Wave optics describes the connection between waves and rays of light.

According to wave theory of light, the light is a form of energy which travels
through a medium in the form of transverse wave motion. The speed of light
in a medium depends upon the nature of medium.
Newtons' Corpuscular Theory of Light
Light consists of very small invisible elastic particles called corpuscles,
which travel in vacuum with a speed of 3 ×10 8 m/s.
The size of corpuscular of different colours of light are different.
The theory could explain reflection and refraction.
But it could not explain interference, diffraction, polarisation, photoelectric
effect and Compton effect.
The theory failed as it could not explain why light travels faster in a rarer
medium than in a denser medium.
Huygens' Wave Theory of Light
Light travel in the form of waves. These waves travel in all direction with the
velocity of light.

The waves of light of different colours have different wavelengths.

Huygens' theory could explain reflection, refraction interference, diffraction,
polarisation but could not explain photoelectric effect and compton's effect.
Wave theory introduced the concept of wavefront.

Wavefront
A wavefront is defined as the continuous locus of all the particles of a
medium, which are vibrating in the same phase.

S=¿ source of light, AB=¿ wavefront and SP , SQ and SR are rays of light.
These are three types
(i) Spherical Wavefront
When source of light is a point source, the wavefront is spherical. Amplitude
1
( A) is inversely proportional to distance (x ) i.e. A ∝ .
x
∴ Intensity (I ) ∝¿
(ii) Cylindrical wavefront
When source of light is linear, the wavefront is cylindrical.

(iii) Plane wavefront

When the source of light is very far off, the wavefront is plane.

Huygens' Principle
(i) Every point on given wavefront (called primary wavefront) acts as a fresh
source of new disturbance called secondary wavelets.
(ii) The secondary wavelets travels in all the directions with the speed of
light in the medium.
(iii) A surface touching these secondary wavelets tangentially in the forward
direction at any instant gives the new (secondary) wave front of that instant.

Superposition of Waves
When two similar waves propagate in a medium simultaneously, then at any
point the resultant displacement is equal to the vector sum of displacement
produced by individual waves.

Interference of Light
When two light waves of similar frequency having a zero or constant phase
difference propagate in a medium simultaneously in the same direction, then
due to their superposition maximum intensity is obtained at few points and
minimum intensity at other few points. This phenomenon of redistribution of
energy due to superposition of waves is called interference of light waves.

The interference taking place at points of maximum intensity is called

constructive interference.
The interference taking place at points of minimum intensity is called
destructive interference.

Conditions for Constructive and Destructive Interference

For Constructive Interference
Phase difference,
Path difference, Δ x =nλ where, n=0 , 1, 2 , 3 , …
For Destructive Interference
Phase difference, ϕ=(2 n−1)π
(2 n−1)λ
Path difference, Δ x = where, n=1 ,2 , 3 , …
2
If two waves of exactly same frequency and of amplitude a and b interfere,
then amplitude of resultant wave is given by

R=√ a2 +b2 +2 ab cos ⁡ϕ

where, ϕ is the phase difference between two waves.

Intensity of wave,
2 2
∴ I ¿ a +b + 2 ab cos ⁡ϕ
¿ ¿

where, I 1 and I 2 are intensities of two waves.

Coherent Sources of Light

The sources of light emitting light of same wavelength, same frequency
having a zero or constant phase difference are called coherent sources of
light.
Young's Double Slit Experiment (YDSE)
The arrangement of YDSE to produce interference is shown below

nλ
Position of bright fringe, y bright = D
d
(2 n−1) λD
Position of dark fringe, y dark =
2d
Fringe Width
The distance between the centres of two consecutive bright or dark fringes
λD
is called the fringe width, β=
d
λ β
The angular fringe width is given by θ= = .
d d
where, λ is the wavelength of light d is the distance between two coherent
sources.

Important Points Related with Fringe Width

As we know that fringe width (β ) is the distance between two successive
maxima or minima. It is given by

λD
β= or β ∝ λ
d

Two conclusions can be drawn from this relation

(i) If YDSE apparatus is immersed in a liquid of refractive index μ, then
wavelength of light and hence fringe width decreases μ times.

(ii) If white light is used in place of a monochromatic light, then coloured

fringes are obtained on the screen with red fringes of larger size than that of
violet because λ red > λ violet .
But note that centre is still white because path difference there is zero for all
colours. Hence, all the wavelengths interfere constructively. At other places
light will interfere destructively for those wavelengths for whom path
difference is λ /2, 3 λ /2 , …, etc, and they will interfere constructively for the
wavelengths for whom path difference is λ , 2 λ , …, etc.
Note Shape of fringes on the screen is hyperbolic. But, if the screen is
placed at very large distance from slits, then the hyperbola nearly looks
straight line in shape.

Angular Width of Fringes

Let angular position of n th bright fringe is θn and because of its small value
tan ⁡θn ≈θ n

Y n nDλd nλ
∴ θn = = =
D D d

Similarly, if angular position of (n+1) th bright fringe is θn +1, then

Y n+1 (n+1) Dλd (n+1) λ

θn +1= = =
D D d

∴ Angular width of a fringe,

(n+1) λ nλ λ
θ=θn+1 −θn= − =
d d d

Also,

D
¿ β=
λ
d
λ β
¿ θ= =
d D

λ β
∴ θ= =
d D

It is independent of n , i.e. angular width of all fringes are same.

Maximum Intensity
From above expression, we can see that intensity is maximum at points,
where
or

ϕ ϕ
cos ⁡ =± 1 or =nπ , n=0 ,± 1 ,± 2 , …
2 2
2π
ϕ=2 nπ or Δ x=2 nπ
λ

or Δ x =nλ, we know that this path difference is for maxima. Thus, intensity of
bright points are maximum and given by
 I max=4 I 0

2 ϕ
Therefore, we can write I =I max cos ⁡
2
Minimum Intensity
Minimum intensity on the screen is found at points, where

ϕ ϕ 1
cos ⁡ =0 or = n− π
2 2 2 ¿ ( )
¿
or ϕ=(2 n−1)π
or

2π
Δ x ¿(2 n−1) π
λ
λ
Δx ¿(2n−1)
2

λ
⇒ Δ x=(2 n−1)
2

We know that this path difference corresponds to minima. Thus, intensity of

minima are minimum and given by

I min =0

Note If both the slits are of equal width, I 1 ≈ L2=I 0 and in that cases,

I max=4 I 0 and I min=0

If the slits are of unequal width, then l 1 ≠ l 2 I min ≠ 0

Fraunhoffer Diffraction at a Single

Slit

For Secondary Minima

(a) Path difference ¿ nλ
nDλ nfλ
(b) Linear distance ¿ =
a a
where, λ = wavelength of light, a=¿ width of single slit, D=¿ distance of
screen from the slit and f =¿ focal length of convex lens.
nλ
(c) Angular spread ¿ where, n=1 ,2 , 3 , …
a
 For Secondary Maxima
(2 n+1)λ
(a) Path difference ¿
2

(2 n+1)Dλ (2 n+1)fλ
(b) Linear distance ¿ =
2a 2a
(2 n+1)λ
(c) Angular spread ¿
2α
For Central Maxima
2 Dλ 2 fλ
Linear width of central maximum =
a a
2λ
Angular width of central maximum, 2 θ=
a
Important Points

 In diffraction fringe pattern central bright fringe is brightest and

widest and remaining secondary maximas are of gradually decreasing
intensities.
 The difference between interference and diffraction is that the
interference is the superposition between the wavelets coming from
two coherent sources while the diffraction is the superposition
between the wavelets coming from the single wavefront.