Ed Lab Manual-2

EXPERIMENT No.
1
IDENTIFICATION, SPECIFICATIONS, TESTING OF R,L,C
COMPONENTS (COLOR CODES),
POTENTIOMETERS,TRANSFORMERS,RELAYS,BREAD BOARD
AIM: To identify the different components and their symbols.

APPARATUS: Resistors
Capacitors
Transformers
Switches and relays
Bread boards
THEORY:
RESISTORS:
Opposition to flow of currents is called resistance. The elements having resistance are called
resistors. They are of two types
1. Fixed resistor
2. Variable resistor
CAPACITORS:
A capacitor (originally known as a condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical
component used to store energy electro statically in an electric field. The forms of practical
capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors (plates) separated by
a dielectric (i.e., insulator). The conductors can be thin films of metal, aluminum foil or disks,
etc. The 'non conducting' dielectric acts to increase the capacitor's charge capacity. A dielectric
can be glass, ceramic, plastic film, air, paper, mica, etc. Capacitors are widely used as parts
of electrical circuits in many common electrical devices. Unlike a resistor, a capacitor does not
dissipate energy. Instead, a capacitor stores energy in the form of an electrostatic field between
its plates.
When there is a potential difference across the conductors (e.g., when a capacitor is attached
across a battery), an electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge (+Q) to
Electronic Devices lab, Dept. Of ECE Raghu Engineering College, Visakhapatnam page 1
collect on one plate and negative charge (-Q) to collect on the other plate. If a battery has been
attached to a capacitor for a sufficient amount of time, no current can flow through the
capacitor. However, if an accelerating or alternating voltage is applied across the leads of the
capacitor, a displacement current can flow.
An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value for its capacitance. Capacitance is
expressed as the ratio of the electric charge (Q) on each conductor to the potential difference
(V) between them. The SI unit of capacitance is the farad(F), which is equal to
one coulomb per volt (1 C/V). Typical capacitance values range from about 1 pF (10−12 F) to
about 1 mF (10−3 F).
The capacitance is greater when there is a narrower separation between conductors and when
the conductors have a larger surface area. In practice, the dielectric between the plates passes a
small amount of leakage current and also has an electric field strength limit, known as
the breakdown voltage. The conductors and leads to introduce an undesired
inductance and resistance.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while
allowing alternating current to pass. In analog filter networks, they smooth the output of power
supplies. In resonant circuits they tune radios to particular frequencies. In electric power
transmission systems they stabilize voltage and power flow. Capacitors are used to store large
amount of static current. When they are included in circuit it acts open circuit. They are three
types
1. Disk capacitor
2. Fixed capacitor
3. Variable capacitor
COILS:
An electro-magnetic coil is an electrical conductor such as a wire in the shape of
a coil, spiral or helix. Electromagnetic coils are used in electrical engineering, in applications
where electric-currents interact with magnetic fields, in devices such as
inductors, electromagnets, transformers, and sensor coils. Either an electric current is passed
through the wire of the coil to generate a magnetic field, or conversely an external time-varying
magnetic field through the interior of the coil generates an EMF (voltage) in the conductor.
A current through any conductor creates a circular magnetic field around the conductor due
to Ampere's law. The advantage of using a coil shape is that it increases the strength of
magnetic field produced by a given current. The magnetic fields generated by the separate turns
of wire all pass through the center of the coil and add (superpose) to produce a strong field
there. The more turns of wire, the stronger the field produced. Conversely, a changing external
magnetic flux induces a voltage in a conductor such as a wire, due to Faraday's law of
induction. The induced voltage can be increased by winding the wire into a coil, because the
field lines intersect the circuit multiple times. The direction of the magnetic field produced by a
coil can be determined by the right hand grip rule. If the fingers of the right hand are wrapped
around the magnetic core of a coil in the direction of conventional current through the wire, the
thumb will point in the direction the magnetic field lines pass through the coil. There are many
different types of coils used in electric and electronic equipment.
Types of Coils: Coils can be classified by the frequency of the current they are designed to
operate with:
 Direct current or DC coils or electromagnets operate with a steady direct current in their
windings
 Audio-frequency or AF coils, inductors or transformers operate with alternating currents in
the audio frequency range, less than 20 kHz
 Radio-frequency or RF coils, inductors or transformers operate with alternating currents in
the radio frequency range, above 20 kHz
 Coils can be classified by their function:
Electromagnet
Electromagnets are coils that generate a magnetic field for some external use, often to exert a
mechanical forcon something.[15] A few specific types:
 Solenoid - an electromagnet in the form of a straight hollow helix of wire

 Motor and generator windings - iron core electromagnets on the rotor or stator of electric
motors and generators which act on each other to either turn the shaft (motor) or generate an
electric current (generator)
 Field winding - an iron-core coil which generates a steady magnetic field to act on the
armature winding.
 Armature winding - an iron-core coil which is acted on by the magnetic field of the field
winding to either create torque (motor) or induce a voltage to produce power (generator)
 Helmholtz coil, Maxwell coil - air-core coils which serve to cancel an external magnetic
field
 Degaussing coil - a coil used to demagnetize parts
 Voice coil - a coil used in a moving-coil loudspeaker, suspended between the poles of a
magnet. When the audio signal is passed through the coil, it vibrates, moving the attached
speaker cone to create sound waves.
Inductors:
Inductors or reactors are coils which generate a magnetic field which interacts with the coil
itself, to induce a back EMF which opposes changes in current through the coil. Inductors are
used as circuit elements in electrical circuits, to temporarily store energy or resist changes in
current. A few types:
 Tank coil - an inductor used in a tuned circuit

 Choke - an inductor used to block high frequency AC while allowing through low frequency
AC.
 Loading coil - an inductor used to add inductance to an antenna, to make it resonant, or to a
cable to prevent distortion of signals.
 Vireo meter - an adjustable inductor consisting of two coils in series, an outer stationary coil
and a second one inside it which can be rotated so their magnetic axes are in the same
direction or opposed.
 Fly back transformer - Although called a transformer, this is actually an inductor which
serves to store energy in switching power supplies and horizontal deflection circuits for
CRT televisions and monitors
 Saturable reactor - an iron-core inductor used to control AC power by varying the saturation
of the core using a DC control voltage in an auxiliary winding.
 Inductive ballast - an inductor used in gas-discharge lamp circuits, such as fluorescent
lamps, to limit the current through the lamp.
Transformers:
A transformer is a device with two or more magnetically coupled windings (or sections
of a single winding). A time varying current in one coil (called the primary winding) generates
a magnetic field which induces a voltage in the other coil (called the secondary winding). A few
types:
 Autotransformer - a transformer with only one winding. Different portions of the winding,
accessed with taps, act as primary and secondary windings of the transformer.
 Toroidal transformer - the core is in the shape of a toroid. This is a commonly used shape as
it decreases the leakage flux, resulting in less electromagnetic interference.
 Induction coil or trembler coil - an early transformer which uses a vibrating interrupter
mechanism to break the primary current so it can operate off of DC current.
 Ignition coil - an induction coil used in internal combustion engines to create a pulse of high
voltage to fire the spark plug which initiates the fuel burning.
 Balun - a transformer which matches a balanced transmission line to an unbalanced one.
 Bifilar coil - a coil wound with two parallel, closely spaced strands. If AC currents are
passed through it in the same direction, the magnetic fluxes will add, but if equal currents in
opposite directions pass through the windings the opposite fluxes will cancel, resulting in
zero flux in the core. So, no voltage will be induced in a third winding on the core. These are
used in instruments and in devices like Ground Fault Interrupters. They are also used in low
inductance wire wound resistors for use at RF frequencies.
 Audio transformer - A transformer used with audio signals. They are used for impedance
matching.
 Hybrid coil - a specialized audio transformer with 3 windings used in telephony circuits to
convert between two-wire and four-wire circuits
Transducer coils:
These are coils used to translate time-varying magnetic fields to electric signals, and vice versa.
A few types:
 Sensor or pickup coils - these are used to detect external time-varying magnetic fields
 Inductive sensor - a coil which senses when a magnet or iron object passes near it
 Recording head - a coil which is used to create a magnetic field to write data to a magnetic
storage medium, such as magnetic tape, or a hard disk. Conversely it is also used to read the
data in the form of changing magnetic fields in the medium.
 Induction heating coil - an AC coil used to heat an object by inducing eddy currents in it, a
process called induction heating.
 Loop antenna - a coil which serves as a radio antenna, to convert radio waves to electric
currents.
 Rogowski coil - a toroidal coil used as an AC measuring device
 Musical instrument pickup - a coil used to produce the output audio signal in an electric
guitar or electric bass.
 Flux gate - a sensor coil used in a magnetometer
 Magnetic phonograph cartridge - a sensor in a record player that uses a coil to translate
vibration of a needle to an audio signal in playing vinyl phonograph records
TRANSFORMERS:
Transformers are used to transfer the current.

They are of two types
1. Step up Transformer
2. Step down Transformer
INDUCTOR SPECIFICATIONS:
1. Inductance Value
2. Resistance
3. Capacitance
4. Frequency Value
5. Quality Factor
6. Power Losses
7. Current Ratings
8. Electro Magnetic Radiations
9. Temperature Coefficient
SWITCHES:
SPST: Single pole single through
SPDT: Single pole double through
DPST: Double pole single through
DPDT: Double pole double through
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
RESISTORS:
-fixed resistor
-variable resistor
CAPACITORS:
-fixed capacitor
-variable capacitor
INDUCTORS:
-Fixed inductor
Variable inductor
TRANSFORMERS:
Primary secondary
SWITCHES:
SPST
SPDT
DPST
DPDT
BREAD BOARD
An experimental version of a circuit generally lay out on a flat board and assembled with
temporary connections so that circuit elements may be easily substituted or changed. The name
originates from the fact that early electrical circuits were actually wired on wood bread boards.
It is used to connect an electronic circuit temporarily for testing and experimentation.
A typical bread board is shown in fig.
RESISTOR COLOR CODE
The resistance value and tolerance of carbon resistor is usually indicated by color coding. Color
bands are printed on insulating body. They consist of four-color bands or 5 color bands & they
are read from left to right.
A typical resistor with color bands is shown in figure:
The above resistor has 4 color bands.

The first band represents first digit
The second band represent second digit
The third band represent multiplier (this gives the no. of zeros after the 2 digits )
The 4th band represents tolerance in %
The color codes are presented in below table
COLOR First digit for the Second digit for the Multiplier digit Resistance
1st band 2nd band for the 3rd band tolerance
Black 0 0 10^0 -
Brown 1 1 10^1 ±1%
Red 2 2 10^2 ±2%
Orange 3 3 10^3 ±3%
Yellow 4 4 10^4 -
Green 5 5 10^5 -
Blue 6 6 10^6 -
Violet 7 7 10^7 -
Gray 8 8 10^8 -
White 9 9 10^9 -
Gold - - 10^-1 ±5%
Silver - - 10^-2 ±10%
No color - - - ±20%
If third band is gold the first two digit are multiplied by 10^-1
If the third band is silver the first two digits are multiplied by 10^-2
If the 4th band is gold the tolerance is ±5%
If the 4th band is silver is the tolerance is ±10%
If the 4th band is no color the tolerance is±20%
The numerical value associated with each color
B B R O Y G B V G W
black brown red orange Yellow green blue violet gray White
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
EXAMPLES:
The resistor has a color band sequence green, blue, brown and silver identify the resistance
value.
1ST Band 2nd band 3rd band 4th band

1st digit 2nd digit multiplier tolerance
5 6 10^1 ±10%
The resistance value=56x10^1±10% =560Ω±10%

Therefore, the resistance should be within the range of 555Ω to 565Ω
SECIFICATIONS FOR RLC COMPONENTS
RESISTOR:
1. Resistance value:
This is the value of the resistance expressed in ohms.
Ex: 10Ω, 1MΩ
2. Tolerance:
This is the variation in the value of the resistance i.e. expected from exact indicated value
usually tolerance is represented in %
ex: 1%,2%,20%...
2. Power rating:
The power rating is very important in the sense that it determines the maximum correct that a
resistor can withstand without being destroyed.
The power rating of resistor is specified as so many watts at a specific temperature such as one
or two watts at 70 degrees.
CAPACITOR:
1. Value of capacitance
2. Tolerance
3. Voltage rating
4. Temperature coefficient
5. Leakage resistance
6. Frequency range
7. Dielectric constant
8. dielectric strength
9. power factor
10. Stability
INDUCTOR;
Inductor value:
The inductance is defined as the ability of an inductor which opposes the change in current. It is
denoted by the letter “L” and its unit is Henry(H).Ex:1H.2H…
Mutual inductance:
It is the ability of a varying current in one inductor L1 induced voltage in another inductor L2
nearby. It is represented by Lm and is measured in Henry.
M=K√ (L1XL2) H
Coefficient if coupling:
It is defined as the ratio of flux linkages between L1 and L2. To total flux produced by L1. It is
represented by K and its typical value is 1.
K=Lm/√ (L1XL2)
Permeability:
It is denoted by micro’s” and it is return as μ=B/H.
Where B=flux density H=Flux intensity
PROCEDURE:
Different components can be identified by using their different symbols.
RESULT:
Components are identified using their symbols.
VIVA VOCE QUESITIONS WITH ANSWERS:
1) what are the various types of resistors?

A) Mainly two types: 1. fixed resistors 2. variable resistors
2) What are various types of capacitors?
A) There are 3 types
1. Fixed capacitors 2. variable capacitors 3. disc capacitors
3) Write the current and voltage relations in transformers?
A) V1/V2 = I2/I1 = N1/N2
4) What are the specifications of inductors?
A) Inductance Value
1.Resistance
2.Capacitance
3.Frequency Value
4.Quality Factor
5.Power Losses
6.Current Ratings
7.Electro Magnetic Radiations
8.Temperature Coefficient
5) what are the types of switches?
A)
SPST: Single pole single through
SPDT: Single pole double through
DPST: Double pole single through
DPDT: Double pole double through
6) Explain how connections can be made on bread board?
A) It is used to connect an electronic circuit temporarily for testing and experimentation.
Connections can be made Series and parallel.
7) What are the values of resistances when the color codes are i) brown, black, red ii)brown,
black, orange
A) 1K and 10K
8) The resistor has a color band sequence green, blue, brown and silver identify the resistance
value?
A) 560Ω±10%. Therefore, the resistance should be within the range of 555Ω to 565Ω
EXPERIMENT No.2
Study and operation of Ammeters, Voltmeters, Analog and Digital
Multimeters, Function Generator, Regulated Power Supply
AIM: To study and operation of Multimeters, function generator, and regulated power supply.
APPARATUS: Multimeter
Function generator
Regulated power supply.
THEORY:
REGULATED POWER SUPPLY
Power supplies provided by a regulated DC voltage facilities fine and coarse adjustments and
monitoring facilities for voltage and current. They will work in constant voltage and current
mode depending on current limit and output load. The current limit has good stability, load and
line regulations. Outputs are protected against overload and short circuit damages. They are
available in single and dual channel models with different voltage and current capacities.
Overload protection circuit of constant self-restoring type is provided to prevent the unit as well
as the circuit under use.The power supplies are specially designed and developed for well-
regulated DC output. These are useful for high regulation laboratory power supplies,
particularly suitable for experimental setup and circuit development in R&D.
Designation Specifications
Wave form : Sine, squares, triangles, TTL square waves
Amplitude : 0-20V for all the functions.
Sine distortion : Less than 1% from 0.1 HZ to 100 HZ harmonics Modulation
showed down fundamental for 100KHZ to 1MHZ
Offset : Continuously variable 10V
Frequency range : 0.1 HZ to 1Μhz in ranges.
Output impedance : 600 ohms, 5%.
Square wave duty cycle : 49% to 51%.
Differential linearity : 0.5%
Range selectors: Decode frequency by multiplying the range selected with the frequency
indicated by dial gives the output frequency, which applies for all functions.
Function selectors: Selected desired output wave form which appears at 600Ω output.
VCO input: An external input will vary the output frequency. The change in frequency is
directly proportional to input voltage.
TTL output: A TTL square wave is available at this jack. The frequency is determined by the
range selected and the setting of frequency dial. This output is independent of amplitude and
D.C OFFSET controls.
Amplitude control: Control he amplitude of the output signal, which appears at 600ohms.
OFFSET control: Control the DC offset of the output. It is continuously variable for ±5V,
±100V.
Fine frequency dial: Multiplying the setting of this dial to the frequency range selected gives
the output frequency of the wave forms at the 600ohms.
MULTIMETER:
DIGITAL MULTIMETER
A multi meter is a versatile instrument and is also called Volt-Ohm-Milli ammeter (VOM).
It is used to measure the d.c and a.c voltages and resistance values.
A digital multi meters essentially consists of an analog to digital converters. It
converters analog values in the input to an equivalent binary forms. These values are processed
by digital circuits to be shown on the visual display with decimal values. The liquid crystal
display system is generally employed. Actually, all the functions in DMM depend on the
voltage measurements by the converter and comparator circuits.
Result: The operation of multi meters, function generator, and Regulated Power Supply are
studied.
VIVA VOCE QUESITIONS AND ANSWERS:
1) What is RPS? Mention its main purpose?
A) RPS is regulated power supply. The main purpose is to provide regulated D.C voltages, dual
track supply for biasing all the electronic circuits in the laboratory or for electronic projects.
2) What is function generator and mention its purpose?
A) The function generator is an electronic device, used to generate various electric signals such
as sine waves, saw tooth waves, triangular waves, rectangular and square waves
3) What is multi meter? Mention types and its purpose?
A)The multi meter is a measuring instrument used to measure voltages, currents, resistances,
frequencies, etc .they are mainly of two types
1. Analog multi meter
2. Digital multi meter
4) What are the various controls on the front panel of FG?
A) The main controls on the front panel of FG are amplitude control, frequency control
EXPERIMENT No.3
Study of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)
AIM: To observe front panel control knobs and to find amplitude, time period and frequency
for given waveforms and also find phase by using the Lissajous figures.
APPARATUS: Cathode Ray Oscilloscope, function generator, connecting wires.
THEORY: C.R. O is a versatile instrument used for display of wave forms and is a fast x-y
plotter.
The heart of C.R.O is and the rest is the circuitry to operate C.R.O.
The main parts are
1. Electron gun: - it is used to produce sharply focused beam of electron accelerated to very high
velocity.
2. Deflection system: - it deflects the electron both in horizontal and vertical plan.
3. Florescent screen: - the screen which produces, spot of visible light. when beam of electrons
are incident on it the other side of tube is coated with phosphorus material.
FRONT PANEL:
ON-POWER: toggle switch for switching on power.
INTENCITY: controls trace intensity from zero to maximum.
FOCUS: It controls sharpness of trace a slight adjustment of focus is done after changing
intensity of trace.
AC-DC: GROUND: It selects coupling of AC-DC ground signal to vertical amplifier.
X-MAG: It expands length of time base from 1-5 times continuously and to maximum time
base to 40 ns/cm.
SQUARE: This provides square wave 2v (p-P) amplitude and enables to check y calibration of
scope.
SAWTOOTH WAVE FORM: This provides saw tooth wave form output coincident to sweep
speed with an output of saw tooth wave (p-p)
VERTICAL SECTION: y position: This enables movement of display along y-axis.
Y-INPUT: It connects input signal to vertical amplifier through AC-DC ground coupling
switch
CALIBRATION: 15mv – 150mv dc signal depending on position selection is applied to

vertical amplifier.
DC BALANCE: It is control on panel electrostatic ally in accordance with waveforms to be

displayed.
VOLTS/CM: Switch adjusts sensitivity.
HORIZANTAL SECTION:
X-POSITION: This control enables movement of display along x-axis.
TRIGGERING LEVEL: It selects mode of triggering.
TIMEBASE: This controls or selects sweep speeds.
VERNUIS: This controls the fine adjustments associated with time base sweep.
SIGN SELECTOR: It selects different options of INT/EXT, NORM/TO.
STAB: Present on panel
EXITCAD: It allows time base range to be extended.
HORIZANTAL INPUT: It connects external signal to horizontal amplifier.
Ext SYN: it connects external signal to trigger circuit for synchronization.
OBSERVATIONS: -
Amplitude = no. of vertical divisions * Volts/div.

Time period = no. of horizontal divisions * Time/div.
Frequency=1/T
Amplitude taken on vertical section (y).
Time period taken on horizontal section(x)
MODELWAVEFORMS:
MESURMENT OF PHASE :
Y2 Y1
Y1 Y2
x1
X2
 = sin -1 Y1 = sin -1 X1  = 180- sin -1 Y1

Y2 X2 Y2
APPLICATIONS OF CRO:
1. Measurement of current
2. Measurement of voltage
3. Measurement of power
4. Measurement of frequency
5. Measurement of phase angle
6. To see transistor curves
7. To trace and measuring signals of RF, IF and AF in radio and TV.
8. To trace visual display of sine waves.
RESULT: To for the given wave form calculated the, frequency, amplitude and phase.
VIVA VOCE QUESITIONS AND ANSWERS:
1) What is C.R.O? Mention its purpose?
A) C.R.O (cathode ray oscilloscope) is a versatile instrument used for display of wave forms
and is a fast x-y plotter
2) What are main parts in the C.R.O?
A) 1. Electron gun: - it is used to produce s.harply focused beam of electron accelerated to very
high velocity.
2. Deflection system: - it deflects the electron both in horizontal and vertical plan
3. Florescent screen: - the screen which produces, spot of visible light. when beam of electrons
is incident on it the other side of tube is coated with phosphorus material
3) What are the various controls on C.R.O front panel?
A) ON-POWER: toggle switch for switching on power.
INTENCITY: controls trace intensity from zero to maximum.
FOCUS: It controls sharpness of trace a slight adjustment of focus is done after changing the
intensity of trace.
4) How do you measure phase difference in C.R.O?
A) MESURMENT OF PHASE :
Y2 Y1
Y1 Y2
x1
X2
 = sin -1 Y1 = sin -1 X1  = 180- sin -1 Y1

Y2 X2 Y2
EXPERIMENT No.4
P-N JUNCTION DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
PART-A: GERMANIUM DIODE (FORWARD AND REVERSE BIAS)
AIM: - To experimentally obtain V-I characteristics of Germanium diode (OA79) and

determine, from the observations, various device parameters namely: Static Resistance,
Dynamic Resistance, Cut- in Voltage.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
S. Description of
Range Quantity
No Item
Regulated
1 0-30V 1
Power Supply
0-1V 1
2 Voltmeter
0-30V 1
0-100mA 1
3 Ammeter
0-100µA 1
4 Bread Board ---------- 1
COMPONENTS REQUIRED:
Description of
S.No. Range Quantity
Item
1 P-N junction diode OA79 1
270 1
2 Resistors
1K 1
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
FORWARD
270Ω (0-100mA)
A
+ -
If
+
A +
RP
(0-30V)
0A79
Vf V (0-1V)
_
S _ K
VS
FORWARD BIAS
1KΩ (0-100μA)
REVERSE BIAS + A -
Ir Fig (1)
+
RPS K +
VS 0A79 Vr V (0-30V)
(0-30V) _ A _
Fig (2)
THEORY:
A p-n junction diode conducts only in one direction. The V-I characteristics of the diode are
curve between voltage across the diode and current through the diode. When the external
voltage is zero, circuit is open and the potential barrier does not allow the current to flow.
Therefore, the circuit current is zero. When p-type is connected to positive terminal and n-type
is connected to negative terminal of the supply voltage is called as forward bias. The potential
barrier is reduced when diode is in forward biased condition. At some forward voltage the
potential barrier altogether eliminated and current starts flowing through the diode and also in
the circuit. The diode is said to be in ON state. The current increases with increasing forward
voltage.
When n-type is connected to positive terminal and p-type is connected negative terminal of
the supply voltage is known as reverse bias and the potential barrier across the junction
increases. Therefore, the junction resistance becomes very high and a very small current flows
in the circuit. The diode is said to be in OFF state. The reverse bias current due to minority
charge carriers.
PROCEDURE:
FORWARD CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig (1).
2. Note down the values of VF and IF by varying RPS in steps.
3. Tabulate the results VF and IF.
4. Plot the graph between VF and IF by taking VF on X-axis and IF on Y-axis.
REVERSE CHARACTERISTICS:
2. Note down the values of VR and IR by Varying RPS in steps of 1.0Vto 10V.
3. Tabulate the results VR and IR.
4. Plot the graph between VR and IR by taking VR on X-axis and IR on Y-axis.
OBSERVATIONS: -
FORWARD BIAS:
FORWARD FORWARD
S.NO.
VOLTAGE(VF)-V CURRENT(IF)-mA
1 0 0
2 0.18 0.03
3 0.26 0.07
4 0.261 0.11
5 0.327 0.25
6 0.359 0.36
7 0.377 0.43
7 0.403 0.55
8 0.420 0.64
9 0.442 0.78
10 0.455 0.86
11 0.569 2.01
12 0.646 3.28
13 0.706 4.61
14 0.755 5.89
15 0.798 7.24
16 0.832 8.50
17 0.869 9.82
18 0.898 11.10
19 0.925 12.56
REVERSE BIAS:
REVERSE REVERSE
S.No.
VOLTAGE(VR)-V CURRENT (IR)-µA
1 0 0
2 1.12 4
3 2.09 7
4 3.06 9
5 4.12 12
6 5.02 18
7 6.06 18
8 7.10 20
9 8.11 25
10 9.10 26
11 10.07 29
12 11.06 32
13 12.12 35
13 13.11 39
14 14.07 42
15 15.09 46
16 16.12 51
17 17.08 55
18 18.10 63
19 19.04 109
20 19.17 114
EXPECTED GRAPH:
If (mA)
Forward bias
Q-Point
ΔI
Vr (V) 1% of IFM Vf (V)
ΔV
Reverse bias
Ir (μA
CALCULATIONS: -
i) Forward Dynamic resistance = VF/IF = (0.420-0.405)/ (0.64-0.55) mA=166.66Ω
ii) Forward Static resistance = VF/IF = 0.42 / 0.64mA = 656.25Ω
iii) Reverse static resistance = VR/IR = 8.11 / 25 µA = 324.4 KΩ
iv) Reverse dynamic resistance = VR/IR = (8.11-7.10) / (25-20) µA = 202 KΩ
FORWARD CHARACTERISTICS REVERSE CHARACTERISTICS

Static resistance = VF/IF = 656.25Ω Static resistance =VR/IR=324.4 MΩ
Dynamic resistance = VF/IF = 66.66KΩ Dynamic resistance = V/I =202 MΩ
Note: Calculate resistances in linear portion of the characteristics.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Check the circuit for loose connections.
2. Readings should be taken without parallax error.
RESULT: The V-I characteristics are studied. The knee voltage is 0.569V
PART B: SILICON DIODE (FORWARD BIAS ONLY)
AIM: - To experimentally obtain V-I characteristics of Silicon diode (1N4007) and determine,
from the observations, various device parameters namely: Static Resistance, Dynamic
Resistance, Cut-in Voltage.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
S.
Description of Item Range Quantity
No
1 Regulated Power Supply 0-30V 1
0-2V 1
2 Voltmeter
0-10V 1
0-20mA 1
3 Ammeter
0-50µA 1
4 Bread Board ---------- 1
Description of
S.No. Range Quantity
Item
P-N junction
1 1N4007 1
diode
470 1
2 Resistors
1K 1
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
FORWORD BIAS
Fig (1)
THEORY:
voltage.
charge carriers.
PROCEDURE:
FORWARD CHARACTERISTICS:
REVERSE CHARACTERISTICS:
2. Note down the values of VR and IR by Varying RPS in steps of 1.0Vto 10V.
3. Tabulate the results VR and IR.
4. Plot the graph between VR and IR by taking VR on X-axis and IR on Y-axis.
OBSERVATIONS: -
FORWARD BIAS:
S.NO. FORWARD FORWARD
VOLTAGE(VF)-V CURRENT(IF)-mA
1 0.0 0.0
2 0.2 0.0
3 0.4 0.01
4 0.5 0.21
5 0.6 1.53
6 0.65 4.73
7 0.69 10.51
8 0.69 20
9 0.72 30
10 0.74 40
11 0.76 50
12 0.78 60
EXPECTED GRAPH:
Cut in voltage Vr (at 1% of IF, max) =0.65V

CALCULATIONS: -
i. Forward Dynamic resistance = VF/IF = (0.75-0.70)/(20-10)mA=5Ω
ii. Forward Static resistance = VF/IF = 0.7/10mA=70Ω
iii. Reverse static resistance = VR/IR = 10/1µA10MΩ
iv. Reverse dynamic resistance = VR/IR = (10-8)/(1-0.8)µA=10MΩ
FORWARD CHARACTERISTICS REVERSE CHARACTERISTICS
Static resistance=VF/IF = 70KΩ Static resistance = VR/ IR=10MΩ
Dynamic resistance = VF/ IF=5KΩ Dynamic resistance = V/ I=10MΩ
Note: Calculate resistances in linear portion of the characteristics.
PRECAUTIONS:
RESULT: The V-I characteristics are studied. The knee voltage is 0.65V
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What do you understand by a pn junction diode
A) When a p-type crystal is brought in contact with n-type crystal, so that the crystal structure
remains continuous at the boundary, a pn junction is formed.
2.If we simply place a p-type crystal in contact with n-type crystal, would a pn junction be
formed? Why?
A) No, in this way a pn junction will not be obtained because the crystal structure wouldn’t be
continuous at the boundary. Special fabrication techniques are needed to form a pn junction
3.What do you understand by biasing a diode?
A) When a D.C voltage is applied across a diode, it is known as biasing a diode.
4)In reference to a p-n junction, what do you understand by depletion region?
A) We know that a p- type semiconductor material consists of holes as majority mobile carriers.
further, an n-type semiconductor material consists of electronics as majority mobile carriers. on
the formation of a pn junction, some holes from the p-region diffuse in to n-region and combine
with the free electrons in the n-region. also, some electrons from n-region diffuse in to p-region
and combine with the holes in the p-region. This diffusion takes place due to thermal energy.
This process is true for only a small number of holes and electrons. This process results in
uncompensated negative acceptor ions in the p-region and positive donor ions in the n-region;
of course, in the immediate neighborhood of the junction. Due to this reason no more diffusion
of holes and electrons takes place. This region containing these uncompensated acceptor and
donor ions is called depletion region. this term is suitable because in this region, there is a
depletion of mobile charges.
5) What happens to the width of the depletion region for a forward biased p-n junction?
A) The width of the depletion region decreases for a forward biased p-n junction diode. this is
because
Holes from p-region and some electrons from n-region penetrate the depletion region.
6) What happens to the width of the depletion region for a reverse biased p-n junction?
A) The width of the depletion region increases in a reverse biased p-n junction. there are two
reasons for it. The holes in the p-region are attracted towards the negative terminal of the
battery. Also, the electrons in the n-region are attracted towards the positive terminal of the
battery. In this way the majority carriers are drawn away from the junction.
7) What is the purpose of providing resistance in the circuit for determining the V-I
characteristics of a forward biased p-n junction?
A) A resistance is included in the circuit to limit the current through diode. Flow of excess
current through diode may damage it. the maximum current rating of a diode BY126 is 1A.
8) How will you test a diode with the help of a digital multi meter (DMM)?
A) We that a diode shows a very low resistance in the forward biased condition and shows very
high resistance in the reverse biased condition. A digital multi meter can be approximately used
for determining whether a diode is defective or not. A healthy diode should show the resistance
as mentioned above. but defective diode will show something else. the common defect is open
diode; however, another defect is a shorted diode. a shorted diode can be identified if it shows
low resistances in both the direction. on the other hand, if a diode shows very-very resistance in
both the direction, it is open diode.
9) What are the various types of diodes?
A) The various types of diodes are, rectifying diodes, Zener diodes, varactor diodes, optical
diodes, current regulator diodes, Schottky diodes, pin diodes, step recovery diodes, tunnel
diodes and laser diodes.
EXPERIMENT NO. 5
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER (WITH AND WITHOUT C-FILTER)
AIM: - To verify the operation of Half Wave Rectifier with and without filter and to calculate
the ripple factor, regulation and efficiency of the rectified outputs.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
S. No Description of Item Range Quantity
Cathode ray
1 20MHz 1
oscilloscope
2 Transformer (12-0-12) V 1
3 Bread Board 1
1 Diode 1N4007 1
2 Resistor 1K 1
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
WITHOUT FILTER:
1N4007
+
A K
230V, 50Hz +
(0-30V) V VL Vm (CRO)
AC Input RL
_
_
Step-down transformer
(230V/12V, 1A)
WITH FILTER:
1N4007
+
A K
230V, 50Hz +
C RL
AC Input 1000µF (0-30V) V VL Vm (CRO)
_
_
Step-down transformer
(230V/12V, 1A)
THEORY:
During positive half cycle of the input voltage, the diode D1 is in forward bias and conducts
through the load resistor R1. Hence the current produces an output voltage across the load
resistor R1, which has the same shape as the +ve half cycle of the input voltage.
During the negative half cycle of the input voltage, the diode is reversing biased and there is
no current through the circuit i.e., the voltage across R1 is zero. The net result is that only the
+ve half cycle of the input voltage appears across the load. The average value of the half wave
rectified output voltage is the value measured on dc voltmeter.
For practical circuits, transformer coupling is usually provided for two reasons.
1. The voltage can be stepped-up or stepped –down as needed
2. The ac source is electrically isolated from the rectifier. Thus, preventing shock hazards in the
secondary circuit.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown above.
2. Measure and note down the peak voltage and frequency of input signal using CRO
3. Observe the output waveform and note down the peak voltage and frequency from CRO.
4. Calculate ripple factor, regulation and efficiency.
5. Plot the output waveform.
EXPECTED GRAPHS:
Vm
Input waveform
0 π 2π 3π 4π ωt
Vm
Rectified waveform
(Without filter)
Vm
Vγ Rectified waveform
(With filter)
OBSERVATIONS:
Load V(ac) Ripple factor % Regulation Idc

Vm(V) Vdc (V) Vrms (V)
KΩ (V) Γ mA
1
9.6 3.0557 4.8 3.702 1.2181 25 3.52
10
9.8 3.12 4.9 3.778 1.210 22 0.36
USING CRO
Vm =9.6V
**Vdc = No. of divisions *volts/div
** The amount of shift in the waveform when C.R.O. changed from ac coupling mode to dc
coupling mode will give Vdc =Vm/.=3.0557V
CALCULATIONS:
FROM C.R.O. OBSERVATIONS:
Vrms = Vm/2 =9.6V/2=4.8V Vdc =Vm/.=3.0557V
Vac = (Vrms2-Vdc2) =3.702V r = Vac/Vdc = 1.213 Vdc(NL) =3.88V
Percentage Regulation= (Vdc(NL) - Vdc(FL))×100/ Vdc(FL) =25
Efficiency =  =( Pdc / Prms) ×100 = (Vdc/Vrms)2×100 = 40.5%
HWR WITH FILTER:
OBSERVATIONS:
Load Vm( Vdc Vrms V(ac) Ripple factor %
IdcmA
KΩ V) (V) (V) (V) Γ Regulation
1 1.4 9.976 0.404 0.0404 0.241 9.3 0.0557
10 0.18 9.997 0.052 0.0052 0.0821 1.1 0.005
No load 0 10 0 0 0 0 0
Vm=10 V, f=50Hz, C=100µF
USING C.R.O.
Vrp-p = No. of div * volts/div = 1.4×1=1.4V, Vdc = 9.976
CALCULATIONS:
FROM CRO OBSERVATIONS
Vr,rms = Vrp-p/2√3 *(C filter) =0.404V
Ripple factor, r = Vr,rms /Vdc =0.0404V
RESULT:
Hence the operation of half wave rectifier is verified and the ripple factor for with and without
filter is calculated at
RL = 1KΩ,  (Without filter) = 1.2181
 (With filter) = 0.241
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1) In case of HWR, at what time does the PIV occur?
A) PIV occurs at the peak of the negative half of the input voltage
2) For how much time of a full cycle of the input voltage does the current flow through the load
resistance in case of HWR?
A) For half of the time of a full cycle of the input voltage, the current flows through the load
resistance in the case HWR
3) What is the frequency of the output voltage of a HWR if the frequency of the input voltage is
50Hz?
A) It is 50Hz
4) Justify that a capacitor filter is suitable for light loads?

A) The capacitor charges up to the peak value of the input voltage and tries to maintain this
value, as the input voltage drops to zero. The capacitor will discharge through load resistances
until the input voltage gain increases to a value just greater than the capacitor voltage. At this
point the diode will again be forward biased and there will be a pulse of current through the
diode, which recharges the capacitor. for light loads the output voltage will remain near peak
value of voltage. however, as the load increases the discharge of capacitor will be greater. this
causes more ripple, and a lower dc output voltage.
5) What is the objective of using filter circuits in dc power supplies?
A) The purpose of using filter circuits in dc power supplies is to eliminate or prevent the AC
components in the rectified voltage from reaching the output points.
EXPERIMENT NO. 6
FULL WAVE RECTIFIER (WITH AND WITHOUT C-FILTERS)

AIM: - To verify the operation of Full Wave Rectifier with and without filter and to calculate
the ripple factor, regulation and efficiency of the rectified outputs.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
1 Cathode ray oscilloscope 20MHz 1
2 Transformer (12-0-12)V 1
3 Bread Board 1
1 Diode 1N4007 1
2 Resistor 1K 1
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
WITHOUT FILTER:
1N4007
+
A K
D1
230V, 50Hz +
(0-30V) V VL Vm (CRO)
AC Input RL
_
D2
A K _
Center tap/Stepdown 1N4007
Transformer (12-0-12V,1A)
WITH FILTER:
THEORY:
A rectifier is defined as an electronic device used for converting ac voltage or current
into unidirectional voltage or current. For this purpose, a unidirectional conduction device such
as PN diode is used.
In full wave rectifier two diodes are used which share the input alternately for positive
and negative half cycles. When input ac is switched on the extreme ends of the secondary are
positive and negative alternately. Now diode D1 is forward biased i.e. it conducts current
causing voltage drop across RL. But diode D2 is reverse bias so it remains non-conducting. Now
the diode D2 is forward biased and conducts current causing voltage drop across RL. In this
cycle diode D1 does not conduct because it is reverse biased. Thus, current flows in the resistor
for both the cycles in the same direction. The output voltage is of twice the input frequency. To
purify the output to pure dc, a capacitor filter is used.
The output of the rectifier is not pure dc but pulsating dc. In order to change into pure dc a
filter i.e. a capacitor in parallel with load resistance RL is used. This capacitor charges to the
peak of the output from the diode. While discharging, the capacitor needs a path to discharge
the voltage on it and this path is provided by R L. During its discharge, capacitor discharges
slowly and the next peak of the rectified output arrives before the capacitor is totally
discharged. Thus, making the voltage on the capacitor almost constant but with small ripples.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown above.
2. Measure and note down the peak voltage and frequency of input signal using CRO
3. Observe the output waveform and note down the peak voltage and frequency from CRO.
4. Calculate ripple factor, regulation and efficiency.
5. Plot the output waveform.
EXPECTED GRAPHS:
Vm
0 π 2π 3π 4π ωt Input waveform
Vm
Rectified output (Without filter)

Vm Vγ
0 π 2π 3π 4π ωt Rectified output(With filter)
OBSERVATIONS:
1. Measure input waveform peak voltage at transformer secondary using C.R.O.
2. Vm = 11.6V T= 20ms
3. Measure output waveform across load resistor.
Load Vrms V(ac) Ripple factor Idc

Vm(V) Vdc (V) % regulation
KΩ (V) (V) Γ mA
1 10.4 6.48 7.353 3.124 0.485 13.95 7.12
10 11.05 7.034 7.813 3.402 0.483 4.975 0.73
No load 11.6 7.384 8.202 3.573 0.4834 0 0
USING CRO
Vm = 11.6V
**Vdc = No. of divisions *volts/div
** The amount of shift in the waveform when C.R.O. changed from ac coupling mode to dc
coupling mode will give Vdc =Vm/.= 7.384 V
CALCULATIONS: -
FROM C.R.O. OBSERVATIONS:
Vrms = Vm/2 =10.4V/2 =7.353V Vdc =2Vm/.= 6.48V
Vac = (Vrms2-Vdc2) =3.124V r = Vac/Vdc = 0.485 Vdc(NL) =7.384V
Percentage Regulation= (Vdc(NL) - Vdc(FL))×100/ Vdc(FL) =13.95
Efficiency =  = ( Pdc / Prms) ×100 = (Vdc/Vrms)2×100 = 80.6%
FWR WITH FILTER:
Vγ Vdc Vrms Ripple factor % Idc Theoretical

Loa d KΩ
(V) (V) (V) Γ Regulation mA value Γ
1 0.8 10.38 0.23 0.0022 0.192 10.74 0.0028
10 0.1 10.39 0.028 0.0026 0.096 1.24 0.0028
No
0 10.4 0 0 0 0 0
load
RESULT:
Hence the operation of full wave rectifier is verified and the ripple factor for with and without
filter is calculated at
RL = 1KΩ,  (Without filter) = 0.485
 (With filter) = 0.0022
VIVA-VOCE QUESTIONS:
1) For how much time of a full cycle of the input voltage does the current flow through the load
resistance in case of FWR?
A) For all the time of a full cycle of the input voltage, the current flows through the load
resistance in the case FWR.
2) What is the frequency of the output voltage of FWR if the frequency of the input voltage is
50Hz?
A) It is 100Hz
3)What is the reason of ripples in the output voltage of a capacitor filter?
A) Slight charging and discharging of the capacitor through load resistance are the reason for
ripples in the output voltage of a capacitor filter.
4) In order to find the ripple factor, how do you determine the rms value of ac ripple voltage?
A) CRO is used to measure Vr(p-p). From this rms value is calculated assuming that the ripple
voltage waveform is a sinusoid. but this approximation is not valid for a capacitor filter. in this
case the rms value of the ripple voltage is calculated as explained under theory.
5) In a rectifier with the filter circuit if the peak-peak ripple voltage is 100V and the average
value of the output voltage is 100V.find the ripple factor?
A) Peak –peak value of the ripple voltage =10v
Maximum value of ripple voltage = 10/2=5v
rms value of the ripple voltage =5/√2=3.54
ripple factor=
=3.54/100 =0.0354
EXPERIMENT NO.7
ZENER DIODE CHARACTERISTICS
PART-A: V-I CHARACTERISTICS (REVERSE BIAS ONLY)
AIM: To experimentally obtain V-I characteristics of Zener diode (1N4730) and to find cut-in
voltage and breakdown voltage of the diode.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
Regulated Power
1 0-30V 1
Supply
0-1V 1
2 Voltmeter
0-10V 1
3 Ammeter 0-100mA 1
___
4 Bread Board 1
___
1 Zener Diode 1MZ5V1 1
470 1
2 Resistor
1K 1
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
THEORY:
A Zener diode is heavily doped p-n junction diode, specially made to operate in the break
down region. A p-n junction diode normally does not conduct when reverse biased. But if the
reverse bias is increased, at a particular voltage it starts conducting heavily. This voltage is
called break down voltage. High current through the diode can permanently damage the device.
To avoid high current, we connect a resistor in series with Zener diode. Once the diode starts
conducting it maintains almost constant voltage across the terminals whatever may be the
current through it.i.e.it has very low dynamic resistance. It is used in voltage regulators.
PROCEDURE:
REVERSE BIAS:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.
2. By varying the RPS in steps, note down the Voltmeter and Ammeter readings (VR and IR).
3. Plot the graph between VR and IR. Indicate the Zener break down voltage (VZ) and calculate
the dynamic resistance (r).
4. Dynamic Resistance (AC Resistance) (r) = VZ/IZ.
5. where VZ is the change in Zener voltage.
IZ is the corresponding change in Zener current.
OBSERVATIONS:
REVERSE BIAS:
S.No. REVERSE VOLTAGE(VR)-V REVERSE CURRENT (IR)-mA
1 0.0 0.0
2 1 0.0
3 2 0.0
4 3 0.01
5 3.5 0.07
6 4 0.25
7 4.5 0.98
8 5 11.25
9 5 17.25
10 5 21.17
11 5 26.25
EXPECTED GRAPH: IF
(mA)
1% of IFM
VF (V)
VZ VZK
IZK
-VR
(V)
Vr
CALCULATIONS: -
i) Dynamic resistance = VR/IR = (4.94-4.90) / (7-5) mA=20Ω
ii) Breakdown voltage= 5V
iii) Cut in voltage= 0.7V
Note: - Find resistances in linear portion of the characteristics.
PRECAUTIONS: -
1. Do not short-circuit the load terminals. Always start with some minimum load resistance
RESULTS:
i) The V-I characteristics are studied.
ii) The forward characteristics of Zener diode are similar to that of pn junction diode
iii) The cut-in voltage V0=0.7V
iv) Break down voltage of given Zener diode =5V
v) The dynamic resistance = 20Ω
PART-B: ZENER DIODE AS VOLTAGE REGULATOR
AIM: To experimentally obtain load regulation characteristics of Zener diode (1MZ5V1).
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
Regulated Power
1 0-30V 1
Supply
2 Voltmeter 0-20V 1
3 Ammeter 0-20mA 1
__
4 Bread Board 1
__
1 Zener Diode 1MZ5V1 1
470 1
2 Resistor
1K 1
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
1KΩ
+ K
+
RPS 1MZ 5V1 RL
VS=12V VL V (0-20V)
A
_ -
Fig: VOLTAGE REGULATOR

THEORY:
A Zener diode is heavily doped p-n junction diode, specially made to operate in the break
down region. A p-n junction diode normally does not conduct when reverse biased. But if the
reverse bias is increased, at a particular voltage it starts conducting heavily. This voltage is
called break down voltage. High current through the diode can permanently damage the device.
To avoid high current, we connect a resistor in series with Zener diode. Once the diode starts
conducting it maintains almost constant voltage across the terminals whatever may be the
current through it.i.e.it has very low dynamic resistance. It is used in voltage regulators.
PROCEDURE:
1. Make the connections as shown in the circuit diagram of Fig 3.
2. Fix the RPS voltage at 12V (Usually double the value of VZ).
3. Slowly vary the RL in steps from a higher to lower value.
4. Tabulate the readings of Voltmeter (VL).
5. Calculate the % Regulation as follows.
6. Plot the graph between % Reg & RL.

OBSERVATIONS:
S.No. Load Resistor(Ω) Load Voltage % Regulation

1 200 2.05 144.8
2 400 3.50 56.28
3 600 4.56 10.0
4 800 4.97 0.700
5 1K 4.99 0.601
6 1..2K 5.0 0.4
7 1.4K 5.0 0.4
8 1.6K 5.0 0.4
9 1.8K 5.0 0.4
10 2K 5.01 0.2
11 2.2K 5.01 0.2
12 2.4K 5.01 0.2
EXPECTED GRAPH:
% Reg
0 RL
0 RL
PRECAUTIONS: -
1. Do not short-circuit the load terminals. Always start with some minimum load resistance.
RESULT:
The load regulation characteristics of Zener diode (1MZ5V1) are experimentally verified.
VIVA QUESTIONS: -
1) Identify the region of operation of a Zener diode on the V-I characteristic?
A) A Zener diode is normally operated in the reverse breakdown region.
2) In case of a Zener diode how do you specify the Zener voltage/
A) In case of a Zener diode, we specify the Zener voltage at a reverse current suitable for its
operation this is known as Zener current
3) How the voltage across the terminals of a Zener diode affected by the Zener impedance?
A) The Zener diode impedance under suitable operating conditions remains almost constant.
therefore, the voltage across the terminals of a Zener diode varies linearly with current. But, as
the Zener impedance has a very high value, the variation of voltage across the terminals of the
device is quite small with variation in current.
4) For a Zener diode VZ=12V at IZT=40 mA. If ZZ=8Ω, what is the terminal voltage at IZ=60
Ma?
A) We have VZ=12V and IZT=40 mA
Therefore, new VZ=12+8(60-40) ×10-3=12.08V
5) What do you understand by power de rating of a Zener diode?
A) At higher temperatures the power handling capacity of a Zener diode reduces. this is known
as Zener power de rating.
EXPERIMENT No.8
LED CHARACTERISTICS
AIM: - To experimentally obtain V-I characteristics of LED and to calculate the static and
dynamic resistances.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
Regulated Power
1 0-30V 1
Supply
2 Voltmeter 0-10V 1
3 Ammeter 0-50mA 1
4 Bread Board -- 1
S.No. Description of Item Range Quantity
1 LED 1
2 Resistors 1K 1
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
Fig (1)
THEORY:
voltage.
charge carriers.
PROCEDURE:
OBSERVATIONS: -
S.NO. FORWARD VOLTAGE(VF)-V FORWARD CURRENT(IF)-mA
1 0 0
2 3.23 0
3 3.44 0.1
4 3.54 0.2
5 3.58 0.3
6 3.60 0.4
7 3.62 1.3
7 3.76 2.2
8 3.84 3.3
9 3.90 3.8
10 3.94 5.2
11 3.97 6.2
12 4.02 7.2
13 4.05 8.2
EXPECTED GRAPH:
If (mA)
0 Vf (V)
CALCULATIONS: -
i. Dynamic resistance = VF/IF = 727.2 Ω
ii. Static resistance = VF/IF = 1.163 kΩ
PRECAUTIONS:
RESULT: The V-I characteristics are studied.
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is LED?
A. An LED or a Light Emitting Diode is semiconductor device that emits light due to
Electroluminescence effect. An LED is basically a PN Junction Diode, which emits light when
forward biased.
2. What are the advantages of LED over traditional bulbs?
A. Low Power Consumption, Small Size, Fast Switching, Physically Robust, Long Lasting
3. What is the wavelength of LED?
A. Light Emitting Diodes can emit all the wavelengths of visible spectrum i.e. from Red
(620nm to 750nm) to blue – violet (380nm to 490nm).
4. What is the symbol of LED?
5. How can you identify the terminals of LED?

A. The longer lead indicates the anode terminal and shorter lead indicates the cathode terminal.
EXPERIMENT No-9
BJT CHARACTERISTICS
(COMMON EMITTER CHARACTERISTICS)
AIM: To study the input and output characteristics of a transistor in common emitter
configuration.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
S. No Description of item Range Qty
0-1V 1
2 Voltmeter
0-30V 1
0-50mA 1
3 Ammeter
0-100µA 1
4 Bread board ------- 1
S. No Description of item Range Qty
1 Transistor BC 107 1
1KΩ 1
2 Resistor
100KΩ 1
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
- 0-50mA
A
+ 1k
Rc
IC
0-50mA
100K + A -
RB
IB +
VBB +
0-30V V 0-30V VCC 0-30V
0-1V V -V CB
VBE -
PIN ASSIGNMENT OF TRANSISTOR
THEORY:
A transistor is a three-terminal device. The terminals are emitter, base, collector. in common
emitter configuration, input voltage is applied between base and emitter terminals and output is
taken across the collector and emitter terminals. Therefore, the emitter terminal is common to
both input and output. The input characteristics resemble that of a forward biased diode curve.
This is expected since the base-emitter junction of the transistor is forward biased. As compared
to CB arrangement IB increases less rapidly with VBE. Therefore, input resistance of CE circuit
is higher than that of CB circuit. The output characteristics are drawn between I c and VCE at
constant IB. The collector current varies with VCE unto few volts only. After this the collector
current becomes almost constant, and independent of VCE. The value of VCE up to which the
collector current changes with VCE is known as knee voltage. The transistor always operated in
the region above knee voltage, Ic is always constant and is approximately equal to IB.
The current amplification factor of CE configuration is given by β = ∆IC/∆IB
PROCEDURE:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS
1. Make the connections as per circuit diagram figure.
2. Keep output voltage VCE = 0V by varying VCC.
3. Varying VBB gradually, note down both base current IB and base - emitter voltage (VBE).
4. Step Size is not fixed because of nonlinear curve and vary the X-axis variable (i.e if output
variation is more, decrease input step size and vice versa).
5. Repeat above procedure (step 3) for VCE =5V.
OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS
1. Make the connections as per circuit diagram fig (2).
2. By varying VBB keep the base current IB = 20μA.
3. Varying VCC gradually, note down the readings of collector-current (IC) and collector-emitter
voltage (VCE).
4. Step Size is not fixed because of nonlinear curve and vary the X-axis variable (i.e if output
variation is more, decrease input step size and vice versa).
5. Repeat above procedure (step 3) for IB=40μA.
EXPECTED GRAPHS:
INPUT
IB CHARACTERISTICS: OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
IC
VCE2=10V
VCE1=0V
IB3=40µA
IB2=20µ
IB1=0
A
VBE VCE
OBSERVATIONS:
INPUT CHARACTERISTICS: OUT PUT CHARACTERISTICS
VCE(V)=0 VCE(V)=10
IB (µA)=20 IB (µA)=50
VBE(V) IB VBE( IB
VCE( IC VCE( IC
(µA) V) (µA)
V) (mA) V) (mA)
0.3 0.0 0.43 0.0
0.01 0.14 0.02 0.59
0.32 0.1 0.48 0.01
0.02 0.39 0.05 1.45
0.37 0.5 0.52 0.03
0.04 0.73 0.1 0.32
0.5 17.6 0.58 2
0.06 1.08 0.2 6.27
0.55 36.8 0.6 4.9
0.12 2.23 0.31 6.82
0.6 61.0 0.66 19.4
0.16 2.96 0.36 6.88
0.65 91.8 0.68 28.2
0.23 3.33 0.41 6.92
0.67 108.2 0.71 51.1
0.36 3.48 0.47 6.94
0.71 137.9 0.73 62.6
0.50 3.50 0.52 6.95
0.73 145.8 0.75 75.2
0.69 3.52 0.62 6.98
CALCULATIONS: -
Input impedance hie = VBE/ IB at VCE = const. =(0.74-0.71)/(75-51)µA =1250Ω
Output admittance hoe = IC/ VCE at IB = const.=(7.25-7.24)/(0.9-0.8)=100µ mho
Forward current gain hfe = IC/ IB at VCE = const. =(7-3.5)/(40-20)10-3 =175
Reverse voltage gain hre = VBE/ VCE at IB = cont.=(0.65-0.51)/10 =0.014
Calculate in linear portion of the characteristics.
Compare the results with data sheets values.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the transistor. This may lead to
damage the transistor.
2.Connect voltmeter and Ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3.Do not switch on the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connections as per the
circuit diagram.
4.Make sure while selecting the emitter, base and collector terminals of the transistor.
RESULT:
Input impedance hib =1250Ω
Output admittance hob = 100µ mho
Forward current gain hfb = 175
Reverse voltage gain hrb = 0.014
VIVA QUESITIONS
1) Why transistor is called current controlled device?

A) Because the transistor operation is carried out by two types of charge carriers (majority and
minority), an ordinary transistor is called bipolar.
2) What is the significance of arrow head in the transistor symbol?
A) Arrow head is always marked on the emitter. The direction indicates the conventional
direction of current flow (from emitter –to-base in case of p-n-p transistor and from base to
emitter in case of n-p-n transistor). generally, no arrow head is marked for collector since its
reverse leakage current is always opposite to the direction off emitter current.
3) What are ‘emitter injection efficiency, and base transport factor ‘and how they influence the
transistor operation?
A) The ration of current of injected carriers at emitter junction to the total emitter current is
called the emitter injection efficiency. the ratio of collector current to the base current is known
as transport factor. β =
The larger the value of emitter injection at emitter junction and this increases the collector
current. the larger the β value larger the injected carriers across collector junction and hence
collector current increases
4) What are three regions of operation of a transistor?
A) The three regions of operation of a transistor are:
i) Cutoff region ii) Active region iii) Saturation region
5) Can a transistor be obtained by connecting two semiconductor diodes back-to-back?
A) No, because in case of two discrete back-to-back connected diodes there are four doped
regions instead of three and there is nothing that resembles a thin base region between an
emitter and a collector.
6) How α and β are related to each other?
A) α and β are related as: α= , β=
7) Indicate whether the β-value of a BJT increases or decreases with the increase in the values
of following parameters: i) base width ii) minority carrier life time in the base region iii)
temperature iv) collector current v) collector voltage
A) The β-value of a BJT
i)decreases with the increase in the base width
ii)increases with the increase in minority carrier life time in the base region
iii)increases with the increase in the temperature
iv)increases with the increase in the collector current
v)increases with the increase in collector voltage
8) Why there is a maximum limit of collector supply voltage for a transistor?
A) Although collector current is practically independent of collector supply voltage over the
transistor operating range, but if VCB is increased beyond a certain value collector current I C
eventually increases rapidly and possibly destroys the device
9) Explain why ICEO>> ICBO?
A) The collector cutoff current denoted by I CEO is much larger than ICBO.
ICEO is given as ICEO = ICBO
Because α is nearly equal to unity (slightly less than unity),

Therefore ICEO>> ICBO
10) Give reasons why common emitter (CE) configuration is widely used in amplifier circuits?
A) CE configuration is mainly used because its current, voltage and power gains are quite high
and the ratio of output impedance and input impedance are quite moderate.
11) Why CE configuration preferred for cascaded amplifiers?
A) CE configuration, because of its moderate output to input impedance ratio, is preferred for
cascaded amplifiers.
EXPERIMENT No-10
FET CHARACTERISTICS
PART A: DRAIN AND TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS
AIM: To study Drain Characteristics and transfer characteristics of a Junction Field Effect
Transistor.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
2 Voltmeter 0-20V 2
3 Ammeter 0-50mA 1
4 Bread Board ------- 1
1 Resistor 1K 1
2 FET BFW11
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
0-50mA
- A + R2
1k
D
2
3
G
BFW11
- S
1
+
0-30V V 0-20V
V 0-20V
0-30V
+ -
PIN ASSIGNMENT OF JFET:
Drain Source
Gate
Substrate
THEORY:
A FET is a three-terminal device, having the characteristics of high input impedance and less
noise, the gate to source junction of the FET always reverse biased. In response to small applied
voltage from drain to source, the n-type bar acts as sample resistor, and the drain current
increases linearly with Vds. With increase in Id the ohmic voltage drop between the and the
channel region reverse biases the junction and the conducting position of the channel begins to
remain constant. The Vds at this instant is called “pinch of voltage”. If the gate to source
voltage (Vgs)is applied in the direction to provide additional reverse bias, the pinch off
voltage is decreased. In amplifier applications, the FET is always used in the region beyond the
pinch off.
FDS = IDSS (1-Vgs/ VP)^2
PROCEDURE:
DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS
1. Make the connections as per circuit diagram.
2. Keep VGS = 0V by varying VGG.
3. Varying VDD gradually, note down both drain current ID and drain to source voltage (VDS).
4. Step Size is not fixed because of nonlinear curve and vary the X-axis variable
(i.e. if output variation is more, decrease input step size and vice versa).
5. Repeat above procedure (step 3) for VGS = -1V.
TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Keep VDS = 2V by varying VDD.
2. Varying VGG gradually from 0 – 5V, note down both drain current (ID) and gate to
sourcevoltage (VGS).
3. Step Size is not fixed because of nonlinear curve and vary the X-axis variable
(i.e. if output variation is more, decrease input step size and vice versa).
4. Repeat above procedure (step 2) for VDS = 4V.
MODEL GRAPH:
Transfer Characteristics Drain Characteristics
ID Breakdown
Ohmic Active Region
Region Region
IDS VGS=0
VGS= -1
VDS
VGS 0
OBSERVATIONS:
DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS:
VGS(V)=0 VGS(V)= -1
VDS(V) ID (mA) VDS(V) ID(mA)
0.01 0.06 0.04 0.07
0.04 0.21 0.55 0.51
0.06 0.30 1.02 0.59
0.08 0.39 1.52 0.63
0.1 0.06 0.04 0.07
0.15 0.7 2.49 0.66
0.21 0.95 3.05 0.68
0.31 1.34 3.51 0.68
0.51 2.06 3.75 0.68
0.75 2.77 4.02 0.69
1.0 3.31 4.24 0.7
1.27 3.72 5.00 0.71
1.51 3.95 5.25 0.71
3.02 4.41 5.4 0.71
4.02 4.48 5.54 0.71
5.02 4.48 6.0 0.72
6.00 4.49 6.04 0.72
TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS:
VDS(V)=1 VDS(V)= 3V
VGS(V) ID (mA) VGS(V) ID(mA)
0.0 3.28 0.0 4.38
0.09 3.02 0.13 3.78
0.13 2.96 0.25 3.26
0.25 2.61 0.31 3.0
0.29 2.50 0.42 2.56
0.35 2.33 0.55 2.11
0.42 2.16 0.64 1.78
0.46 2.01 0.72 1.54
0.48 1.96 0.83 1.16
0.58 1.70 0.90 0.96
0.68 1.42 1.06 0.58
0.9 0.84 1.16 0.37
1.07 0.48 1.32 0.13
1.22 0.22 1.44 0.03
1.32 0.10 1.47 0.01
1.44 0.02 1.50 0.01
1.49 0 1.54 0
CALCULATIONS:
a. Drain resistance rd =ΔVDS/ΔID= (6-0.5) / (0.8-0.55) ma =22kΩ
b. Trans conductance gm = ΔID/ ΔVGS= (2.7-2.1) / (0.4-0.2) =3mA/v
c. Amplification factor µ= rd ×gm=22×3=66
PRECAUTIONS:
1. While doing the experiment do not exceed the ratings of the FET. This may lead
to damagethe FET.
2. Connect voltmeter and Ammeter in correct polarities as shown in the circuit diagram.
3. Do not switch ON the power supply unless you have checked the circuit connec-
tions as perthe circuit diagram.
1. Make sure while selecting the Source, Drain and Gate terminals of the FET.
RESULT:
1. Drain Resistance (rd) = 22kΩ
2. Trans conductance (gm) = 3mA/v
3. Amplification factor (μ) = 66
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1) What do you understand by FET?
A) FET is a three terminal unipolar semi-conductor device
2) Why the conventional transistors are known as bipolar devices?
A) The conduction of current in conventional transistors takes place through both
minority and majority carriers. That is why these are known as bipolar devices.
3) Why FET is known to be unipolar device?
A) The conduction of current in FET’S takes place through majority carriers only.
So, these areknown as unipolar devices
4) What do you mean by BJT?
A) BJT means bi junction transistors. The conventional transistors fall under this category.
5) What do you mean by UJT?
A) It means uni junction transistors
6) What are the three terminals of JFET corresponding to the three terminals of BJT?
A) Three terminals of BJT are emitter, base and collector. The corresponding three
terminals of source, gate and sink
7) Compare the input impedances of BJT and JFET.
A) The input impedance of BJT is low whereas for JFET it is high
8) Why the operation of JFET is noiseless?
A) The conduction of current in BJT’S takes place through junctions, therefore their
operation if noisy. On the other hand, the conduction of current in JFET takes place
not through junctions therefore their operation is noiseless.
9) What are the various types of JFET ‘S?
A) There are two types of JFET’S. They are N-channel JFET and P-channel JFET
10) Name one special difference between BJT’S and JFET
A) In case of BJT’S the emitter and collector are not interchangeable, where
as in case ofJFET’S the source and drain are interchangeable.
EXPERIMENT No-11
COMMON EMITTER AMPLIFIER
AIM: To study the common emitter amplifier and to find
1. Cut off frequencies. 2. Bandwidth
3. Mid band Voltage & Current Gain. 4. Input & Output Resistances.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:
1 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 30MHz 1
2 Function Generator 1MHz 1
COMPONETS REQUIRED:
1 Transistor BC107 1
2.2KΩ 2
2 Resistor
1KΩ, 10KΩ, 100KΩ 1
10µF 2
3 Capacitor
100µF 1
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: V1
2V
0
1
6
Ext Trig
+
_
R2 R4 A B
100kΩ 2.2kΩ + _ + _
C3
7
5
10uF
U1
R1 C1
2 3
2.2kΩ 10uF
1 BC107BP
V2
4
100mVrms
1000 Hz
0°
R3 R5 C2
10kΩ 1kΩ 100uF
THEORY:
The CE amplifier provides high gain &wide frequency response. The emitter lead is common to
both input and output circuits and is grounded. The emitter base circuit is forward biased. The
collector current is controlled by the emitter base circuit is forward biased. The collector current
is controlled by the base current rather than emitter current. The input signal is applied to base
terminal of the transistor and amplifier output is taken across collector terminal very small
change in base current produces a much larger change in collector current. When +ve half cycle
is fed to the input circuit, it opposes the forward bias of the circuit which causes the collector
current to decrease, it decreases the voltage more –ve. thus, when input cycle varies through a –
ve half cycle, increases the forward bias of the circuit, which causes the collector current to
increases thus the output signal is common emitter amplifier is in out of phase with the input
signal.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.
2. Set the input voltage ( Vi) to 100mV.
3. By varying the input frequency from 1Hz to 1MHz insteps, note down the correspond-
ingoutput voltages.
4. For each frequency calculate the gain V0/Vi and the gain in decibels- 20log(V0/Vi).
5. Draw the frequency response by taking the gain in dB on Y-axis and frequency on
X-axis.
6. Calculate the bandwidth = f2-f1.
EXPECTED GRAPH:
OBSERVATIONS:
S.No Freque Input Voltage Output Gain

Gain in dB = 20*log(A)
ncy(Hz) (Vi) V Voltage (Vo) V A=Vo / Vi
1 1 0.20 1.11 5.55 14.88
2 2 0.20 2.12 10.62 20.52
3 5 0.20 5.09 25.46 28.12
4 10 0.20 9.63 48.14 33.65
5 20 0.20 16.48 82.41 38.32
6 50 0.20 24.51 122.53 41.77
7 100 0.20 26.92 134.58 42.58
8 200 0.20 27.64 138.21 42.81
9 500 0.20 27.86 139.28 42.88
10 1K 0.20 27.89 139.44 42.89
11 2K 0.20 27.90 139.48 42.89
12 5K 0.20 27.90 139.49 42.89
13 10K 0.20 27.90 139.48 42.89
14 20K 0.20 27.89 139.47 42.89
15 50K 0.20 27.87 139.34 42.88
16 100K 0.20 27.78 138.90 42.85
17 200K 0.20 27.44 137.20 42.75
18 500K 0.20 25.34 126.68 42.05
19 1M 0.20 20.53 102.67 40.23
20 2M 0.20 13.35 66.74 36.49
21 5M 0.20 5.91 29.56 29.41
22 10M 0.20 3.01 15.04 23.55
CALCULATIONS:
Band width= fu-fl= 1.2MHz – 25Hz =1.199975MHz
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Check and avoid the circuit loose connections.
RESULT: The frequency response of a common emitter amplifier is obtained and its bandwidth
is 1.199975MHZ
VIVA QUESTIONS:
1) What do you mean by operating point?
A) Quiescent point is a point on the DC load line which represent VCE and IC in the absence of
ac signal and variations in VCE and IC take place around this point when ac signal is applied.
2) What do you understand by transistor biasing? Why is it necessary to bias a transistor?
A) For normal operation, base emitter junction should be forward biased and the collector –base
junction should be reverse biased. the proper flow of zero signal collector current and the
maintenance of proper collector –emitter voltage during the passage during the passage of
signal is called transistor biasing. the amount of bias required is significant for establishment of
the operating point or Q-point which is dictated by the mode of operation desired.
3) What is meant by small signal amplifier?
A) When the input signal is quite weak and produces small fluctuations in the output current in
comparison to its quiescent value, the amplifier is called small signal or voltage amplifier
4) Explain how phase reversal of the signal takes place when it is amplified by a single stage
CE amplifier?
A) In a CE configuration, the output voltage increases in the negative direction when the input
signal voltage increases in the positive direction and vice versa. This is called the phase reversal
and a phase difference of 1800 between the input voltage and output voltage.
5) What is the function of bypass capacitor?
A) The capacitor CE, called the emitter bypass capacitor, is connected in parallel with the
emitter resistance RE in order to provide a low resistance path to the amplified ac signal .in the
absence of this capacitor, amplified ac signal will cause a voltage drop across it which in turn
will feedback the input side and reduce the output voltage.
6) State what will happen to the voltage gain of an amplifier if the bypass capacitor is open
circuited?
A) Removal of bypass capacitor in CE amplifier circuit causes excessive degeneration in the
amplifier circuit and therefore reduction on voltage gain.
7) Write the characteristics of ideal voltage amplifier?
A) Main characteristics of an ideal voltage amplifier is to present a high impedance to the input
source so as to minimize the loading effects and to provide large enough voltage signal to the
output device like loud speaker.
EXPERIMENT No – 12
COMMON SOURCE FET AMPLIFIER
AIM: To Study the CS- FET amplifier and to find cut off frequencies and voltage gain.
EQUIPMENT REQUIRED:

1 Cathode Ray Oscilloscope 30MHz 1
2 Function Generator 1MHz 1

1 FET BFW10 1
1KΩ 2
2 Resistor
4.7kΩ, 1MΩ 1
10µF 2
3 Capacitor
4.7µF 1
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
THEORY:
A field effect transistor is a type of transistor commonly used for weak signal
amplification. The device can amplify analog or digital signals. It can also switch DC or
function as an oscillator. In the FET current flows along a semiconductor path called the
channel. At one end of the channel there is an electrode called source. At the other end of the
channel there is an electrode called drain. The physical diameter of the channel is fixed, but its
effective electrical diameter can be varied by the application of a voltage to a control electrode
called gate. FET exists in two major classifications. These are known as the junction FET and
metal oxide semiconductor FET.
The junction FET has a channel consisting of N- type semiconductor or P-type
semiconductor material; the gate is made of the opposite semiconductor type. In p-type material
electric charges are carried mainly in the form of electron deficiencies called holes. In n-type
material the charge carriers are primarily electrons. In a JFET the junction is reverse biased so
that no current flows between the channel and the gate. However, under some conditions there
is a small current through the junction during part of the input signal cycle. The FET has some
advantages and some disadvantages relative to the bipolar transistor. FETs are preferred for
weak signal work, for example in wireless communications and broadcast receivers. They are
also preferred in circuits and systems requiring high impedance. The FET is not in general used
for high power amplification such as is required in large wireless communications and broad
cast transmitters.
FETs are fabricated onto silicon integrated circuit chips. A single IC can
contain many thousands of FET’s along with other components such as resistors,
capacitors, and diodes.
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in fig.
2. Set the input voltage (Vi) to 20mV.
3. By varying the input frequency from 50Hz to 1MHz insteps, note down the
corresponding output voltages.
4. For each frequency calculate the gain V0/Vi and the gain in decibels- 20log(V0/Vi) .
5. Draw the frequency response by taking the gain in dB on Y-axis and frequency
on X-axis.
6. Calculate the bandwidth = f2-f1.
OBSERVATIONS: For Vi=0.1V
Frequency Input Voltage Output Voltage Gain A= V0 / Vi Gain in
S. No
(Hz) (Vi) (V0) dB=20*log(A)
1 1 0.10 0.97 9.71 19.74
2 5 0.10 0.98 9.76 19.79
3 10 0.10 0.99 9.93 19.93
4 20 0.10 1.05 10.47 20.40
5 50 0.10 1.23 12.29 21.79
6 100 0.10 1.36 13.61 22.68
7 200 0.10 1.42 14.20 23.04
8 501 0.10 1.44 14.40 23.16
9 1K 0.10 1.44 14.43 23.18
10 2K 0.10 1.44 14.43 23.19
11 5K 0.10 1.44 14.43 23.19
12 10K 0.10 1.44 14.43 23.19
13 20K 0.10 1.44 14.43 23.19
14 50K 0.10 1.44 14.43 23.19
15 100K 0.10 1.44 14.43 23.19
16 200K 0.10 1.44 14.43 23.19
17 500K 0.10 1.44 14.43 23.19
18 1M 0.10 1.44 14.43 23.18
19 2M 0.10 1.44 14.40 23.17
20 5M 0.10 1.42 14.20 23.04
21 10M 0.10 1.36 13.56 22.64
22 20M 0.10 1.17 11.67 21.34
EXPECTED GRAPH:
Gain (in dB)
dBma
3dB
Bandwidth
f2 - f1
f1 f2
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Check and avoid the circuit loose connections.
RESULT: The frequency response of a common collector amplifier is obtained and its
bandwidth is 29.99998 MHz.
VIVA QUESITIONS:
1) Explain why BJTs are called bipolar devices while FETs are called uni polar devices?
A) In a bipolar device current conduction is by both majority carriers and minority carriers
(both holes as well as electrons). Therefore, these are called bipolar transistors. In field effect
transistors current conduction is by only one type majority carriers (either by electrons or by
holes) and therefore these are called uni polar transistors.
2) Define current controlled device and voltage-controlled device?
A) A current controlled device is one in which a current defines the operating conditions of the
device, where as a voltage-controlled device is one in which a particular voltage defines the
operating conditions.
3) Why FET is called voltage-controlled device?
A) In a FET, drain current is controlled by the effect of the extension of the field associated
with the depletion region developed by the reverse bias on the gate, so it is called a voltage-
controlled device.
4) How does the FET behave i) for small values of |VDS| and ii) for large values of |VDS|?
A) i) FET behaves as ordinary resistor for small values of |VDS| i.e ohmic region.
ii) FET behaves as constant current source for large values of |VDS| till break down occurs.
5) How does the transconductance vary with drain current?

A) The transconductance gm of a FET varies with the drain current ID as given by the follow-
ing
2
equation. gm = √I I
VP DS DSS
6) Define pinch off voltage for JFET?
A) The value of drain –source voltage at which channel is pinched off (i.e. all the free charg-
es from the channel get removed) is called pinch –off voltage.
7) What is meant by gate-source cut off voltage?
A) The gate-source bias voltage required to reduce the drain current to zero is designated the
gate-source cutoff voltage VGS (off). It is equal to the pinch off voltage VP.
8) Name the factors which make JFET superior to BJT?
A) The high input impedance, low output impedance and low noise level make JFET far supe-
rior to BJT
9) What is source follower?
A) The CD amplifier is called source follower, since the output at the source terminal follows
the input signal in a CD amplifier.
10)What is dynamic resistance of JFET?
A) The ratio of change in drain-source voltage to the change in drain current at a given gate-
source voltage is known as dynamic resistance rd

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EXPERIMENT No.

AIM: To identify the different components and their symbols.

 Solenoid - an electromagnet in the form of a straight hollow helix of wire

 Tank coil - an inductor used in a tuned circuit

Transformers are used to transfer the current.

The above resistor has 4 color bands.

1ST Band 2nd band 3rd band 4th band

The resistance value=56x10^1±10% =560Ω±10%

1) what are the various types of resistors?

APPARATUS: Cathode Ray Oscilloscope, function generator, connecting wires.

The main parts are

ON-POWER: toggle switch for switching on power.

INTENCITY: controls trace intensity from zero to maximum.

AC-DC: GROUND: It selects coupling of AC-DC ground signal to vertical amplifier.

VERTICAL SECTION: y position: This enables movement of display along y-axis.

CALIBRATION: 15mv – 150mv dc signal depending on position selection is applied to

DC BALANCE: It is control on panel electrostatic ally in accordance with waveforms to be

VOLTS/CM: Switch adjusts sensitivity.

X-POSITION: This control enables movement of display along x-axis.

TRIGGERING LEVEL: It selects mode of triggering.

TIMEBASE: This controls or selects sweep speeds.

SIGN SELECTOR: It selects different options of INT/EXT, NORM/TO.

STAB: Present on panel

EXITCAD: It allows time base range to be extended.

HORIZANTAL INPUT: It connects external signal to horizontal amplifier.

Ext SYN: it connects external signal to trigger circuit for synchronization.

Amplitude = no. of vertical divisions * Volts/div.

 = sin -1 Y1 = sin -1 X1  = 180- sin -1 Y1

VIVA VOCE QUESITIONS AND ANSWERS:

1) What is C.R.O? Mention its purpose?

2) What are main parts in the C.R.O?

3) What are the various controls on C.R.O front panel?

A) ON-POWER: toggle switch for switching on power.

INTENCITY: controls trace intensity from zero to maximum.

 = sin -1 Y1 = sin -1 X1  = 180- sin -1 Y1

PART-A: GERMANIUM DIODE (FORWARD AND REVERSE BIAS)

AIM: - To experimentally obtain V-I characteristics of Germanium diode (OA79) and

Vr (V) 1% of IFM Vf (V)

iv) Reverse dynamic resistance = VR/IR = (8.11-7.10) / (25-20) µA = 202 KΩ

FORWARD CHARACTERISTICS REVERSE CHARACTERISTICS

Note: Calculate resistances in linear portion of the characteristics.

Cut in voltage Vr (at 1% of IF, max) =0.65V

Static resistance=VF/IF = 70KΩ Static resistance = VR/ IR=10MΩ

Dynamic resistance = VF/ IF=5KΩ Dynamic resistance = V/ I=10MΩ

Note: Calculate resistances in linear portion of the characteristics.

HALF WAVE RECTIFIER (WITH AND WITHOUT C-FILTER)

Load V(ac) Ripple factor % Regulation Idc

HWR WITH FILTER:

4) Justify that a capacitor filter is suitable for light loads?

FULL WAVE RECTIFIER (WITH AND WITHOUT C-FILTERS)

Rectified output (Without filter)

0 π 2π 3π 4π ωt Rectified output(With filter)

Load Vrms V(ac) Ripple factor Idc

Vγ Vdc Vrms Ripple factor % Idc Theoretical

Note: - Find resistances in linear portion of the characteristics.

Fig: VOLTAGE REGULATOR

6. Plot the graph between % Reg & RL.

S.No. Load Resistor(Ω) Load Voltage % Regulation

RESULT: The V-I characteristics are studied.