JOURNAL OF THEORETICAL

AND APPLIED MECHANICS

61, 4, pp. 793-805, Warsaw 2023
https://doi.org/10.15632/jtam-pl/171748

PARAMETRIZATION OF THE MAIN ROTOR AND WORKING

ENVIRONMENT FOR DIFFERENT FLIGHT CONDITIONS –
COMPUTATIONAL FLUID DYNAMICS ANALYSIS AS AN APPLICATION
FOR MULTIDISCIPLINARY OPTIMIZATION

Jakub Kocjan
Military University of Technology, Doctoral School, Warsaw, Poland
e-mail: jakub.kocjan@wat.edu.pl (corresponding author)

Stanisław Kachel, Robert Rogólski

Military University of Technology, Faculty of Mechatronics, Armament and Aerospace, Warsaw, Poland
e-mail: stanislaw.kachel@wat.edu.pl; robert.rogolski@wat.edu.pl

The paper shows a method of aerodynamic modelling of the whole rotor and exemplary
results obtained from complex analyses. The analytical basis of rotor aerodynamics for
different phases of the helicopter flight is shown. The analytical calculations are provided
to model a single blade motion according to its azimuth angle and to validate the obtained
results. The parametric design method is shown to be applied for different blade planform
shapes and various section airfoils. The Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) fluid domain
for the flow around the blade is also prepared using a parametric method. The parametric
graphic script is developed to create the flow domain for a one-blade simulation or for a
complete n-bladed rotor effect. The obtained blade model with enclosure is implemented
into CFD environment. The method for fluid mesh preparation and the way of defining its
properties are given. The simulation is carried out as transient for the n-bladed rotor. In
this simulation, various flight conditions are taken into account. Real rotary motion of the
blades is simulated with artificially enforced mesh motion. The obtained numerical results
are compared then with analytical assumptions. The simulation findings which are the inputs
for further analysis are shown with graphical representations. As an output of the research,
new options for main rotor optimization are developed. The usage of combined parametric
modelling confirmed with aerodynamic analysis for different flight conditions is shown in
the work as a new perspective for design optimization of the main rotor.
Keywords: helicopter, main rotor, rotor blade, geometric modelling, computational fluid
dynamics (CFD)

1. Introduction

The Russian invasion on Ukraine revised the usage of helicopters on modern battlefield. The
need of preparing constructions that are capable to provide better features for comprehensive
military operations is observed more than in any other conflict in XXI’s century. As a conse-
quence, a lot of countries are improving existing structures and searching for brand new solutions
of VTOL vehicles (Oh et al., 2021). Therefore, also in Polish Military University of Technol-
ogy, a development of rotorcraft design methods is being conducted as an activity included in
a complex research program which is aimed at finding new approaches and design solutions
for needs of structural or aeroelastic optimization. This work is a second part of the recalled
research program. The first one was focused on preparing a parametric blade model and its an-
alytical and CFD validation for further analysis. The research were preceded with comparative
794 J. Kocjan et al.

analysis of commonly used helicopter configurations. The results of evaluation and proposals for
construction improvements were published in (Kachel et al., 2021).
The parametrization of the blade provides a less time-consuming solution for the preliminary
design phase. The advantages of parametric blade modeling were demonstrated in numerous
publications including (Sagimbayev et al., 2021; Ma et al., 2021). What is more in this stage of the
study, the fluid enclosures for CFD analysis are also parametrized and generated by the prepared
program. The usage of parametric models to fulfill the required features of shape and structure is
shown in (Lim, 2018; Allen et al., 2021) for airfoil design, (Tixadou, 2021; Grebenikov et al., 2021)
for strength design and (Bailly et al., 2019) for aerodynamics. Some model tasks from the above
works defined with parametrization declared both for aerodynamic shape, blade structure and
fluid domain are highly advanced numerical problems. Solving such problems generally demands
applying Fluid Structure Interactions (FSI) techniques, which gives optional results varied due
to different design configurations. Simulations of the rotor aerodynamic and aeroelastic effects,
taking into account sensitivity analysis due to key design parameters, significantly support the
decision-making process in relation to the selection of optimal utility variants.
In the research described here, for preparation parametric models and fluid enclosures, some
specific programming language was used. Examples of parametrization in the modelling using
GRIP language were shown in (Ryazanov, 2016; Shabliy and Dmitrieva, 2014; Grabowik et al.,
2015). Open GRIP (Graphic Interactive Programming) available in Siemens NX CAD environ-
ment is a language that provides a possibility to create an external solid body or internal struc-
ture geometry of any airframe part. Virtual elements are generated with the use of commands
and parameters defined with a specific programming code. The GRIP language is dedicated for
research processes, because it grants an option for inertia properties of the generated model.
The obtained model features can be used for aerodynamic or strength analyses carried out in
further stages of the simulations. The logical conditions that are enclosed in the program code
can be used to prepare loops which will provide a possibility of strength calculation with fitting
the best dimensions. As an output, a geometry generator is prepared with initial optimization
functions. Other main rotor optimization studies with focusing on aerodynamic optimization
were presented in (Stalewski, 2017a,b; Xie et al., 2017; Stalewski and Zalewski, 2019; Okumuş
et al., 2022) while optimization procedure for best flight performance was shown in (Slavik et
al., 2029).
The aim of the research presented herein is to analyze the aerodynamic rotor model in
different flight conditions. The new approach is to provide geometry with enclosures prepared to
be applied into CFD environment, where different flight conditions with real main rotor motion
could be evaluated and compared. One of the examples of CFD usage for strength analysis
was presented in (Spyropoulos et al., 2021). There are some main research institutes that are
focused on main rotor optimization problems, ONERA French Aerospace Lab and DLR German
Aerospace Center for instance. They published several methods of solving the optimization
problem using CFD methods (Goerke et al., 2012; Wilke, 2021; Jain, 2022). However, there were
no parametrization of the rotor blade shape, position and entire fluid domains simultaneously for
given flight conditions, which is the main goal of this research in order to provide a comprehensive
tool for future combined optimization solutions.
As it was mentioned above, the solutions for the optimization process which are being de-
veloped in the mentioned research program, started with evaluating the blade and assessing the
methods for further analysis. The preliminary results from the initial stage of investigations were
published in (Kocjan et al., 2022). In this research, geometry of the existing rotor was taken
as an example for evaluating the proposed solution. The GRIP program code for the modeling
was developed by adding the option for enclosures preparation and expand possibilities to enter
more parameters of the main rotor by end-user. The dimensions of enclosures are adequate to
rotor dimensions.
 Parametrization of main rotor and the working environment for... 795

The prepared model will be a basis for fluid dynamics computation using Ansys Fluent. The
parameters of main rotor movement will be calculated from analytic formulae. The value of
collective pitch control and a change of cyclic control are calculated with the use of a MATLAB
code. Then the calculated values are inputs for CAD model generation and then for CFD motion
simulation. Furtherly, the mesh for numerical simulation is generated with the Fluent meshing
tool. The mesh size decreases as it approaches the blade surface. The inflation model is also
applied. In the research, a poly-hexcore mesh was used. The prepared mesh is configured for
calculation using sliding mesh options. The mesh motion is described with outcomes of analytical
calculations, which were earlier prepared. During the studies, the mesh size was adapted to obtain
best results within a reasonable time. The results were compared with the assumptions. The
lift and drag values were used to evaluate the model and to check if the parametrized rotor
model with air domains is applicable to CFD environment and if the obtained numerical results,
especially pressure distributions, are reasonable and eventually acceptable. To the best of co-
authors’ knowledge, similar research merging the proposed methods for the helicopter main rotor
design and main rotor optimization operation has not been performed so far.
This paper is organized in a specifically intended way. The research methods are described in
Sections 2 and 3, where the mathematical model, which is the basis for parametric programming,
is defined. In Section 3, the parametric programming is described. The mesh properties and
simulation setup are presented in Section 4. The results and evaluation of the method is discussed
in Section 5. The research methods and outputs, with application to next phases of the program
are concluded in Section 6.

2. Analytical model for parametrization

2.1. Mathematical model

The conditions of operation of the main rotor are complex and impose on a designer a neces-
sity to check all of the working aspects. Before performing, an optimization loop for parametriza-
tion of main rotor features must be introduced.
The first data to be introduced are blade parameters. To obtain required operational capabil-
ities, the blades construction requires to take into consideration both geometric and aerodynamic
characteristics. The flow periodic changes, flexibility of blades and conditions of operation in the
presence of a strong centrifugal force imply a relationship between pressure loads and deforma-
tions of the material. The blades were well parametrized in the previous step of the research
(Kocjan et al., 2022), the deformations are going to be considered in the further phases.
In the presented studies, the conditions of the n-bladed main rotor operation are analyzed
and transformed as input parameters for geometry generation and numerical CFD simulation.
To prepare a rotor model which is ready to be implemented into Ansys Fluent, in accordance
with (Johnson, 1994; Bramwell et al., 2001), pitch angles should be calculated for the main rotor
trim conditions. The trim of the rotor is calculated from the thrust, pitching moment for lateral
and longitudinal movement

θ(ψ) = θ0 − A1 cos ψ − B1 sin ψ (2.1)

where the angles are calculated for different flight conditions. The helicopter speed is given in
calculation as a dimensionless speed ratio. To find the longitudinal cycling pitch angle, the first
step is to calculate the H-force coefficient in the disc plane

1
hcD = µδ (2.2)
4
796 J. Kocjan et al.

As a result, the disc incidence can be calculated as follows

1 1 2 
αD = − µ d0 + hcD (2.3)
wc 2

where d0 is the fuselage drag ratio and wc is the weight coefficient. Now the mean inflow ratio
relative to the disc plane can be obtained in the following way

λD = (µα)D − λi (2.4)

The next step for the rotor trim is to calculate the collective pitch angle which will be used for
GRIP program to prepare the main rotor geometry installed for designated flight conditions.
The collective pitch is calculated from the main rotor thrust expression
4 2
a 2 1 − µ2 + 9µ4 1 − µ2
!
tcd = θ0 2 + λD 2 (2.5)
4 3 1 + 3µ 1 + 3µ
2 2

Further, in order to obtain the longitudinal cycling pitch angle, it is crucial to calculate the
flapping coefficient
 
4θ0
2µ 3 + λD
a1 = 3µ2
(2.6)
1+ 2

Therefore, the B1 angle (with the assumptions for a change of the center of gravity – h and f )
is ready to be calculated

a1 + Cmf + hcD h − wc f
B1 = (2.7)
wc + Cms

where Cmf is the pitching moment coefficient for fuselage and Cms is the pitching moment
coefficient due to hinge offset. Then, to get the lateral cyclic pitch angle, the lateral flapping
coefficient should be given with the following expression
4
3 (µa0 + 1.1v 2 λi )
b1 = µ2
(2.8)
1+ 2

In consequence, the lateral cyclic pitch angle can be written as

Tt
wc f + W tc ht
A1 = −b1 − (2.9)
tc h + Cms

At the end of analytical consideration, for the main rotor evaluation, its drag force is needed
and it can be calculated from the expression

P
D= +X (2.10)
V

where P is the power required for the evaluated flight conditions, X is a force acting in the
longitudinal direction. The X-force can be estimated with the formula

X = −T sin αD − HD cos αD
 Parametrization of main rotor and the working environment for... 797

2.2. Analytical calculations for preparing the simulation

All calculation formulae described above were all prepared in MATLAB software. The out-
puts of calculations are a basis for geometry generation in GRIP program and then for model
configurations applicable in Ansys Fluent.
It starts with the input parameters of the designed blade and flight conditions. The blade
planform is defined with a specific polynomial function. Next, the rotor solidity factor is calcu-
lated as an integral. Using MATLAB functions required for the collective pitch are possible to
be established. The weight coefficient, fuselage drag ratio, inflow velocity and disc incidence are
computed. After that, the inflow ratio relative to the disc plane can be processed. The program
in the further step is solving equation (2.5) to obtain the collective pitch value. Next stage of the
calculations is to estimate the flapping coefficients. The pitching moment coefficient is assessed
at the subsequent step. With the flapping and pitching moment coefficient, the B1 angle is ready
to be computed. After obtaining the first angle, the second is calculated similar to the first using
the equations mentioned above. The MATLAB source code used for all described calculations
is shown in Fig. 1.
The calculated collective pitch is modelled in CAD geometry. The collective pitch angles are
a basis for the rotor cyclic pitch movement modelled then in Ansys Fluent.

Fig. 1. Example of MATLAB numerical code for preliminary calculations

3. Parametric model for simulation process

The main goal of this research is to obtain a new approach for main rotor blade modelling, which
will be implemented into the main rotor optimization loop. The goal is achieved using Open
798 J. Kocjan et al.

GRIP code, which is implemented into Siemens NX. The program was taken from the first stage
of the studies and improved. The program algorithm is shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. Enhanced algorithm for generating parametric geometry model

The geometry of the model is parametrized in the program using all main rotor geometrical
dimensions. The user is able to enter the blade basic parameters into a popup input window.
The first parameters are the number of blades, rotor radius and blade chord. The airfoil is
generated from the text file with coordinates, so the user can prepare the blade for any chosen
airfoil geometry. The next stage of parametrization is to enter the polynomial coefficient for
blade twist and blade chord, so the blade chord and twist can change along the span. With
the prepared solution, the blade shape can be freely changed with accordance to analytically
calculated values. The windows with applets for introducing control parameters are shown in
Figure 5. The shape generation is based on inbuilt GRIP commands for the line and splines,
 Parametrization of main rotor and the working environment for... 799

which provides the desired shape. The number of sections to create the geometry can also be
chosen. An example of generating the blade geometry is shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. Blade parametrisation

The second stage of parametrization is the n-bladed rotor. The blades are positioned with the
angles that were trimmed analytically. Each blade is positioned at a different angle in accordance
to their initial azimuthal position in simulation.
The next phase is generation of fluid enclosures for multi-moving mesh simulation. In the
code, the volumes of fluid domains are programmed proportionally to the rotor dimensions. The
domains are generated as follows: the main air enclosure as a cuboid for forward flight and as a
cylinder for hover, rotor enclosure as a cylinder with each blade havig its own cylinder domain.
The space geometry of applicable enclosure variants is presented in Fig. 4. The selectable flight
conditions – forward flight or hovering are possible to be chosen by the user.

Fig. 4. Fluid domains: (a) for forward flight, (b) for hovering flight

Fig. 5. User input options: (a) blade parameters, (b) flight conditions
800 J. Kocjan et al.

The ready to simulation geometry is generated in few seconds, so the designer can prepare
different models for CFD analysis in a short time.

4. Mesh and simulation properties

The model for CFD simulations was prepared in Ansys Fluent. The generated geometry with
fluid domains was imported into the mentioned environment. To generate the fluid mesh of finite
volume elements, the Fluent Mesher was used. It was chosen because of the future automatization
of the process. This software provides a full path of activities that are necessary to generate the
ready-to-use mesh. Body sizing, face sizing and inflation options were used to prepare a correct
simulation. The boundary layer was generated using the aspect ratio options. The air enclosure
size was calculated from the rotor dimensions. The ratios chosen to obtain correct domains were
defined in the following way: X for the air enclosure, Y for the rotor enclosure and Z for the blade
enclosures. The maximum size of a single volume element was set as 5000 mm, the elements on
the blade were set to a value of 10 cm spanwise and chordwise. The inflation was set for 15 layers
with 80 aspect ratio. The y+ value was established at an average value of 300, which gave the
boundary layer a wall function. The mesh was generated as a poly-hexcore mesh and consisted
of approximately 106 elements (depending on the model). An example of the prepared mesh is
shown in Fig. 6.

Fig. 6. Polyhexcore mesh of fluid volume elements

The domains were named adequate to their destinations. The velocity inlet for the forward
flight was set as a pressure far-field – velocity inlet, and the end of the cuboid was provided
as a pressure outlet. The pressure far-field – velocity inlet option in Ansys Fluent provides a
possibility to set the inlet velocity direction and magnitude with the vector coordinates. The
contact regions were named to identify the internal connection between the domains in the
preparing of the solution. K-ω SST viscosity model was chosen for the simulation, because
it is recommended for solving CFD rotor tasks. The viscosity model results with the y+ for
wall function boundary layer treatment were checked whether it gave satisfying results without
extending calculation, what would be for more complex boundary layer simulations. The time
step for transient simulation was set at 0.001 s. The convergence for each time step was settled
for continuity at 10−5 with 100 iterations. The fluid domain with declared boundary conditions
and the rotor model inside is presented in Fig. 7.
 Parametrization of main rotor and the working environment for... 801

Fig. 7. The fluid domain with boundary conditions and the rotor model enclosure defined for the CFD
process

5. Results

As a basis for CFD calculations, the rotor geometry of the rotorcraft W-3 Sokol was taken. The
parameters of the helicopter are: radius – 7.85 m, chord – 0.44 m, rotational speed – 255 rpm,
weight 6400 kg. The lift force should be adequate to the aircraft weight and the drag force
is calculated from analytical assumptions. The first cut calculation was made for the existing
rotor dimensions and features. The rotor position and movement were calculated in MATLAB
program described in Section 2.2. For evaluation of the method, various rotor dimensions and
flight parameters were used. The angles for the preparation of simulation are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Calculated angles for simulation

Case Collective B1 A1 Tip path angle
No. [deg] [deg] [deg] [deg]
1 11.12 3.46 −3.72 10.75
2 11.52 5.26 −4.87 10.71
3 8.31 2.52 −3.45 7.44
4 9.85 5.48 −5.48 7.43
5 9.48 3.10 −4.38 7.83

The calculated results are presented in Table 2. It shows that the assumptions which were
made for the movement simulation and calculations are correct. The values of basic rotor forces
are similar to those calculated, the average difference between the results and analytical cal-
culations is at 4%. The comparison is made with analytical calculations of the drag force and
802 J. Kocjan et al.

helicopter weight. The lift force that is required for flight of the helicopter is generated adequately
to the needs.
Table 2. Simulation results
Analytical assumptions CFD simulation
Case
MR radius Blade chord Flight speed Drag Lift Drag
No. Weight
[m] [m] [km/h] [N] [N] [N]
1 62784 7.85 0.3 100 1276 61706 1256
2 62784 7.85 0.3 150 2870 63708.25 2982
3 62784 7.85 0.44 100 1276 61537 1139
4 62784 7.85 0.44 200 5098 62625 5132
5 62784 7 0.6 100 1276 66850 1295

In consequence, working conditions of rotor blades can be evaluated using the obtained
results. The major finding, that will be used in optimization loop (which will be aimed at mass
reduction of the blades and stiffness improvement), is the pressure distribution. Examples of
pressure distributions are shown in Fig. 8.

Fig. 8. Pressure distribution: (a) case 1, (b) case 2

The pressure distribution for the calculated flight case enables determination of the load
acting on rotor blade surfaces during their rotary movement. Different flight conditions and dif-
ferent blade geometry can be evaluated by the designer. To obtain these results with application
of the proposed method, 6 to 8 hours is needed, where 15 minutes is 3D model preparation,
45 min to 2 h is mesh and simulation preparation, the rest is Fluent processing time (which is
also depending on mesh parameters).
The proposed way of model preparation and calculation of simulation parameters provides
information about the influence of parametrisation on the obtained dimensions. The required
drag and lift are the same for different flight parameters, however the angles of rotor disc and
blade pitch positions are changing depending on blades dimensions. With CFD simulation, the
proposed modelling was proved to be correct and applicable to next steps of rotor optimisation.

6. Conclusions

As it is described at the beginning of this paper, this research is a part of the program aimed
at finding new solutions for rotorcraft structures design using optimization methods. This is a
 Parametrization of main rotor and the working environment for... 803

next step for preparing a full rotor model which will be optimized to obtain the best mass and
stiffness characteristics.
It is confirmed that developing the rotor model with fluid enclosures, using parametric mod-
elling, provides a versatile tool to quickly prepare different rotor geometries for CFD analysis.
The code properties provide a possibility to prepare correct fluid domains. The enclosures are
generated proportionally to rotor dimensions. The Open GRIP syntax Boolean options, to cut
out the volumes from wider areas, enables an exact model preparation, which is ready to be
analyzed using dedicated software. The model compatibility problem with software did not oc-
cur during the calculations. Using the parametric modeling significantly reduced the time of
simulation preparation for different geometries and flight conditions.
The CFD analysis confirmed the expected results. The mathematical model of the rotor
movement led to similar forces that were inputs for analytical calculations. The generated do-
mains and models were easily configured for mesh simulation. The interior contacts for mesh
interaction during simulation of motion were correctly corresponding with the indented contact
regions.

Fig. 9. Design spiral for rotor optimization

804 J. Kocjan et al.

The simulation results showed that the model was correctly prepared. However, providing
all required conditions to replicate the working environment of the real rotor, the simulation of
the rotor movement and a change of pitch angles was time and memory consuming. But in fact
it is a necessary condition to obtain correct results.
The studies shows a new way of preparing and conducting main rotor CFD simulations using
a parametric approach. The parametric modelling reduces the total time of simulations. The
results obtained showed the working conditions of the main rotor blades in terms of pressures,
velocity or turbulence. The outputs can now be combined in Ansys with FEM analysis and
calculated simultaneously using the FSI procedure.
The advantage of the procedure is fidelity of the simulation. This kind of simulations provides
high fidelity results, that can be used to evaluate parameters of prepared blades such us the
shape and strength structure. This will be a next phase of the proposed optimization loop. The
application of the studies described in this paper is only a one of many activities included in the
optimization procedure illustrated with the so called design spiral. It is shown in Fig. 9.

Acknowledgement
The methods and results presented in this paper have been obtained during research works conducted
within a university research project entitled “Methods of optimal design of aircraft to improve its struc-
tural and aerodynamic properties”. It was financed by the Military University of Technology (Warsaw,
Poland), in in 2022 and 2023, under the university research project UGB-782/2022 and UGB-819/2023.
Data Availability Statement
Program code is available at: https://github.com/jakubkocjan/parametricrotordesign (accessed on
30 November 2022).
The work and its results were presented during the conference “Mechanika w Lotnictwie, ML-XX
2022”.

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Manuscript received April 24, 2023; accepted for print August 3, 2023