintain stability and reduces coefficient
drift in adaptive filters, ensuring consistent performance over time.
6. Uniform Error Distribution: Rounding distributes quantization errors more evenly,
reducing the likelihood of distortion from concentrated error regions.

In summary, rounding enhances digital filter performance by minimizing errors and

preserving signal integrity.

Q12. Briefly explain the following:

i) Coefficient quantization error

ii) Product quantization error

iii) Truncation and Rounding

Ans : i) Coefficient Quantization Error

Coefficient quantization error occurs when filter coefficients in digital signal processing are
represented with limited precision due to finite word length. This error is the difference
between the actual (ideal) coefficient values and their quantized representations. It can lead
to deviations in the filter's frequency response, causing issues like increased ripple, reduced
stopband attenuation, and overall performance degradation.

ii) Product Quantization Error

Product quantization error arises during the multiplication of quantized values, particularly
in digital filters. When input signals and coefficients are quantized, their products may not be
accurately represented. This error affects the output signal, leading to distortions that can
accumulate in cascading filter stages. It is especially significant in non-linear systems, where
small errors can have amplified effects.

iii) Truncation and Rounding

Truncation is the process of discarding the least significant bits of a number without
adjusting the remaining bits, leading to a systematic bias and larger quantization errors. In
contrast, rounding adjusts the least significant bit based on the value of the discarded bits,
rounding to the nearest representable value. Rounding minimizes mean quantization errors
and maintains better signal fidelity, making it generally preferred over truncation in digital
filter implementations.
Q13. Explain ECG and EEG signals analysis.

Ans :

ECG (Electrocardiogram) Signal Analysis

ECG measures the heart's electrical activity using electrodes on the skin. The analysis
involves:

1. Signal Acquisition: Recorded from multiple electrodes (usually 12 leads).

2. Preprocessing: Filtering to remove noise and baseline wander.
3. Feature Extraction: Identifying key components (P wave, QRS complex, T wave) and
calculating parameters like heart rate.
4. Classification: Using algorithms to identify conditions (e.g., arrhythmias).
5. Interpretation: Clinicians diagnose and recommend treatments based on analysis.

EEG (Electroencephalogram) Signal Analysis

EEG measures brain activity via electrodes on the scalp. The analysis includes:

1. Signal Acquisition: Collected using multiple electrodes (often in a 10-20 configuration).

2. Preprocessing: Filtering to eliminate artifacts and noise.
3. Feature Extraction: Identifying frequency bands (delta, theta, alpha, beta, gamma) and
event-related potentials (ERPs).
4. Classification: Applying machine learning to identify patterns linked to neurological
conditions.
5. Interpretation: Analyzed by healthcare professionals for brain health assessments and
treatment planning.

Summary

Both ECG and EEG analyses consist of acquisition, preprocessing, feature extraction,
classification, and interpretation, playing vital roles in diagnosing and monitoring health
conditions.

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