Embedded System Diploma

Electronic component

In

Electronic

Submitted By
Mahmoud Nagy Zedan

Part A
 capacitor
 capacitor is a device for storing electrical energy, consisting of two conductors in close proximity and
insulated from each other. A simple example of such a storage device is the parallel-plate capacitor.

 The parallel plate capacitor is the simplest form of capacitor. It can be constructed using two metal or
metallised foil plates at a distance parallel to each other, with its capacitance value in Farads, being
fixed by the surface area of the conductive plates and the distance of separation between them.
Altering any two of these values alters the the value of its capacitance and this forms the basis of
operation of the variable capacitors.

 A capacitor is a passive two-terminal electronic component used to store

electrical energy in an electric field and serves as a very short time battery in
the circuits. In the form of a capacitor, it consists of two conducting parallel
metal plates separated by an insulating material called the dielectric.

 Standard Units of Capacitance

1. Microfarad (μF) 1μF = 1/1,000,000 = 0.000001 = 10-6 F
2. Nano-farads (nF) 1nF = 1/1,000,000,000 = 0.000000001 = 10-9 F
3. Picofarad (pF) 1pF = 1/1,000,000,000,000 = 0.000000000001 = 10-12 F

 Symbol of capacitor
 To design an electronic circuit the symbol of the capacitor is used. In the electronic circuit different
type of symbol is used to show the polarized, non-polarized and variable capacitor
 There are many types of capacitors used in electronic circuits. Mainly capacitors are divided into two common groups
called the fixed capacitor and the variable capacitor.

1. Electrolytic capacitor.
2. Ceramic capacitor.
3. Film capacitor.
4. Variable capacitor.

 Smoothing capacitor applications

When an incoming electrical supply or line signal is taken through a transformer and a rectifier, the resulting waveform
is not smooth. It varies between zero and the peak voltage. If applied directly to an electronic circuit, this is most unlikely
to operate as it is a series of half sine waves varying between zero and the peak voltage and instead circuits need a
constant DC voltage. To overcome this, a capacitor is used to decouple or smooth the output voltage in these circuit
designs.
In electronic circuits, capacitors are used for removing noise in the following ways:

(1) Across-the-line: Remove noise between two lines.

(2) Bypass capacitor: Remove noise from DC power supplies
(3) Decoupling: Block noise from other circuits by reducing the loop size of a circuit (reduce
voltage fluctuations on the power supply line and suppress interference between circuits)
Why bypass capacitors are placed near ICs ?
Capacitors, although small, have some inductance and electrical resistance built into them.
They are called ESL (Equivalent Series Inductance) and ESR (Equivalent Series Resistance). They
are parasitic and unnecessary for the function of the capacitor, and using a capacitor with a
large ESL or ESR value as a bypass capacitor will end up generating more noise.
AC Capacitor Phasor Diagram
 At 0o the rate of change of the supply voltage is increasing in a positive direction resulting in a
maximum charging current at that instant in time. As the applied voltage reaches its maximum
peak value at 90o for a very brief instant in time the supply voltage is neither increasing or
decreasing so there is no current flowing through the circuit.
 As the applied voltage begins to decrease to zero at 180o, the slope of the voltage is negative so
the capacitor discharges in the negative direction. At the 180o point along the line the rate of
change of the voltage is at its maximum again so maximum current flows at that instant and so
on.
 Then we can say that for capacitors in AC circuits the instantaneous current is at its minimum or
zero whenever the applied voltage is at its maximum and likewise the instantaneous value of
the current is at its maximum or peak value when the applied voltage is at its minimum or zero.
 From the waveform above, we can see that the current is leading the voltage by 1/4 cycle or
90o as shown by the vector diagram. Then we can say that in a purely capacitive circuit the
alternating voltage lags the current by 90o.

 The capacitive reactance of the capacitor decreases as the frequency across it increases
therefore capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to frequency.
 The opposition to current flow, the electrostatic charge on the plates (its AC capacitance value)
remains constant as it becomes easier for the capacitor to fully absorb the change in charge on
its plates during each half cycle.
 Also as the frequency increases the current flowing through the capacitor increases in value
because the rate of voltage change across its plates increases.
 Then we can see that at DC a capacitor has infinite reactance (open-circuit), at very high
frequencies a capacitor has zero reactance (short-circuit)
 Resistor
A resistor is a passive two-terminal electrical component that implements electrical resistance
as a circuit element. In electronic circuits, resistors are used to reduce current flow, adjust
signal levels, to divide voltages, bias active elements, and terminate transmission lines, among
other uses.

Varistor symbol

The symbol of a varistor circuit is very similar to that of a thermistor. It consists of a basic
resistor symbol of a rectangle with a diagonal line through it that has a small added section
parallel to the body of the resistor symbol which indicates the nonlinear nature of the varistor.
Although some other symbols may be used, the one shown below is the generally accepted one.
It is depicted as a variable resistor that is dependent on voltage, U.
Varistor Applications

Varistors have many advantages and can be used in many different types of applications for the
suppression of mains borne transients from domestic appliances and lighting to industrial
equipment on both AC or DC power lines. Varistors can be connected directly across mains
supplies and across semiconductor switches for protection of transistors, MOSFET’s and
thyristor bridges.

‫عباره عن مقاومه حراريه لما تزيد الحراره المقاومه هتقل او تكون عباره عن سلك و الهدف منه انه بيقلل‬
‫تيار االندفاع‬
 Coil
 Inductors are passive two terminal components of an electric or electronic circuit that
are capable of storing energy in magnetic form. They oppose sudden changes in current
and they are also called coils or chokes. They are known by their electrical symbol L.

 When electric current starts to flow in a conductor, a magnetic field is established around
the conductor in the direction of the right-hand thread. When current flows through an
inductor with conductors wound around it in the same direction, the magnetic field
established around the wire (conductor) is bound together and the inductor becomes an
electromagnet. Conversely, electric current can be generated from a magnetic force.
 Crystal oscillators

Voltage-controlled crystal oscillators (VCXO) are widely used as clock generators and timing
signal generators in communications equipment and digital equipment.

Microprocessor Oscillator

Most microprocessors, micro-controllers and PIC’s have two oscillator pins

labelled OSC1 and OSC2 to connect to an external quartz crystal circuit, standard RC oscillator
network or even a ceramic resonator. In this type of microprocessor application the Quartz
Crystal Oscillator produces a train of continuous square wave pulses whose fundamental
frequency is controlled by the crystal itself. This fundamental frequency regulates the flow of
instructions that controls the processor device. For example, the master clock and system timing.
 Diode

A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts current primarily in one

direction (asymmetric conductance). It has low (ideally zero) resistance in one direction, and high
(ideally infinite) resistance in the other.

Converting from AC to DC: Sometimes diodes are used to convert from AC to DC by placing
four rectifier diodes to create a bridge rectifier. This is often used after a transformer in a
power supply, followed by a voltage regulator.
 The Schottky Diode

The Schottky Diode is a type of metal-semiconductor diode having a low forward voltage drop
and a very fast switching speed
 Zener diode

Zener is used for all components having sharp breakdown characteristics in the reverse direction.
When forward biased, it behaves like a normal signal diode, but when the reverse voltage is
applied to it, the voltage remains constant for a wide range of currents. Due to this feature, it is
used as a voltage regulator in DC. circuit. The primary objective of the Zener diode as a voltage
regulator is to maintain a constant voltage. Let us say if a Zener voltage of 5 V is used then, the
voltage becomes constant at 5 V, and it does not change. Here we designed a simple Zener
Diode Voltage Regulator Circuit to give 5-volt output from 9-volt input, you can replace the Zener
diode to get desired output voltage.

Working Explanation

In this schematic, a 5.1 Volt Zener diode is used in reverse bias. As we can see Zener diode is
connected in parallel with the load. The resistance Rs are connected in series with the Zener
diode to limit the current in a circuit. The input voltage is set greater than the Zener voltage for
proper operation. When the input voltage increases or above the Zener breakdown voltage then
the Zener starts to conduct up to the breakdown voltage level and gives regulated output voltage.
 Transistor

A transistor is a miniature semiconductor that regulates or controls current or voltage flow in

addition amplifying and generating these electrical signals and acting as a switch/gate for them.
Typically, transistors consist of three layers, or terminals, of a semiconductor material, each of
which can carry a current.

Characteristic :

1. A transistor is a miniature semiconductor that regulates or controls current or voltage

flow in addition to amplifying and generating these electrical signals and acting as a
switch/gate for them.
2. Typically, transistors consist of three layers, or terminals, of semiconductor material,
each of which can carry a current.
3. A transistor is made up of three terminals which are called the emitter, base, and
collector.
4. An electrical signal is applied to the base, and the current flow between the emitter
and collector.
5. A transistor basically acts as a switch and an amplifier.
6. The standard units of a transistor for electrical measurement are Ampere (A), Volt (V),
and Ohm (Ω), respectively.
7. The word transistor is a combination of transfer and resistance.
8. This is because it transfers the resistance from one end of the device to the other end
or we can say, transfer of resistance.
9. Hence, the name transistor. Transistors have very high input resistance and very low
output resistance.
 Mosfet

The MOSFET is the most common type of transistor today. Their primary use is to control
conductivity, or how much electricity can flow, between its source and drain terminals based on
the amount of voltage applied to its gate terminal.

MOSFET as a Switch:

 The most common application of a MOSFET is using it as a switch. The below circuit shows
the MOSFET operating as a Switching device for turning ON and OFF of the lamp. The gate
input voltage VGS applied with the help of an input voltage source. When the applied
voltage is positive, the motor will be in the ON state and if the applied voltage is zero or
negative, the lamp will be in OFF state.
Construction:

The below image shows the typical internal structure of the MOSFET. Although the MOSFET is an
advanced form of FET and operates with the same three terminals as a FET the internal structure
of the MOSFET is really different from the general FET.

If you look at the structure, you could see that the gate terminal is fixed on the thin metal layer
which is insulated by a layer of Silicon Dioxide (SiO2) from the semiconductor, and you will be
able to see two N-type semiconductors fixed in the channel region where the drain and source
terminals are placed. The channel between the drain and source of the MOSFET is an N-type,
opposite to this, the substrate is implemented as P-type. This helps in biasing MOSFET in both
the polarities, either positive or negative. If the gate terminal of the MOSFET isn’t biased, it will
stay in the non-conductive state, hence the MOSFET is mostly used in designing switches and
logic gates.
 Half Wave Rectifier

 A rectifier that converts the ac signal to the dc signal by passing either a positive or
negative half cycle of the ac waveform and blocking the other half cycle is called a half
wave rectifier. During construction, a half-wave rectifier circuit uses only one diode for
the rectification process. A half-wave rectifier is a simple type of rectifier.

 The working of half wave rectifier is based on the fact that the diode allows the current
flow only in one direction. Thus it converts the ac signal into a dc signal. When ac voltage
is applied across the diode, the diode conducts only on the forward biasing condition.
when the anode side of the diode is positive with respect to the cathode side.

 Since a half-wave rectifier passes only half of the input, its efficiency of it is lower than
the efficiency of a full-wave rectifier. The maximum efficiency of half wave rectifier is
about 40.5 % and that of a full-wave rectifier is twice of half wave rectifier. Half wave
rectifier produces more amount of ripple than a full-wave rectifier. Eliminating the ripple
content requires much more filtering. So, it is rarely used in practice.
 Full Wave Rectifier

The full wave rectifier circuit consists of two power diodes connected to a single load resistance
(RL) with each diode taking it in turn to supply current to the load. When point A of the
transformer is positive with respect to point C, diode D1 conducts in the forward direction as
indicated by the arrows.

When point B is positive (in the negative half of the cycle) with respect to point C,
diode D2 conducts in the forward direction and the current flowing through resistor R is in the
same direction for both half-cycles. As the output voltage across the resistor R is the phasor sum
of the two waveforms combined, this type of full wave rectifier circuit is also known as a “bi-
phase” circuit.

Full Wave Rectifier with Smoothing Capacitor

The smoothing capacitor converts the full-wave rippled output of the rectifier into a more
smooth DC output voltage. If we now run the Partsim Simulator Circuit with different values of
smoothing capacitor installed, we can see the effect it has on the rectified output waveform as
shown.
Full-Wave Rectification and Half-Wave Rectification
 A voltage regulator

A voltage regulator is a component that gives you a stable output voltage, no matter if the
input voltage changes. It’s an integrated circuit (IC), usually with three or more pins.

How To Connect a Voltage Regulator :

Usually, you need a few extra components connected to your voltage regulator to make the
output a bit more stable. At least a capacitor or two. But it depends on the voltage regulator you
have.

You’ll find info about how to connect a specific voltage regulator in its datasheet.

For example, the voltage regulator 7805 is a common one. It gives you 5V out. From the 7805
datasheets, you can find this example circuit that shows that you need two capacitors:

type of electrical transformer

used to produce high-voltage
pulses from a low-voltage direct
current (DC) supply.

Hence, we can say

that a capacitor
works as a A.C.
and D.C. both.
 LDR
Working Principle of LDR:

It is nothing more than the fact that when light strikes its surface, the material's conductivity
decreases and the electrons in the device's valence band are stimulated to the conduction band.
These incident light photons must have energy larger than the semiconductor material's band
gap

Circuit Diagram of a Light Dependent Resistor

The circuit diagram of a LDR is shown below. When the light intensity is low, then the resistance
of the LDR is high. This stops the current flow to the base terminal of the transistor. So, the LED
does not light. However, when the light intensity onto the LDR is high, then the resistance of the
LDR is low. So current flows onto the base of the first transistor and then the second transistor.
Consequently the LED lights. Here, a preset resistor is used to turn up or down to increase or
decrease the resistance.
 buzzers
Active and passive buzzers are types of magnetic buzzers. Inside
the buzzer, there is a coil of wire that’s connected to the
buzzer’s pins. There is also a round magnet that surrounds the
wire coil. A thin metal film with a metal weight attached to the
top sits above the round magnet and wire coil. When pulses of
current are applied to the wire coil, magnetic inductance causes
the metal weight and metal film to vibrate up and down. The
vibration of the metal film produces sound waves:

An easy way to tell active and passive buzzers apart is by connecting them to a DC voltage source
like a 9-volt battery. The buzzers are polarized, so check which terminal is positive and which
terminal is negative before connecting it to a battery.

When you connect a passive buzzer to a battery, the buzzer will make a sharp clicking sound. But
when you connect an active buzzer to a battery, the buzzer will make a loud buzzing noise.

There are two types of piezoelectric

buzzers that are commonly used in
electronics projects – active buzzers and
passive buzzers. Active buzzers are called
active because they only need a DC
voltage to produce sound. Passive buzzers
need an AC voltage to produce sound.
 Potentiometer
The potentiometer has been an essential, passive circuit component from the earliest days of electricity and
electronics. It is a three-terminal device with an accessible resistor element, providing a voltage divider
function via its user-settable wiper on a rotating shaft. It is used in countless analog and mixed-signal circuits
to fulfill a wide variety of application requirements.