21ME751 - Non-Traditional Machining (Open Elective – I) for AI&ML

(An Autonomous Institute, Affiliated Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi ,
Approved by AICTE, UGC & GoK, Accredited by ISO 9001-2015 Certified Institution)
21ME751 - Non-Traditional Machining (Open Elective – I)

Study Material
Compiled by
Dr.M.Karthikeyan
HOD R&A
21ME751 Non-Traditional Machining (Open Elective – I) Module 1
MODULE 1
INTRODUCTION
Introduction to Non-traditional machining, Need for Non-traditional

machining process, Comparison between traditional and non-traditional machining,
general classification Nontraditional machining processes, classification based on
nature of energy employed in machining, selection of non-traditional machining
processes, Specific advantages, limitations and applications of non-traditional
machining processes.
08 hours
INTRODUCTION
Since beginning of the human race, people have evolved tools and energy
sources to power these tools to meet the requirements for making the life more
easier and enjoyable.
In the early stage of mankind, tools were made of stone for the item being
made. When iron tools were invented, desirable metals and more sophisticated
articles could be produced.
In twentieth century products were made from the most durable and
consequently, the most unmachinable materials. In an effort to meet the
manufacturing challenges created by these materials, tools have now evolved to
include materials such as alloy steel, carbide, diamond and ceramics.
A similar evolution has taken place with the methods used to power our
tools. Initially, tools were powered by muscles; either human or animal. However
as the powers of water, wind, steam and electricity were harnessed, mankind was
able to further extend manufacturing capabilities with new machines, greater
accuracy and faster machining rates.
The conventional manufacturing processes in use today for material removal
primarily rely on electric motors and hard tool materials to perform tasks such as
sawing, drilling and broaching. Conventional forming operations are performed
with the energy from electric motors, hydraulics and gravity. Likewise, material
joining is conventionally accomplished with thermal energy sources such as
burning gases and electric arcs.
In contrast, non-traditional manufacturing processes harness energy sources
considered unconventional by yesterday’s standards. Material removal can now be
accomplished with electrochemical reaction, high temperature plasmas and high-
velocity jets of liquids and abrasives.
Materials that in the past have been extremely difficult to form, are now
formed with magnetic fields, explosives and the shock waves from powerful
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electric sparks. Material-joining capabilities have been expanded with the use of
high-frequency sound waves and beams of electrons and coherent light.
During the last 55 years, over 20 different non-traditional manufacturing

processes have been invented and successfully implemented into production.
1. MACHINING
It is the process of removing the material from the work piece to obtain the
desired shape and size. The machining process is classified into two types.
1. Conventional Machining
2. Non-Traditional Machining (or) Non-conventional (or) Unconventional
machining
1.1 Traditional Machining Process
It is the machining in which the metal is removed by making direct contact
between tool and work piece by the use of mechanical energy. Metal removal
process is due to shearing.
Fundamental Work Piece Transfer Energy

Machining energy removal Medium Source
Mechanical Physical Cutting Traditional

energy Shear Contact Tool M/C
Eg: Turnings, milling, grinding, lapping, drilling, shaping, etc.
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The difficulties in Traditional Machining’s are
1. In many processes material removal rate mainly depends upon the hardness
of the work piece. The high hardness material such as alloy steel, carbide,
diamond and ceramics are unable to machining by conventional machining
process.
2. Machining of intricate and complicated shapes can’t be obtained in
conventional machining.
3. Machining of thin and fragile components cannot be produced by
conventional machining.
4. The high accuracy cannot be obtained in conventional machining.
The above difficulties are overcome by the development of Non-Traditional

Machining (Eg: USM, PAM, EDM….). As a result of research and development
for the last forty years, several new methods of machining have emerged which are
called in various names such as
Unconventional machining methods or
Non traditional machining methods or
Physical machining processes or
Newer machining process or
Modern machining methods
All these new machining processes have one common characteristic Viz
these processes involve physical phenomena in metal removal where as in
conventional machining methods the metal removal by mechanical means i.e by
using a sharp edged tool harder than work material.
The following are the characteristic features of non traditional machining

processes when compared with traditional machining processes.
1. Material is removed from work piece without mechanical contact (with work
piece).
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2. In many processes material removal rate is independent of the hardness of

work piece.
3. Cutting forces are independent of the hardness of the work piece.
4. Tool material need not harder that the work material (In many cases softer
material can be used as the tool material.)
5. Generally tool wear is negligible, hence tool wear is not a problem.
6. No burn is left on the work piece.
7. In most cases entire contour (or) design shape can be obtained in one stage
(or) in one setting. This is possible source the material removal takes place
uniformly over the entire surface area in simultaneous.
8. Intricate shaped contours and fine machining of precision holes are possible.
9. For improved productivity modern Machining methods can be easily
integrated with help of CNC.
1.2 NEED FOR NON-TRADITIONAL MACHINING PROCESS

From above introduction, the Non-Traditional Machining processes are needed
for.
1) To Machining the very hard, high strength material which are being
extensively used in aerospace and nuclear industries.
2) To maintain high accuracy and surface finishing.
3) For machining of intricate and complicated shapes.
4) For machining of very thin components and fragile components.
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5) To improve the productivity by means of automation.

Case I: Square Blind Hole
• Square blind hole in any material with higher
surface finish of about 10 micron (RMS).
• This cannot be obtained in foundry (range of
surface finish 1250-2500 micron) or in forging
(750-1250 micron) practices.
• This has to be finished in a machine shop. If it is a
case of single piece or a mass production-slotting or broaching of blind hole
without a recess cannot be done.
Case II: Small Hole with high Aspect ratio

• Hole with L/D ratio more than 30.
• Hole may be straight or inclined.
Case III: Contoured Die Block

Contoured hole generation in a very hard material like
Tungsten (WC) or stellite (Cobalt-Chromium alloys)
for making a die block.
1.3 Classification & Energy Employed in Non-Traditional Machining Process

The basic principle of machining by these methods is to apply some form of
energy to the work piece directly without almost any physical contact between the
tool and work piece and have the desired shape (or) contour by material removal
from the work piece.
Different forms of energy applied to the work piece are
• Mechanical energy
• Electrical (or) Electro chemical energy
• Thermal energy
• Chemical energy
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Classification of new machining methods is done on the basis of the type of

energy used in the working zone for material removal factor.
1.3.1 Mechanical Energy
Ultrasonic Machining - USM

Ultrasonic Assisted Machining - UAM
Rotary ultrasonic Assisted Machining - RUM
Abrasive Jet Machining - AFM
Abrasive flow Machining - AFM
Orbital Grinding - OG
Water Jet Machining - WJM
1.3.2 Electrical Energy
Electro Chemical Machining - ECM
Electro Chemical Grinding - ECG
Electro Chemical Discharge Grinding - ECDG
Electro Chemical Deburring - ECD
Electro Chemical Honing - ECH
Shaped Tube Electrolytic Machining - STEM
Electro Stream Drilling - ESD
Electro Jet Drilling - EHD
1.3.3 Thermal Energy

Electrical Discharge Machining - EDM
Electron Beam Machining - EBM
Laser Beam Machining - LBM
Electro Discharge Wire Cutting - EDNC
Electro Discharge Grinding - EDG
Plasma Arc Machining - PAM
Plasma Assisted Machining - PAM
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Thermal Deburring - TD
Ion Beam Machining - TBM
1.3.4 Chemical Energy
Chemical Machining - CHM
Chemical Blanking - CHB
Chemical Engraving - CHE
Electro Polishing - ELP
Photo Chemical Machining - PCM
Thermo Chemical Machining - TCM
In the above all the modern machining process, only a few of the NTM have
been accepted by the industries and the manufactures. Those are
(1) EDM (2) USM (3) LBM (4) ECM

1.4 Brief overview of all UCM.
Shear Physical Contact Cutting tool Traditional
AJM
Mechanical High velocity Pneumatic USM
WJM
Erosion Abrasive particles
Hydraulic
ECG
Electrochemical – Ion Displacement – Electrolyte – High Current – ECM
Electrons High Voltage EDM

Vapourizations
Radiation Amplified light LBM
Themro-Electric Ion Stream Ionized material IBM
Fusion Hot Gases PAM
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Classification of Non-Traditional Machining Processes

Type of energy Mechanism of Transfer media Energy source Processes
metal removal
Erosion High velocity Pneumatic / AJM, USM,
particles Hydraulic WJM
Mechanical pressure
Shear Physical contact Cutting tool Conventional
machining
Electrochemical Ion displacement Electrolyte High current ECM, ECG
Chemical Ablative relation Reactive Corrosive agent CHM
environment
Hot gases Ionized material IBM, PAM
Fusion Electrons High voltage EDM
Thermoelectric Radiation Amplified light LBM
Vaporization Ion stream Ionized material PAM
LIMITATIONS
➢ All modern machining methods are generally costly.
➢ Specific power consumption is quite high.
➢ Work piece and tool must be electrically conductive eg. EDM, ECM.
➢ The depth of cut is limited eg LBM and etc.
Difference between Traditional and Non traditional machining processes.

Sl No. Conventional Process Non Conventional Process
1 The cutting tool and work piece are There is no physical contact between the tool
always in physical contact with and work piece, In some non traditional
relative motion with each other, process tool wear exists.
which results in friction and tool
wear.
2 Material removal rate is limited by NTM can machine difficult to cut and hard to
mechanical properties of work cut materials like titanium,ceramics,nimonics,
material. SST,composites,semiconducting materials
3 Relative motion between the tool Many NTM are capable of producing
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and work is typically rotary or complex 3D shapes and cavities

reciprocating. Thus the shape of
work is limited to circular or flat
shapes. In spite of CNC systems,
production of 3D surfaces is still a
difficult task.
4 Machining of small cavities , slits , Machining of small cavities, slits and
blind holes or through holes are Production of non-circular, micro sized, large
difficult aspect ratio, shall entry angle holes are easy
using NTM
5 Use relative simple and inexpensive Non traditional processes requires expensive
machinery and readily available tools and equipment as well as skilled labour,
cutting tools which increase the production cost
significantly
6 Capital cost and maintenance cost Capital cost and maintenance cost is high
is low
7 Traditional processes are well Mechanics of Material removal of Some of
established and physics of process NTM process are still under research
is well understood
8 Conventional process mostly uses Most NTM uses energy in direct form For
mechanical energy example : laser, Electron beam in its direct
forms are used in LBM and EBM respectively
9 Surface finish and tolerances are High surface finish(up to 0.1 micron) and
limited by machining inaccuracies. tolerances (25 Microns)can be achieved.
10 High metal removal rate. Low material removal rate.
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Selection of non-traditional machining processes

The correct selection of the non-traditional machining methods must be
based on the following aspects.
i) Physical parameters of the process.
ii) Shape to be machined
iii) Process capability
iv) Economics of the processes
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Physical parameter of the process:

The physical parameters of the different NTM are given in the Table 1.0 which
indicates that PAM and ECM require high power for fast machining. EBM and
LBM require high voltages and require careful handling of equipment. EDM and
USM require medium power . EBM can be used in vacuum and PAM uses oxygen
and hydrogen gas.
Process Parameters
Holes (Micro, Small, deep, Shallow) LBM, EBM,ECM, USM & EDM
Precision Work USM & EDM
Horning ECM
Etching ECM & EDM
Grinding AJM & EDM
Deburring USM & AJM
Threading EDM
Profile Cut PAM
Physical parameters of the Non Traditional Machining Processes
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• EDM and USM require approximately same power

• ECM consumes roughly 40% more
• ECM is an excellent method for drilling long slender holes (Length
/diameter >20)
Shape to be machined
Shapes cutting capability the different shapes can be machined by NTM.
EBM and LBM are used for micro drilling and cutting. USM and EDM are useful
for cavity sinking and standard hole drilling. ECM is useful for fine hole drilling
and contour machining. PAM can be used for cutting and AJM is useful for
shallow pocketing
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Process capability & Machining Characteristics

The process capability of NTM is given in Table. EDM which achieves
higher accuracy has the lowest specific power requirement. ECM can machine
faster and has a low thermal surface damage depth. USM and AJM have very
material removal rates combined with high tool wear and are used non metal
cutting. LBM and EBM are, due to their high penetration depth can be used for
micro drilling, sheet cutting and welding. CHM is used for manufacture of PCM
and other shallow components.
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Process MRR Surface Accuracy Power (kW/

( mm3/s ) Finish (μm) (μm) cm3
LBM 0.10 0.4 – 6.0 25 2700

EBM 0.15 - 40 0.4 – 6.0 25 450
EDM 15 - 80 0.25 10 1.8

ECM 27 0.2 -0.8 50 7.5
PAM 2500 Rough 250 0.90
USM 14 0.2 – 0.7 7.5 9.0
AJM 0.014 0.5- 1.2 50 312.5
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Economics of the processes
Capital Cost Tool & Power Efficiency

Fixtures Requirement
EDM Medium High Low High
CHM Medium Low High Medium
ECM V. High Medium Medium V. Low
AJM V. Low Low Low Low
USM High High Low Medium
EBM High Low Low V. High
LBM Medium Low V. Low V. High
PAM V. Low Low V. Low V. Low
Conventional V. Low Low Low V. Low
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Advantages of Non Traditional machining processes

1) High accuracy and surface finish
2) Less / no wear
3) Tool life is more
4) Quieter operation
5) Increase productivity
6) It reduces number of rejected components
7) The tool material need not be harder than work piece material as in conventional
machining.
8) Harder and difficult to machine materials can be machined by this process.
Disadvantages of Non Traditional machining processes

1) High cost.
2) Complex set up.
3) Skilled operator required.
4) Material removal rate is less.
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Applications of non-traditional machining processes.
1. Machining.
2. Cutting.
Ultrasonic machining (USM)
3. Casting and welding of metals.

4. Forming of plastics
5. Measurement of velocity of moving fluids.
6. Measurement of density, viscosity and elastic constants.
7. Measurement of hardness and grain size determination of metals.
8. Nondestructive residual stress determination.
9. Flaw detection.
10.Leak detection.
11.Machining of Tungsten, hard carbides, gem stones.
Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)
12.Removing flash and parting lines from injection moulded parts.

13.Deburring and polishing plastic, nylon and Teflon components.
14.Cleaning metallic mould cavities which otherwise may be inaccessible.
15.Cutting thin sectioned fragile components made of glass, refractories,
ceramics, mica etc.
16.Producing high quality surface.
17.Removing glue and paint from paintings and leather objects.
18.Reproducing designs on a glass surface with the help of masks made of
rubber, copper etc.
19.Frosting interior surfaces of glass tubes.
20.Etching markings on glass cylinders.
Water Jet Machining (WJM)
21.Mining industries- to cut coal from the face.

22.Cutting of coal and rock like granite, glass etc.
23.Drilling.
24.Cleaning and descaling.
25.Cut ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
Electrochemical Machining (ECM)
26.Machining of fragile materials.
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27.Facing and turning three dimensional surfaces.

28.Die sinking, particularly deep narrow slots and holes.
29.Profiling and any old shape contouring.
30.Multiple hole drilling.
31.Trepanning
32.Broaching.
33.Deburring.
34.Grinding.
35.Honing.
36.Cutting off.
Electrochemical Grinding
37.Machining of few microns level.

38.Machining of taper sheets and pre-formed shapes.
39.Engraving on any metal piece.
40.Produce stepped webs.
Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)
41.Making stamping tools.

42.Wire drawing and extrusion dies.
43.Header dies.
44.Forging dies.
45.Intricate mould cavities.
46.Machining of exotic materials used in aero-space industries
47.Machining of refractory metals, hard carbides and hardenable steels.
48.Copper tubes fitting into vacuumtubes.
Plasma Arc Machining (PAM)
49.Welding of materials like titanium, stainless steel etc.

50.Plasma arc surfacing.
51.Plasma arc spraying.
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BRIEF OVERVIEW OF NON TRADITIONAL MACHINING
1 ULTRA SONIC MACHINING (USM)
USM is a mechanical material removal process in which the material is removed by repetitive
impact of abrasive particles carried in liquid medium on to the work surface, by a shaped tool,
vibrating at ultrasonic frequency.
2 ABRASIVE JET MACHINING (AJM)
It is the material removal process where the material is removed or machined by the impact
erosion of the high velocity stream of air or gas and abrasive mixture, which is focused on to the
workpiece.
3.WATER JET MACHINING (WJM)

Water jet cutting can reduce the costs and speed up the processes by eliminating or reducing
expensive secondary machining process. Since no heat is applied on the materials, cut edges are
clean with minimal burr. Problems such as cracked edge defects, crystallization, hardening,
reduced wealdability and machinability are reduced in this process.
4.ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING (ECM)
It is the controlled removal of metals by the anodic dissolution in an electrolytic medium, where
the work piece (anode) and the tool (cathode) are connected to the electrolytic circuit, which is
kept, immersed in the electrolytic medium.
5.ELECTOCHEMICAL GRINDING (ECG)

ECG is the material removal process in which the material is removed by the combination of
Electro- Chemical decomposition as in ECM process and abrasive due to grinding.
6.ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING (EDM)

EDM is the controlled erosion of electrically conductive materials by the Initiation of rapid and
repetitive spark discharge between the electrode tool to the cathode and work to anode separated
by a small gap kept in the path of dielectric medium. This Process also called spark erosion
7.PLASMA ARC MACHINING

Plasma is defined as the gas, which has been heated to a sufficiently high temperature to become
ionized.
8.LASER BEAM MACHINING
Laser-beam machining is a thermal material-removal process that utilizes a high-Energy,

Coherent light beam to melt and vaporize particles on the surface of metallic and non-Metallic
work pieces. Lasers can be used to cut, drill, weld and mark. LBM is particularly suitable for
making accurately placed holes.
9.ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING (EBM)
It is the thermo-electrical material removal process on which the material is removed by the high
velocity electron beam emitted from the tungsten filament made to impinge on the work surface,
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where kinetic energy of the beam is transferred to the work piece material, producing intense
heat, which makes the material to melt or vaporize it locally.
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Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

WHAT IS ULTRASONIC MACHINING (USM)? (VTU Dec. 2009/Jan. 10)
Ultrasonic machining is a non-traditional process.
In this process abrasives contained in the slurry are driven against the work by a
tool oscillating at low amplitude (25-100 microns) and high frequency (15-30
kHz).
Ultrasonic refers to waves of high frequency above the audible range of 20 kHz.
The USM process consists of tool made of ductile and tough material. Tool
oscillates with high frequency, and the continuous abrasive slurry is fed between
the tool and workpiece. The impact of the hard abrasive particles fractures the
workpiece thus removing the small particles from the work surface
WORKING PRINCIPLE OF USM

(VTU Dec. 2011; June 2012; Dec. 2012; June/July 2013; June/July 2014; Dec.
2014/Jan. 2015)
Ultrasonic machining is a mechanical type Non-traditional machining process.
Magnified view of the tool tip and the workpiece is shown in Figure 2.1. It is
employed to machine hard and brittle materials (both electrically conductive
and non-conductive material) having hardness usually greater than 40 HRC
(Rockwell Hardness measured in C scale). The process was first developed in the
1950s and was originally used for finishing EDM surfaces.
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In ultrasonic machining, a tool made of ductile and tough material and of the
desired shape vibrates at an ultrasonic frequency (19 to 25 kHz) with an
amplitude of 15-50 microns over the workpiece. Generally, the tool is pressed
down with a feed force F. Between the tool and the work, machining zone is
flooded with hard abrasive particles generally in the form of water-based slurry.
As the tool vibrates over the workpiece, abrasive particles act as indenters and
indent both the work and the tool material. Abrasive particles, as they indent,
the work material would remove the material from both the tool and the
workpiece. In ultrasonic machining material removal is due to crack initiation,
propagation and brittle fracture of material. USM is used for machining hard and
brittle materials, which are poor conductors of electricity and thus cannot be
processed by electrochemical machining (ECM) or electro-discharge machining
(EDM)
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The tool in USM is made to vibrate with high frequency onto the work surface
in the midst of the flowing slurry. The main reason for using ultrasonic frequency
is to provide better performance. Audible frequencies of required intensities
would be heard as extremely loud sound and would cause fatigue and even
permanent damage to the auditory apparatus.
Description of Equipment
The schematic diagram of the USM equipment is shown in Fig 2.2

Main elements of ultrasonic machining are :
1. High power sine wave generator.
2. Magnetostrictive transducer
3. Tool Holder
4. Tool
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1. High power sine wave generator.

The unit converts low frequency (50/60 Hz) electrical power to high
frequency (20kHz) electrical power.
2. Transducer.
The high frequency electrical signal is transmitted to the transducer which
converts it into high frequency (15-20 kHz), low amplitude vibration (5
microns). The function of the transducer is to convert electrical energy into
mechanical vibration using the principle of piezoelectric or magnetostriction.
There are two types of transducer:
1. Piezoelectric transducer
2. Magnetostrictive transducer
1.Piezoelectric transducer
These transducers generate a small electric current when they are
compressed. Also, when the electric current is passed through a crystal, it
expands. When the current is removed, the crystal regains its original size
and shape. Such transducers are available up to 900 watts. Piezoelectric
crystals have a high conversion efficiency of 95%.
2.Magnetostrictive transducer
The magnetostriction effect was first discovered by Joule in 1874.
According to this effect, in the presence of the applied magnetic field,
ferromagnetic metals and alloys change in length. These transducers are
made of nickel or nickel alloy sheets. Their conversion efficiency is about
20-30%. Such transducers are available up to 2000 watts. The maximum
change in length that can be achieved is about 25 microns.
When the frequency of AC signal provided by high-frequency
generator is tuned to the natural frequency of the transducer, resonance
occurs. Because of the resonance amplitude of vibration increases. The
transducer length is equal to half of the wavelength for the condition of
resonance
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Concentrators (Acoustic Horn)
Function of the concentrators (Figure 2.3):

The oscillation amplitude obtained from the magnetostrictive transducer
is usually around 5 microns, which is too small for removal of material from the
workpiece. The function of the concentrator (also called mechanical amplifiers,
acoustic horn and tool cone) is to amplify the amplitude of vibration of the
magnetostrictive transducer from 5 to 40-50 microns. Concentrator also
concentrates the
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power on a smaller machining area. To get the resonance condition, like a

transducer, the
acoustic cone should be of half wavelength of the resonator.
Tool material: The material of tool should have good acoustic properties and
high resistance to fatigue cracking. Appropriate measures should be taken to
avoid ultrasonic welding between the transducer and the tool holder.
Commonly used tool holders are of Monel, titanium and stainless steel.
Tool
Tools are made of relatively ductile materials like brass, stainless steel or mild
steel so
that tool wear rate (TWR) can be minimized. The values of the ratio of TWR and
MRR
depend on the kind of abrasive, work and tool materials.
Design considerations for tools
• The tool is made up of a strong, but ductile metal.
• Stainless steels and low carbon steels are used for making the tools.
• Aluminium and brass tools wear is ten and five times faster than steel
tools respectively
• The geometrical features are decided by the process.
• The diameter of the circle circumscribed about the tool should not be
more than 1.5-2.0 times the diameter of the end of the concentrator.
• The tool should be as short and rigid as possible.
• When the tool is made hollow, the internal contour should be parallel to
the external one to ensure uniform wear.
• The thickness of any wall or projection should be atleast five times the
grain size of the abrasive.
• In the hollow tool, the wall should not be made thinner than 0.5-0.8 mm.
• When designing the tool consideration should be given to the side
clearance which is normally of the order of 0.06-0.36 mm, depending on
the grain size of the abrasive.
Abrasives and Abrasive slurry
In USM large variety of abrasive slurries is used. Some of them are:
• Boron carbide (B4C)
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• Silicon carbide (SiC)

• Aluminium oxide (Al2O3)
• Diamond dust.
Boron abrasive particles are used for machining tungsten, steel and precious
stones. Boron silica carbide is also used, and it is 8-12% more abrasive than
boron carbide. Alumina is used for machining ceramics, glass and germanium.
Alumina wears out very fast and loses its cutting power very fast. Silicon finds
maximum applications. Diamond and rubies are cut by diamond powder. Good
surface finish, accuracy and cutting rates are possible with diamond dust.
Selection of abrasive particles depends on:
• Particle size
• Hardness
• Cost of abrasives
• Durability of abrasives
The life of abrasives depends on the hardness of the abrasive material and
works combinations. Longer life of abrasives can be obtained when the hardness
of the abrasives is more than the hardness of the work material. The metal
removal rate and surface finish depend on size of abrasive particles. Coarse
grains give higher MRR, but lower surface finish. Fine grains give good surface
finish, but MRR is low.
The abrasive slurry is circulated by pumping, and it requires cooling to
remove the generated heat to prevent it from boiling in the gap and causing the
undesirable cavitation effect. A refrigerated cooling system is provided to cool
the slurry to a temperature of 5-6oC.
LIQUID MEDIA (VTU June/July 2011)
In USM process, the abrasive of about 30 to 60% by volume are suspended
in liquid medium. Several functions of liquid medium are:
• Liquid medium acts as an acoustic bond between vibrating tool and work.
• It carries the abrasive medium to the cutting zone.
• It acts as a coolant and also carries waste abrasives and other swarf.
• It acts as a transferring media for energy between the tool and the
workpiece.
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The characteristics of a good suspension liquid medium are:

• The density of the liquid medium should be approximately equal to that
of abrasive
• The liquid medium should have good wetting characteristics. It should wet
tool, abrasives and the workpiece.
• The liquid medium should have high specific heat and thermal
conductivity so that heat transfer between the tool and the workpiece is
effective.
• The liquid must have good flow ability (low viscosity) and should carry the
abrasives along with it.
• Liquid medium should not corrode the workpiece, tool and equipment.
Water is frequently used as the liquid carrier since it satisfies most of the
requirements
listed above. Some corrosion inhibitor is generally added in the water.
Ultrasonic vibrations imparted to fluid medium have the following
important actions:
1. Ultrasonic vibrations bring about the ultrasonic dispersion effect rapidly in
the machining fluid medium between the tool end and the machining surface
of the workpiece.
2. Ultrasonic vibrations bring violent circulations of the fluid as a result of
ultrasonic micro-agitation.
3. It causes the cavitation effect in the fluid medium arising out of the
ultrasonic vibration of the tool in the fluid medium.
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Operations of Ultrasonic Machining
(VTU Dec. 2011: June / July 2014/ Jan 2015)

Ultrasonic machining is an economical process by which we can produce cavity
or hole in the hard and brittle materials. The sequence of operation is given
below:
1. Electrical supply is given to high-frequency generator. HF generator
creates an alternating magnetic field which expands and contracts the
stack made of magnetostrictive material (transducer). To get maximum
magnetostriction, HF AC current is superimposed with DC pre-
magnetizing current.
2. Since the frequency of the magnetic field created by AC signal is same as
that of the natural frequency of the transducer, mechanical resonance
occurs. Transducer length is equal to half of the length.
3. Oscillation of amplitude obtained from the transducer is about 5 microns,

which is very small for metal removal. Therefore, it is amplified to 40-50
microns by fitting amplifiers into the output end of the transducer.
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4. Acoustic horn transmits the mechanical energy to the tool and

concentrates power on small machining area.
5. The tool is fed into the workpiece by an automatic feed mechanism. It has
a provision for measurement of static pressure exerted by the tool and
penetration depth measurement.
6. Abrasive slurry under pressure is supplied to the working gap between the
tool and the workpiece by a centrifugal pump.
7. Abrasive particles are hammered by the tool into the workpiece surface,
and they abrade the workpiece into the conjugate image of tool form.
TOOL FEED MECHANISM
(VTU May/June 2010, Dec. 2010; June/July 2014)
The feed mechanism of an ultrasonic machine must perform the following
functions:
1. Bring the tool slowly to the workpiece to prevent breaking.
2. The tool must provide adequate cutting force and sustain it during the
machining
operation.
3.The cutting force must be decreased when the specified depth is reached.
4. Overrun a small distance to ensure the required hole size at the exit.
5. The tool has to come back to its initial position after machining is done.
There are four types of feed mechanism which are commonly used in USM
1. Gravity feed mechanism
2. Spring loaded feed mechanism
3. Pneumatic or hydraulic feed mechanism
4.Motor controlled feed mechanism.
1. Gravity feed mechanism
Figure 2.5 shows the operation of the gravity tool feed mechanism. In this
mechanism counter, balance weights are used to apply the required load to
the head through pulley and rope arrangement. In order to reduce friction
ball, bearings are used. Gravity feed mechanisms are simple in construction,
but this mechanism is insensitive and inconvenient to adjust.
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2.Spring loaded feed mechanism
Figure shows the operation of spring loaded tool feed mechanism. In this
mechanism spring pressure is used to feed the tool during the machining
operation. This type of mechanism is quite sensitive and easy to adjust.
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31
3. Pneumatic or hydraulic feed mechanism

Figure 2.7 shows the operation of pneumatic or hydraulic tool feed mechanism.
In this mechanism, hydraulic cylinder is used to give a linear motion of the tool.
High feed rate and accurate positioning are possible with hydraulic feed
mechanism.
4. Motor controlled feed mechanism
Figure 2.8 shows the operation of the motor controlled feed mechanism. This
mechanism is used for precise control of the tool feed movement.
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PROCESS PARAMETERS
(VTU June/July 2009: June/July 2014: June/July 2015)
Various parameters that affect the ultrasonic machining are:
1. Amplitude of vibration (15 to 50 microns)
2. Frequency of vibration (19 to 25 kHz)
3. Feed force (F) related to tool dimensions
4. Feed pressure
5. Abrasive size
6. Abrasive material: Al2O3, SiC, B4C, boron silica carbide, diamond dust.
7. Flow strength of the work material
8. Flow strength of the tool material
9. Contact area of the tool
10. Volume concentration of abrasive in water slurry
11. Tool
(a) Material of tool
(b) Shape
(c) Amplitude of vibration
(d) Frequency of vibration
(e) Strength developed in tool
(g) Gap between tool and work
12. Work material
(a) Material
(b) Impact strength
(c) Surface fatigue strength
13. Slurry
(a) Abrasive-hardness, size, shape and quantity of abrasive flow
(b) Liquid-chemical property, viscosity, flow rate
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33
(c) Pressure
(d) Density
PROCESS CAPABILITY OF USM
Process capabilities of USM are:
(VTU June/July 2011)
1. Can machine the workpieces harder than 40 HRC to 60 HRC like carbides,
ceramics, tungsten glass that cannot be machined by conventional methods.
USM is not applicable to soft and ductile materials such as copper, lead, ductile
steel and plastics, which absorb energy by deformation
2.Tolerance range: 7 to 25 microns.
3. Holes up to 76 microns have been drilled. Hole depths up to 51 mm have
been achieved easily. Hole depth of 152 mm deep is achieved by special
flushing techniques
4. Aspect ratio 40:1 has been achieved.
5. Linear material removal rate: -0.025 to 25 mm/min.
6. Surface finish: -0.25 micron to 0.75 micron.
7. Non-directional surface texture is possible compared to conventional
grinding.
8. Radial overcut may be as low as 1.5 to 4 times the mean, abrasive grain size.
MACHINING CHARACTERISTICS OF USM

(VTU June 2012; Dec. 2012)
Following are the USM process criteria:
1. Material removal rate
2. Geometrical accuracy
3. Surface finish
4. Out of roundness
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Metal removal rate is affected by:

1. Work material
2. Amplitude
3. Frequency of tool oscillations
4. Static pressure
5. Abrasive concentration in the slurry (mixing ratio)
Accuracy and surface finish depend on:
1. Work materials
2. Tool material and tool design
3. Oscillation amplitude and grain size of the abrasives
4. Hole depth and machining time
5. Cavitation effect
EFFECT OF PARAMETERS OF ULTRASONIC MACHINING ON METAL REMOVAL
RATE (MRR)
(VTU Dec. 09/Jan. 10; June/July 2013)
The following important parameters which affect MRR and surface finish are
discussed
in subsequent sections:
1. Amplitude of tool oscillations
2. Frequency of tool oscillations
3. Abrasive grain size
4. Static loading (feed force)
5. Effect of slurry concentration of the abrasive
6. Hardness ratio of the tool and the workpiece.
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35
Effect of Amplitude on MRR
• Increase in the amplitude of vibration increase MRR. The effect of the

amplitude of vibration on MRR for different pressure.
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36
Effect of Frequency on MRR
• Increase in the frequency of the tool head, the MRR should increase
proportionally. However, there is a slight variation in the MRR with
frequency.
Effect of Abrasive Grain Size
17
37
18
38
Effect of applied static load (Feed Force)
19
39
Effect of slurry, tool and work material
20
40
Effect of Hardness ratio of the tool and the workpiece.
Work material MRR

Glass 100
Brass 6.6
Tungsten 4.8
Titanium 4.0
Steel 3.9
Chromium steel 1.4
* Frequency of 16.3 kHz, grain dia of 12.5 microns and grain size of 100 mesh.
APPLICATIONS OF USM
1. Machining of cavities in electrically non-conductive ceramics.

2. Used to machine fragile components in which otherwise the scrap rate is
high.
3. Used for multi-step processing for fabricating silicon nitride, turbine
blades.
4. A large number of holes of small diameter. 930 holes with 0.32 mm have
been made using hypodermic needles.
5. Used for machining hard, brittle metallic alloys, semiconductors, glass,
ceramics, sapphire, sintered carbides, etc
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6. Used for machining round, square, irregular shaped holes and surface
impressions.
7. Used in machining of dies for wire drawing, punching and blanking
operations.
8. USM can perform operations like drilling, boring, sinking blanking,
grinding, tre-panning, coining, engraving and milling operations on all
materials which can be treated suitably with abrasives.
9. USM has been used for piercing of dies and for parting off and blanking
operations.
10.USM enables a dentist to drill a hole of any shape in teeth without any
pain.
11.Ferrites and steel parts, precision mineral stones can be machined using
USM.
12.USM can be used to cut industrial diamonds.
13.USM is used for grinding quartz, glass, and ceramics.
14.Cutting holes with curved or spiral centre lines and cutting threads in glass
and mineral or metallic-ceramics.
ADVANTAGES OF USM
1. It can be used to machine hard, brittle, fragile and non-conductive
materials.
2. No heat is generated in work, therefore, no significant changes in physical
structure of the work material.
3. Non-metal (because of the poor electrical conductivity) that cannot be
machined by EDM and ECM can very well be machined by USM.
4. It is a burr less and distortion less processes
5. It can be adopted in conjunction with other new technologies like EDM,
ECG, ECM.
6. High accuracy with good surface finish can be achieved.
7. Possesses the capability of drilling circular and non-circular holes in very
hard materials like ceramics and other brittle materials.
DISADVANTAGES OF USM
1. Low metal removal rate.
2. It is difficult to drill deep holes, as slurry movement is restricted.
3. Frontal and side tool wear rate is high due to abrasive particles, especially
when cutting steel and carbides. Side wear produces less accurate holes
and cavities.
4. Tools made from brass, tungsten carbide, MS or tool steel wear from the
action of abrasive grit with a ratio that ranges from 1:1 to 200:1.
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5. USM can be used only when the hardness of the work is more than 45
HRC.
6. It is not economical for soft materials.
7. Not suitable for heavy stock removal.
8. USM is not useful of machining holes and cavities with lateral extension
of more than 25-30 mm with a limited depth of cut.
9. Every job needs a specific tool. Therefore, tool cost is high.
10.The abrasive slurry should be changed regularly to replace worn out
particles. Therefore additional cost is involved.
11. Sharp corners are difficult to make using USM
*****
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Quiz Test 1.
1.Which of the following material is not generally machined by USM

(i) Copper
(ii) Glass
(iii) Silicon
(iv) Germanium
2. Tool in USM is generally made of
(i) Glass
(ii) Ceramic
(iii) Carbides
(iv) Steel
3. Increasing volume concentration of abrasive in slurry would affect MRR in the
following manner
(i) Increase MRR
(ii) Decrease MRR
(iii) Would not change MRR
(iv) Initially decrease and then increase MRR
4. USM can be classified as the following type of non-traditional machining
process
(i) Electrical
(ii) Optical
(iii) Mechanical
(iv) Chemical
Answer: 1 – (a) 2 – (d) 3 – (a) 4 – (c)
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Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)
In abrasive jet machining, a focused high velocity stream of abrasive

particles, carried by high-pressure air or gas is made to impinge on the work
surface through a nozzle to remove work material by erosion.
AJM is mainly used to cut intricate shapes in the hard and brittle materials
which are sensitive to heat and chip easily. The process is also used for deburring
and cleaning operations. AJM is inherently free from chatter and vibration
problems. The cutting action is cool because the carrier gas serves as a coolant.
Description of the AJM process
In abrasive jet machining abrasive particles are made to impinge on the

work materials at a high velocity. A jet of abrasive particles is carried by a carrier
gas or air. The high-velocity stream of abrasives is generated by converting
pressure energy of carrier gas or air to its kinetic energy and hence high-velocity
jet. Nozzles direct abrasive jet in a controlled manner on to the work material.
The high-velocity abrasive particles remove the material by micro- cutting action
as well as a brittle fracture of the work material.
This is a process of removal of material by impact erosion through the
action of concentrated high-velocity stream of grit abrasives entrained in the
high-velocity gas stream. AJM is different from shot or sandblasting, as in AJM,
finer abrasive grits are used, and parameters can be controlled more effectively
providing better control over the product quality.
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In AJM, generally, the abrasive particles of around 50 microns grit size

would impinge on the work material at a velocity of 200 m/s from a nozzle of ID
0.5 mm with a standoff distance of around 2 mm. The kinetic energy of the
abrasive particles would be sufficient to provide material removal due to brittle
fracture of the workpiece or even micro-cutting by the abrasives. The four
important actions in abrasive jet machining are:
o Fine particles (0.025 mm) are accelerated in a gas stream.
o The particles are directed towards the focus of machining.
o As the particles impact the surface, it causes a micro-fracture, and
the gas carries fractured particles away.
o Brittle and fragile work better.
Description on equipment:
A schematic layout of AJM is shown in Figure . The gas stream is then

passed to the nozzle through a connecting hose. The velocity of the abrasive
stream ejected through the nozzle is generally of the order of 330 m/sec.
Abrasive jet machining consists of
1. Gas propulsion system
(i) Abrasive feeder
(ii) Machining chamber
(ii) AJM nozzle
(iv) Abrasives
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Gas Propulsion System
Supplies clean and dry air. Air, nitrogen and carbon dioxide propel the
abrasive particles. Gas may be supplied either from a compressor or a cylinder.
In the case of a compressor, air filter-cum-dryer should be used to avoid water
or oil contamination of abrasive powder. Gas should be non-toxic, cheap, easily
available. It should not excessively spread when discharged from the nozzle into
the atmosphere. The propellant consumption is of the order of 0.008 m3/min at
a nozzle pressure of 5 bars, and abrasive flow rate varies from 2 to 4 gm/min for
fine machining and 10 to 20 gm/min for cutting operation.
Abrasive Feeder
The required quantity of abrasive particles is supplied by the abrasive
feeder. The filleted propellant is fed into the mixing chamber wherein abrasive
particles are fed through a sieve. The sieve is made to vibrate at 50-60 Hz and
mixing ratio is controlled by the amplitude of vibration of the sieve. The particles
are propelled by a carrier gas (transfer medium) to a mixing chamber. Air
abrasive mixture moves further to the nozzle. The nozzle imparts high velocity
to the mixture which is directed at the workpiece surface.
Desired properties of carrier gas used in AJM:
1. It should be non-toxic.
2. It should be cheap and easily available.
3. It should not spread too much when discharged from the nozzle to the
atmosphere.
4. It should be easy to condition the carrier gas before mixing with
abrasives: like
drying to remove moisture, filtering to remove the contaminations.
Nitrogen, carbon dioxide, helium and compressed air are commonly used
carrier gases in AJM.
Mixing chamber
It is tightly closed so that concentration of abrasive particles in the mixing

chamber does not reach harmful limits. The mixing chamber is equipped with
vacuum dust collector. Special consideration should be given to dust collection
system if the toxic material (like beryllium) is being machined.
AJM Nozzle Geometry

AJM nozzle is usually made of tungsten carbide or sapphire (usually life -
300 hours for sapphire, 20 to 30 hours for WC) which has resistance to wear.
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47
The nozzle is made of either circular or rectangular cross section, and head can
be straight, or at a right angle. It is so designed that loss of pressure due to the
bends, friction, etc, is minimum possible. With the increase in wear of the nozzle,
the divergence of the jet stream increases resulting in more stray cutting and
high inaccuracy. Figure shows round-shaped and rectangular shaped slots.
Different types of nozzles
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Desired properties of materials used for nozzle:
1. Material has to withstand the erosive action of abrasive particles

2. It should have good wear resistance properties. Increase in wear of the nozzle
leads to divergence of the jet stream. The divergence of jet stream causes stray
cutting and inaccurate holes.
3. It should have good resistance to corrosion.
4. It should be designed such that loss of pressure due to bend and friction is
minimum.
Abrasives used in AJM
Aluminium oxide (Al2O3), silicon carbide (SiC), glass beads, crushed glass and
sodium bicarbonate are some of the abrasives used in AJM. Selection of
abrasives depends on MRR, type of work material, machining accuracy.
Different abrasives used in AJM and its applications
Desired properties of abrasives used in AJM
1. Abrasives should have sharp and irregular shape.
2. It should be fine enough to remain suspended in carrier gas.
3. In addition to hardness, the important properties of abrasive is friability.

Friability is the ability abrasives grains to fracture into smaller pieces; this
property gives abrasives self-sharpening characteristics. High friability indicates
low strength or low fracture resistance of the abrasives. High friable abrasives
fragment more rapidly than lower friable abrasives. Aluminium oxide has lower
friability than silicon carbide; hence, it has less tendency to fracture.
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4. Should be cheap and easily available.
5. It should have excellent flow characteristics.
Silicon carbide and aluminium oxide are used for cutting operation.
Sodium bicarbonate, dolomite, glass beads are used for cleaning, etching,
deburring and polishing applications.
PROCESS PARAMETERS
1. Material removal rate.

2. Geometry and surface finish of the workpiece.
3. Wear rate of the nozzle.
However, process criteria are generally influenced by the process
parameters as enumerated below
• Abrasives
(a) Material: Al2O3, SiC, glass beads, crushed glass, sodium bicarbonate
(b) Shape: Irregular/regular
(c) Size: 10 to 50 microns
(d) Mass flow: 2-20 g/min
• Carrier Gas
(a) Composition: Air, CO2, N2
(b) Density : 1.3 kg/m3
(c) Velocity : 500 to 700 m/s
(d) Pressure: 2 to 10 bars
(e) Flow rate:5 to 30 microns
• Abrasive Jet
(a) Velocity:100 to 300 m/s
(b) Mixing ratio : Volume flow rate of abrasives/volume flow rate of gas
(c) Standoff distance: SoD-0.5 to 15 mm.
(d) Impingement angle : 600 to 900
• Nozzle
(a) Material - WC/sapphire
(b) Diameter -0.2 to 0.8 mm
(c) Life -300 hours for sapphire, 20 to 30 hours for WC
PROCESS CAPABILITY
1. Material removal rate-0.015 cm3/min
2. Narrow slots-0.12 to 0.25 mm
3. Surface finish-0.25 micron to 1.25 micron
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4. Sharp radius up to 0.2mm is possible.

5. Steel up to 1.5mm, glass up to 6.3 mm is possible to cut.
6. Machining of thin sectional hard and brittle materials is possible.
Process parameters of AJM
Effect of Abrasive Flow Rate and Grain Size on MRR
At a particular pressure MRR increases with the increase of abrasive flow

rate and is influenced by the size of abrasive particles. But after reaching
optimum value, MRR decreases with further increase of abrasive flow rate. This
is owing to the fact that mass flow rate of gas decreases with the increase of
abrasive flow rate and hence mixing ratio increases causing a decrease in
material removal rate because of decreasing energy available for erosion.
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The velocity of carrier gas conveying the abrasive particles changes

considerably with the change of abrasive particle density as indicated in figure.
The exit velocity of gas can be increased to critical velocity when the
internal gas pressure is near twice the pressure at the exit of the nozzle for the
abrasive particle density is zero. If the density of abrasive particles is gradually
increased exit velocity will go on decreasing for the same pressure condition. It
is due to fact that kinetic energy of gas is utilized for transporting the abrasive
particle.
Effect of Mixing Ratio on MRR

Increased mass flow rate of abrasive will result in a decreased velocity of
the fluid and will thereby decreases the available energy for erosion and
ultimately the MRR. It is convenient to explain this fact by the term mixing ratio.
Which is defined as
Volume flow rate of abrasives per unit time

Mixing ratio = --------------------------------------------------------------
Volume flow rate of carrier gas per unit time
The effect of mixing ratio on the material removal rate is shown in below
Figure 3.6.
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52
33
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The material removal rate can be improved by increasing the abrasive

flow rate provided the mixing ratio can be kept constant. The mixing ratio is
unchanged only by a simultaneous increase of both gas and abrasive flow rate
(Figure 3.7).
An optimum value of mixing ratio that gives maximum MRR is predicted

by trial and error. In place of mixing ratio, the mass ratio may be easier to
determine. It is defined as
Volume flow rate of abrasives ma
α = ----------------------------------------------- = ------------
Volume flow rate of carrier gas ma+ mg
Effect of Gas Flow of Carrier Gas on MRR
The abrasive flow rate can be increased by increasing the flow rate of the
carrier gas. This is only possible by increasing the internal gas pressure as shown
in Figure 3.8. As the internal gas pressure increases abrasive mass flow rate
increases and thus MRR increases.
As a matter of fact, the material removal rate will increase with the
increase in gas pressure.
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54
The kinetic energy of the abrasive particles is responsible for the removal
of material by erosion process. The abrasive must impinge on the work surface
with minimum velocity for machining glass by SiC particle is found to be around
150 m/s (Figure 3,9).
Standoff Distance/Nozzle Gap Distance (Figure 3.10)
Standoff distance (SoD) is defined as the distance between the face of the
nozzle and the work surface of the work. SoD has been found to have a
considerable effect on the work material and accuracy. A large SoD results in
flaring of the jet which leads to poor accuracy.
35
55
It is clear from Figure 3.11 that MRR increases with nozzle tip distance or
SoD up to a certain distance and then decreases. Penetration rate also increases
with SoD and then decreases. The decrease in SoD improves accuracy, decreases
kerf width, and reduces taper in the machined groove. However, light
operations like cleaning, frosting, etc., are conducted with large SoD (say, 12.5
to 75 mm).
Applications of AJM
1. This is used for abrading and frosting glass, ceramics and refractories
more economically as compared to etching or grinding.
2. Cleaning of metallic smears on ceramics, oxides on metals, resistive
coating, etc.
3. AJM is useful in manufacture of electronic devices, drilling of glass wafers,
deburring of plastics, making of nylon and Teflon parts, permanent
marking on rubber stencils, cutting titanium foils.
4. Deflashing small castings and trimming of parting lines of injection
molded parts and forgings.
5. Used for engraving registration numbers on toughened glass used for car
windows.
6. Used for cutting thin, fragile components like germanium, silicon, quartz,
mica, etc.
7. Register streaming can be done very easily and micro-module fabrication
for electrical contact, semiconductor processing can also be done
effectively.
8. Used for drilling, cutting, deburring etching and polishing of hard and
brittle materials.
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9. Most suitable for machining brittle and heat sensitive materials like glass,
quartz, sapphire, mica, ceramics germanium, silicon, and gallium
10.It is also a good method for deburring small hole like in hypodermic
needles and for small milled slots in hard metallic components.
11.It can be used for micro-machining of brittle materials.
12.It is used in fine drilling and aperture drilling for electronic microscopes.
13.Used for cleaning metallic molds and cavities.
14.Cleaning surfaces from corrosion, paints, glues and other contaminants,
especially those that are inaccessible.
15.Deburring of surgical needles and hydraulic valves, nylon, Teflon and
Delrin
16.Engraving on glass using rubber or metallic masks.
ADVANTAGES OF AJM
1. High surface finish can be obtained depending upon the grain sizes
High surface finish can be Surface roughness (in microns)
obtained depending upon the
grain sizes.Particle size (in
microns)
10 0.152 to 0.203
25 to 27 0.355 to 0.675
50 0.965 to 1.27
2. Depth of damage is low (around 2.5 microns).
3. It provides cool cutting action, hence, can machine delicate and heat
sensitive materials such as glass and ceramics. They can be machined
without affecting their physical properties and crystalline structure.
4. Process is free from chatter and vibration as there is no contact between
the tool and the workpiece.
5. Capital cost is low, and it is easy to operate and maintain AJM.
6. Thin sections of hard, brittle materials like germanium, mica, silicon, glass
and ceramics can be machined.
7. It has the capability of cutting holes of intricate shape in hard and brittle
materials
8. Abrasive jet processes produce surfaces which have high wear resistance.
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DISADVANTAGES OF AJM
1. Limited capacity due to low MRR. MRR for glass is 40 gm/minute.

2. Abrasives may get embedded in the work surface, especially while
machining soft materials like elastomers or soft plastics.
3. The accuracy of cutting is hampered by tapering of the hole due to the
unavoidable flaring of the abrasive jet.
4. Stray cutting is difficult to avoid and hence, accuracy is not good.
5. A dust collection system is a basic requirement to prevent atmospheric
pollution and health hazards.
6. Nozzle life is limited (300 hours).
7. Abrasive powders cannot be reused as the sharp edges are worn out and
smaller particles can clog the nozzle.
8. Short standoff distances when used for cutting damage the nozzle.
9. The processing accuracy is poor because of flaring effect of the abrasive
jet.
10.Deep holes will have unacceptable taper.
11.The process is not environment-friendly and causes pollution.
12.Some hazard is involved in using AJM process because of airborne
abrasives particulates. By using abrasive water jet machining, this
problem can be solved.
****
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Water Jet Machining (WJM)
Water jet machining (WJM) is a mechanical energy based non traditional

machining
process used to cut and machine soft and non-metallic materials.
Water jet machining employs high velocity 900 m/s, approximately Mach
number 3 water jet. When the stream strikes the workpiece, the erosive force
of water removes the material rapidly. The water, in this case, acts like a saw
and cuts a narrow groove in the workpiece material. This process is primarily
used to cut and slit porous non-metals such as wood, paper, leather and foam.
It is also used to cut composites, stripping and deburring. Pulsed water jets have
been used in rock excavation and machining lead and aluminium. Cutting
capability at a pressure up to 10,000 atm was reported for a wide variety of
target material including wood, lead, leather, and rubber, aluminium, copper
and steel.
DESCRIPTION OF PROCESS (VTU June/July2011; Dec. 2011)
In water jet machining, high velocity (600-1400 m/s) and high pressure
(2000-8000 bars) water jet is allowed to strike the given workpiece. During this
process, the velocity of water is virtually reduced to zero on striking the surface.
Practically, most of the kinetic energy of the jet of water is converted into the
high-pressure energy. In the first few milliseconds of initial striking, the transient
pressure reaches several times greater than the normal stagnation pressure.
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Thus, the mechanism of water jet cutting (Figure 3.14) is erosion caused
by localized compressive failure which occurs when the local fluid pressure
exceeds the strength of the target material. In some ductile materials, it is
involved with a shearing action caused by the high-speed radial flow of jet along
the workpiece. When quality cutting is not required, such as tunneling, another
mechanism like spalling caused by stress waves and the effect of stagnation
pressure caused by cutting fluid penetrating cracks and pores are expected.
Some researchers are of the opinion that cavitation in the jet also plays a role in
eroding the target material.
In water jet machine, water cuts the tool which never dulls or breaks. This
process does not generate any dust and, therefore, hazards during machining
(especially fibres, composites, asbestos, etc.) are minimum.
DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT
A schematic layout of WJM is shown in Figure. The equipment consists of three
main units:
(i) pump along with an intensifier to generate high pressure.

(ii) cutting unit consisting of nozzle and work table movement.
(iii) filtration unit to remove debris from the water after use.
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The main parts are:

1. Hydraulic pump
2. Intensifier
3. Accumulator
4. High-pressure tubing.
5. Jet cutting nozzle
6. Cather
Hydraulic Pump
The pump is powered by an electric motor and supplies oil at pressures as high
as 120 bars in order to drive the intensifier. Oil is drawn from the reservoir (tank)
and is pumped to the intensifier. The intensifier uses low-pressure oil to produce
high-pressure water jet. The hydraulic pump offers complete flexibility for water
jet cutting and cleaning applications. It also supports single or multiple cutting
stations for increased machining productivity.
Intensifier
Function of the intensifier is to convert the energy from low-pressure hydraulic
fluid into
ultra high-pressure water.
The intensifier shown in Figure, accepts water at low pressure (typically, 4 to
5 bars) and expels it through an accumulator at a higher pressure of 3800-4000
bars. The hydraulic system provides fluid power to a reciprocating piston in the
intensifier centre section. A limit switch, located at each end of piston travel,
signals the electronic controls to shift the direction control valve and reverses
the piston direction as shown in the figure. The intensifier assembly, with a
plunger on each side of the piston, generates pressure in both directions. As one
side of the intensifier is in the inlet stroke, the opposite side is generating ultra
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high-pressure output. During the plunger inlet stroke, filtered water enters the
high-pressure cylinder through the check valve assembly. After the plunger
reverses direction, water is compressed and exits at ultra high pressure.
Accumulator
The accumulator maintains the continuous flow of the high-pressure water
and eliminates
the pressure fluctuations. It relies on the compressibility of water in order to
maintain a uniform discharge pressure and water jet velocity when the
intensifier piston changes its direction
Nozzles
Nozzles convert high-pressure liquid to a high-velocity jet. For minimum erosion,
the
nozzle material should be extremely hard. Yet, to allow the formation of a
smooth contour, the material should be ductile and easily machinable. Proper
design of nozzles has made it possible to discontinue the use of long chain
polymers to lower down friction in fluid flow. The nozzles are made of synthetic
sapphire which is wear resistant and easily machinable. The presence of foreign
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62
particles (say, dirt) in water results in failure of the nozzle by chipping.

Sometimes, constriction of the nozzle by mineral deposits also results in nozzle
failure. Life of sapphire nozzle ranges from 200-600 hours depending upon the
application. Longer life can be obtained through multistage filtration, which
removes the undesired solids of size greater than 0.45 microns. The compact
design of the two-axis table to multi-axis robotic installation.
The internal diameter of a nozzle usually ranges from 0.07 to 0.50 mm.
High Pressure Tubing

High-pressure tubing transports pressurized water to the cutting head.
Typical tube diameters are 6 to 14 mm. The equipment allows for flexible
movement of the cutting head. The cutting action is controlled either manually
or through a remote controlled valve specially designed for this purpose.
Catcher
Catcher acts as a reservoir for collecting the machining debris. Water jet outside
the nozzle travels at a high speed. To minimize the exposed length of a jet, from
a safety point of view and also to minimize the process noise, a catcher is used.
There are two types:
1.tube type
2. slot type.
The tube catcher is commonly used. It consists of 300 to 600 mm long tube that
is attached to a draining hose. The length of the tube is sufficient to allow the
water jet to break up completely before it reaches the bottom of the tube. When
it would be awkward to manipulate tube catcher can be used. This uses a hard,
replaceable impingement insert to break up a catcher of this length behind
parts, as with a hand-held device, a short the jet quickly. For slitting system
incorporating multiple or adjustable nozzles, a slot type catcher is used.
Although the slot type catcher may be most convenient in this situation, it is less
effective in reducing noise levels.
Process variables that affect the performance of WJM
The process variables which control the WJM pressure are jet nozzle
parameters, jet fluid properties, workpiece properties, metal removal rate,
geometry and finish of the workpiece and wear rate of the nozzle.
Process parameters of WJM
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63
The critical parameters that affect the metal removal rate in water jet machining
are described below
a) Pressure of water
The higher the velocity of the jet of water, the better is the cutting action
performed by it. Hence, the pressure of the water at the nozzle inlet should be
high in order to obtain a high-velocity jet at the nozzle exit. Unfortunately, as
the pressure increases, the cost and maintenance of the equipment also
increases. However, with the maximum pressure of 400 MPa generated by the
intensifier, the cutting action is found to be satisfactory for most of the metals.
b) Nozzle diameter
A nozzle with an exit diameter of 0.05-0.35 mm gives a coherent jet length of up
to 3-4 cm. A
higher value of nozzle exit diameter gives a good metal removal rate.
c) Stand-off distance
Cutting is performed with a nozzle-to-workpiece stand-off distance less than 25
mm. The stand-off distance is considered as a fixed parameter and varies in
different situations. Increase in its value for a particular type of metal and its
thickness, changes the shape or diameter of the jet, which in turn reduces the
metal removal rate.
Application of WJM
WJM is used on metals, paper, cloth, leather, plastics, food and ceramics. It is a
versatile and cost effective cutting process that can be used as an alternative to
traditional machining methods. It completely eliminates heat affected zones,
toxic fumes, recast layers, work hardening and thermal stresses. It is the most
flexible and effective cleaning process. In general, the cut surface has sandblast
appearance and finish.
Moreover, the harder materials exhibit abetted edge finish. Typical surface
finishes range from 1.6 microns RMS to very coarse depending on the
application Tolerance is in the range of microns on thin material. Both the
produced surface roughness and tolerance depend on the machining speed.
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64
1. Cutting:
• WJM is used to cut fibre glass and corrugated wood.
• In aerospace and other similar industries, cutting of asbestos is done by
WJM to reduce airborne dust in the atmosphere.
• It is also used to cut fibreglass and polyethylene automotive parts.
• WJM is also used for high-speed cutting of corrugated box.
2 Drilling:
• Precision angled and shaped holes in a variety of materials can be drilled
where EDM or EBM is expensive and time-consuming.
3. Machining of plastics:
• In WJM, the thermal material damage is negligible. The tool, being
effectively pointed, accurately cuts contours.
• The main drawback is the deflection of the water jet by the fibre
embedded in the matrix, which protrudes after machining. The attainable
feed rate depends on the surface quality produced.
4. Cutting of rocks:
• Water jet cutting of 51 mm deep slot in granite using two oscillating jets
at 275 Mpa during 14 passes at a 25 mm/second feed rate has been
reported. Moreover, an oscillating nozzle system operating at the same
feed rate and pressure of 172 Mpa with standoff distance adjusted every
pass was used to cut a 178 mm deep slot in sandstone.
5.Deburring:
• The method uses large pressures to remove large burrs about 3 mm in
height in 12 mm diameter drilled holes in a hollow molybdenum
chromium steel shaft at a 15 second using 700 bar pressure and flow rate
of 27 litre per minute (LPM). In this method, burrs are broken off by the
impact of water A higher pressure of 4000 bars and a lower flow rate of
25 LPM are used to remove the burrs from non-metallic materials.
6.Cutting of printed circuit boards:
• Using a small diameter water jet mounted near the part edge, a printed
circuit board can be cut at a speed that exceeds 8 m/min, to the accuracy
of 0.13 mm. Boards of various shapes for use in portable radios and
cassette players can be cut using computer numerical control (CNC)
technology.
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65
7.Surface treatment:
The process finds many applications including:
• Removing deposits and residues without toxic chemicals, which

eliminates costly clean up and disposal problems.
• Surface cleaning of pipes and castings, decorative finishing, nuclear
decontamination, food utensils cleaning, degreasing, polishing,
preparation for precise inspection and surface texturing.
• Economical surface preparation and coating removal.
• Removal of corrosion, spray residue, soluble salts, chemicals and surface
damage prior to recoating or painting.
•
8.Wire stripping:
The process can remove the wire insulating material without damaging the
metal or removing the tinning on the copper wire. It is more efficient than the
manual stripping method.
9. Mining:
Hydraulic coal mining is possible using WJM. In most mining applications
water pressures below 350 bars combined with large diameter nozzles have
been used. A Canadian mine reported that two men produced 2250 tonnes of
coal in one shift by hydraulic mining.
10. Tunnel boring:

Japanese railway engineers have tested percussive drills incorporating two
or four nozzles, with diameters of 0.2-0.4 mm, operating at 4000 bars to achieve
holes of 35-215 mm in diameter at drilling speeds between two to five times the
normal rates. Similar methods have been used for demolishing reinforced
concrete structures, cutting anti-skid grooves in airfield runways and roads,
making trenches and laying cables.
ADVANTAGES OF WJM
(VTU Dec. 2012; June/July 2014; June/July 2014)
1. It has multi-directional cutting capability.
2. Water is cheap, non-toxic, readily available and can be easily disposed of.
3. No heat is generated. As a consequence, there is no possibility of rewelding
the material behind the advancing cutter. Also, there is no danger of degrading
the material thermally.
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66
4. Cuts can be started at any location without the need for pre-drilled holes.
5. Water jet approaches the ideal single point tool.
6. Any intricate contour can be cut in horizontal and vertical directions.
7. There is no deflection to the rest of the workpiece.
8. The burr produced is minimum. Wear on the tool is negligible.
9. The process is environment-friendly.
10. Hazardous airborne dust contamination and waste disposal problems that
are common when using other cleaning methods are eliminated. WJM is used
extensively for cutting asbestos and fibre insulation material.
11. There is multiple head processing.
12. Simple fixturing eliminates costly and complicated tooling, which reduces
turnaround time and lowers the cost.
13. Grinding and polishing are eliminated, reducing secondary operation costs.
14. The narrow kerfs allow tight nesting when multiple parts are cut from a
single blank.
15. It is ideal for roughing out material for near net shape.
16. It is ideal for laser reflective materials such as copper and aluminium
17. It allows for more accurate cutting of soft material.
18. It cuts thorough very thick material such as 383 mm in titanium and 307 mm
in inconel.
19. Noise is minimized as the power units, and pumps can be kept away from
the cutting point.
20 Fluid can be reused by filtering the debris.
21 Only small amount of fluid is required, usually 200-300 LPH.
22 Workpiece remains clean and dust free.
23. The operation and maintenance costs of this process are low since there are
no moving parts.
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67
24. The process is suitable for cutting soft materials such as leather, rubber, and
asbestos which may clog the teeth of a conventional saw.
25. It is suited for the explosive environment, cutting asbestos, fiberglass
insulation.
DISADVANTAGES OF WJM
(VTU June/July 2014. June/July 2015)
1. It is not suitable for mass production because of high maintenance.

2. Equipment are expensive and, therefore, hourly rates are high.
3. It is not well suited for hard, non-porous materials.
4. Contaminated water must be treated before disposal.
5. Safety requirement is high as high-pressure water jet is used.
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RajaRajeswari College of Engineering

#14, Ramohalli cross, Kumbalagodu, Mysore road, Bengaluru - 560 074
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi. Affiliated to the Visvesvaraya Technological
University, Belgaum)
Department of Mechanical Engineering
17ME554 Non-Traditional Machining (Professional Elective – I)
Module 2-Questions
1. Explain with schematic diagram the abrasive jet machining process.

2. Explain the following variables that influence the rate of metal removal
and accuracy of machining in abrasive jet machining: (i) carrier gas, (ii)
types of abrasives, (iii) standoff distance, and (iv) mean number of
abrasive grains per unit volume of carrier gas.
3. Explain abrasive jet machining with schematic diagram.
(VTU Dec. 2009/Jan. 2010)
4. Explain the variables that influence the rate of metal removal and
accuracy of machining.
(VTU Dec. 2009/Jan.,2010)
5. What is mean number of abrasive grains per unit volume of carrier gas.
(VTU Dec. 2009/Jan. 2010)
6. With a neat sketch, explain briefly the working of abrasive jet
machining.
(VTU May/June 2010)
7. List the variables which affect the metal removal rate (MRR) and explain
any three.
(VTU May/June 2010)
8. Mention any two advantages, disadvantages, and applications of AJM.
(VTU May/June 2010)
9. With the help of a neat sketch, explain the principle of abrasive jet
machining.
(VTU Dec. 2010)
10.List and explain any five parameters that influence abrasive jet machining
(VTU Dec. 2010)
11.How does the following parameters affect MRR in abrasive jet machining
(a) Nozzle gap distance
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69
(b) Abrasive size, and

(c) Nozzle pressure
12.Write a note on the abrasives used in AJM with examples.
13.List the variables that influence the rate of metal removal and accuracy of
machining in abrasive jet machining, Explain any three.
(VTU Dec. 2011)
14.Sketch and explain AJM process

(VTU June 2012)
15.During AJM process, the mixing ratio is 0.2, calculate the mass ratio if the
ratio of the density of abrasive and density of the carrier gas is 20.
(VTU June 2012)
16.List variables in AJM and explain any four
(VTU Dec. 2012)
17.Write a note on abrasive slurry used in AJM indicating types of abrasives,
and their properties, sizes used, liquid media with functions and
characteristics
(VTU Dec. 2012)
18.Explain how the following parameters influence metal removal rate in

AJM.
(i) nozzle tip distance, (iii) velocity of abrasives,
(ii) abrasive flow rate, and (iv) gas pressure
19.Explain the desired properties of abrasive materials used in AJM.
20.Explain the variables in AJM process
21.With simple sketches explain nozzle geometry in AJM process
22.How does AJM differ from conventional sandblasting?
(VTU Dec. 2014/]an.15)
23.What are the different types of abrasives used in AJM?
(VTU Dec. 2014/Jan15)
24.State and explain the working and principle of AJM.
(VTU Dec. 2014/Jan. 2015)
25.Draw the schematic diagram of abrasive jet machining and explain its
working principle
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70
26.List the applications of abrasive jet machining

27.Mention the advantages of water jet machining
28.What are the advantages and applications of water jet machining?

29.Write the applications, advantages, and limitations of water jet machining
processes
30.What are the applications of WJM?
(VTU Dec. 2011)
31.With a schematic diagram, explain briefly water jet machining processes.
(VTU Dec. 2011)
32.What are the process variables that affect the performance of water jet
machining process?
(VTU June 2012)
33.Explain advantages of water jet machining.
(VTU Dec. 2012)
*****
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71
RajaRajeswari College of Engineering

#14, Ramohalli cross, Kumbalagodu, Mysore road, Bengaluru - 560 074
(Approved by AICTE, New Delhi. Affiliated to the Visvesvaraya Technological
University, Belgaum)
Department of Mechanical Engineering
17ME554 Non-Traditional Machining (Professional Elective – I)
Assignment -2
1. Explain with schematic diagram the abrasive jet machining process.
2. With a schematic diagram, explain briefly water jet machining processes.
3. Explain abrasive Ultra Sonic Machining with schematic diagram.
4. List the various advantages and disadvantages of USM, AJM, WJM.
5. List the various applications of USM, AJM, WJM.
6. Explain the following variables that influence the rate of metal removal
and accuracy of machining in abrasive jet machining:
(i) Carrier gas,
(ii) Types of abrasives,
(iii) Standoff distance,
(iv) Mean number of abrasive grains per unit volume of carrier gas,
(v) Nozzle gap distance,
(vi) Abrasive size, and
(vii) Nozzle pressure
Each Questions carry 6 x 5 = 30 marks
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72
MODULE 3
ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING (ECM)
Introduction, Principle of electro chemical machining: ECM equipment,

elements of ECM operation, Chemistry of ECM. ECM Process characteristics:
Material removal rate, accuracy, surface finish.
Process parameters: Current density, Tool feed rate, Gap between tool & work
piece, velocity of electrolyte flow, type of electrolyte, its concentration
temperature, and choice of electrolytes. ECM Tooling: ECM tooling technique &
example, Tool & insulation materials.
Applications ECM: Electrochemical grinding and electrochemical honing

process.
Advantages, disadvantages and application of ECG, ECH.
CHEMICAL MACHINING (CHM)

Elements of the process: Resists (maskants), Etchants. Types of chemical
machining process chemical blanking process, chemical milling process.
Process characteristics of CHM: material removal rate, accuracy, surface

finish, advantages, limitations and applications of chemical machining process.
10 hours
Introduction Electrochemical Machining (ECM)
(VTU Dec. 2009/2010)
Electrochemical machining (ECM) is the controlled removal of metal by

anodic dissolution in an electrolytic medium in which the workpiece is an anode
(+ve) and the tool is a cathode (-ve).
Electrochemical machining (ECM) is also known as a contact less

electrochemical forming process. This machining process is based on Faraday's
principle of electrolysis. In electrolysis, electrical energy is used to produce a
chemical reaction. Therefore, this machining process is known as electrochemical
machining (ECM).
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73
Michael Faraday discovered that if the two electrodes are placed in a bath
containing a conductive liquid and DC potential (5-25 V) is applied across them,
metal can be depleted (worn out) from the anode and plated on the cathode.
In electroplating, the metal is deposited on the workpiece, while in

electrochemical machining; the material is removed from the workpiece.
Therefore, ECM is the reverse of the electroplating.
ECM is the controlled removal of metal by anodic dissolution at the atomic

level of the electrically conductive workpiece. In ECM, the work is connected to
the anode (positive terminal), and the shaped tool is connected to the cathode
(negative terminal). When the current is passed, the workpiece loses metal, and
the dissolved metal is carried out by circulating an electrolyte between the work
and the tool. In ECM flow of high current electrolyte is a water based neutral salt
solution.
In ECM, the electrolyte is so chosen that there is no plating on the tool and
shape of the tool remains unchanged. If the close gap (0.1 to 0.2 mm) is
maintained between the tool and the work, the machined surface takes the replica
of tool shape (Figure)
ECM setup
ECM is widely used in machining jobs having intricate shapes and for very
hard and tough materials those are difficult or impossible to be machined by
conventional machining. It is now routinely used for machining of aerospace
components, critical deburring, fuel injection system components, ordnance
components, etc. It is suitable for making dies and moulds.
ECM EQUIPMENT AND PROCESS
74
The electrochemical machining system has the following modules:
(VTU Dec. 2011, Dec. 2012)
1. Power supply
2 Electrolyte supply and cleaning system
3. Temperature control
4. Tool and tool feed system
5. Workpiece and work holding system.
Figure 4.4 schematically shows an electrochemical drilling unit
75
ELEMENTS OF ECM OPERATIONS
Electrochemical machining (ECM) requires the following elements:
(VTU Dec. 2009/Jan. 2010; May/June 2010)
1.Cathode tool: A cathode tool is prepared as an approximate mirror image of

the part to be produced.
2. Workpiece: Both the tool and the workpiece must be electrically conductive.
The work is held in a fixture and located close to the tool. Gap (0.1-1 mm)
between the tool and the workpiece with flowing conductive liquid (electrolyte)
must be maintained.
3. DC power (5-30V DC) source to maintain sufficient current density between

the tool and workpiece.
4. The flow of electrolyte [Sodium Chloride (NaCl), Potassium Chloride (KCl),

Sodium Nitrate (NaNO3)] rapidly sweeps away the reaction products from the
narrow machining gap.
Each of these elements is discussed in detail as follows.
76
Cathode Tool:
The accuracy and surface finish of the tool affects accuracy of the affect accuracy
of the workpiece because the part to be produced is a replica of the tool. Tool
materials commonly used are aluminium, brass, bronze, copper, carbon, stainless
steel (SST), monel and reinforced plastics. These tool materials are soft and can
be machined easily.
Anode Workpiece:
The work must be conductive and mechanical properties such as hardness won't
affect the metal removal rate. However, the chemical properties of the material
such as atomic weight and valency of the work material affect the metal removal
rate. The work holding fixtures are made of some insulating material.
Power Supply:
During ECM, a high value of direct current (may be as high as 40,000 A) and a
low value of electric potential (in the range of 5-30 V) across IEG (inter-electrode
gap) is used. The highest current density of 20,000 A/cm2 can be achieved. The
voltage must be controlled closely because it affects the equilibrium of the
machining gap and accuracy of the work. The power supply also includes safety
circuits to switch off the device when the tool is too close to the work or when
there is no supply of electrolyte or when improperly filtered electrolyte is used.
Since the machine operates at a very low voltage, there is no risk of electrical
shocks.
Three-phase AC is converted to a low voltage, high current DC using rectifier

and transfer circuit. Silicon controlled rectifiers (SCRs) are used for both
rectification and voltage regulation. SCRs give a rapid response to the changes in
the processing load and are compact Voltage regulation of ±1% is required for
ECM. Whenever there is sparking between the tool and the workpiece, the
electrical circuitry cuts off power within 10 microseconds to prevent damage to
the tool and work.
Electrolyte Supply and Cleaning System:
The electrolyte supply and cleaning system consists of a pump, filter, pipings,
control valves, heating or cooling coils, pressure gauges, and a storage tank (or
reservoir).
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77
Single or multistage centrifugal pumps are universally used in ECM. The gap
between the tool and the work is less in ECM, and any blockage of the gap by
metal particles leads to short circuits. Therefore, the electrolyte must be kept
clean. Wire mesh filters made of SS steel, Monel or any other anticorrosive
material is commonly used in ECM. Centrifuge separator is also another popular
way of electrolyte filtration. They cost more, but they are relatively maintenance
free.
The pipe should not corrode. Pipes are usually made of SS steel, glass fibre
reinforced plastic (GFRP), plastic lined MS or similar other anticorrosive
material.
To avoid the mixing of used electrolyte with the new electrolyte, two or more
tanks are commonly used in ECM.
Temperature Control:
Temperature control of the electrolyte is important as temperature affects the

conductivity of an electrolyte. If the temperature of the electrolyte is less, then
MRR is less. If the temperature is more, then it leads to vaporization of the
electrolyte. Therefore, optimum temperature has to be maintained. The
manufacturers of ECM provide heating and cooling equipment and its controllers.
Tool and Tool Feed System:
Since the tool has no contact with the workpiece, there is no tool wear.
Electrolytes are usually corrosive therefore anticorrosive materials like copper,
brass, titanium, tungsten and SS steel are used. If any corrosive electrolyte is not
used, then the tool can be made of aluminium, graphite, bronze, platinum or
tungsten carbide
The general requirements of tool material in ECM are as follows:
1. It must be made of anticorrosive material if the electrolyte is corrosive.
2 It must be a conductor of electric current.
3. It must be chemically inert to the electrolyte used.
78
4. It must be easily machinable. Dimensional accuracy and surface finish of the

tool directly affect the workpiece accuracy and surface finish.
5. It must be stiff against vibration or deflection under the high hydraulic forces.
6. The tool should have high thermal conductivity
The tool is made hollow for drilling holes so that the electrolyte can pass along
the bore in the tool. Figure 4.2 shows the shape of the tool to produce holes with
minimum taper and excellent finish. The outer surface of the tool is insulated by
vinyl, porcelain, Teflon, phenolic enamels, epoxy or high-temperature varnish.
These insulations are applied by spraying or dipping.
Hollow tools for drilling
Insulation on the sides of the tool permits machining at the bottom surface only.
So that there is no machining on the sides and taper effect is avoided. Radius at
the tool bottom avoids turbulence and creates uniform electrolyte flow around the
corner. Usually, the electrolyte is made to flow from the inside of the tool cut
around the cutting edges and up through the hole.
Different types of tools used in ECM process (VTU June 2012/Jan. 2010)
Tools used in ECM are shown in Figure 4.3.
There are two types of tools used in ECM process
1. Insulated tool
2. Non-insulated tool
79
Different types of tools used in ECM
Table 4.1 gives a comparative index of the relationship of important properties of

the ECM tool material
Graphite is also used because it can be machined easily. But is must be coated
with copper as pure graphite erodes rapidly when subjected to high pressure and
high velocity electrolyte.
Workpiece and work holding system:
Only electrically conductive materials can be machined by this process. The

chemical properties of the anode (work) material largely govern the material
removal rate (MRR). Work holding devices are made of electricallynon-
conductive materials having good thermal stability, and low moisture absorption
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80
properties. For example, graphite fibre reinforced plastics, plastics, Perspex, etc.,
are the materials used for fabricating the work holding device. The machinability
depends on the chemical equivalent of the work material. Carbon is passive in
electrochemical reaction. Therefore, grey cast iron cannot be machined
satisfactorily by ECM.
Electrolytes Used in ECM (VTU Dec. 2010)
An electrolyte is a highly conductive solution of inorganic salts such as NaCl

(sodium chloride), KCl (Potassium chloride), NaNO3 (Sodium Nitrate)
Main functions of the electrolyte (VTU May/June 2010; Dec. 2012;

June/July 2015)
In ECM, the main functions of an electrolyte are:
1. It completes the electrical circuit between the tool and the workpiece.
2. It removes the product of reaction from the machining region.
3. It carries away the heat produced during the operation.
Essential properties of the electrolyte used in ECM (VTU Dec. 2009/2010)
The electrolyte used in ECM process should have the following properties:
1. It should have high electrical conductivity.
2. It should produce high surface finish.
3. It should be economically viable.
4. It should be non-corrosive to tooling, fixtures, equipment and work material.
5. It must have good chemical stability. It should not change its composition
during the machining operation.
6. It should be electrochemically stable to promote stable reactions during

machining.
7. It should have low toxicity
81
Electrolytes are selected on the basis of the material to be machined and its
interaction with the electrolytic solution. The sodium and potassium salts are
most commonly used as electrolytes.
Electrolytes and their concentration.
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82
Factors governing the choice of electrolyte in ECM
1 The electric current densities used in ECM are large and hence to avoid large
power losses, the electrolyte must have high electrical conductivity.
2 The conductivity of highly conductive electrolytes is many times less than that
of most metals; hence substantial heating of electrolyte occurs. Therefore, the
electrolyte must carry away the heat rapidly. Since the flow is turbulent, high
driving pressures are required.
3. They should have low viscosity in order to reduce the pressure requirement.
Low viscosity also facilitates the movement of ions and, therefore, increases the
effective conductivity of the solution.
4. The electrolyte should have high specific heat, high thermal conductivity, and
a high boiling point so as to minimize the tendency to boil.
5. The electrolyte and the product of machining must not be corrosive. Aqueous
solutions have lower conductivity than acids and bases, but they are less
corrosive.
When a new material is to be machined, first sodium chloride solution is tried

out, and the addition of acids or other salts done until the desired surface finish is
achieved. Practical experiments are the best way of determining the correct
electrolyte.
The electrolyte solution is usually Pumped at a pressure of 25 MPa and velocity

of about 25-50 m/s. Proper temperature of the electrolyte must be maintained. If
the temperature of the electrolyte is low, the MRR is low, and if the temperature
is high then the electrolyte gets vaporized easily, and refilling has to be frequently
done. This frequent refiling increases the maintenance cost.
Commonly used electrolytes in ECM
VTU May/June 2010 Dec 2012
1. Sodium chloride (common salt) is the most commonly used electrolyte. These
solutions on reaction produce an insoluble compound in the form of sludge. A
wide range of metals can be machined with sodium chloride. The only
disadvantage of sodium chloride is that it is corrosive and produces a large
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83
amount of sludge. Also, some metals such as tungsten carbide and pure titanium
cannot be machined with sodium chloride as an electrolyte.
2. Sodium nitrate is another neutral electrolyte that gives better surface finish on
alloys of aluminium and copper and is less corrosive than sodium chloride.
However, it is more expensive than sodium chloride. Mixtures of sodium chloride
and sodium nitrate are used to machine titanium alloys.
3. Sodium hydroxide is used for machining tungsten or molybdenum. Solutions

of these types retain the anodically removed metals in the solution and do not
produce sludge. Filtration of this electrolyte is not difficult. Chemical control is
difficult because the composition of the electrolyte changes. There is also a
tendency of the electrolyte changes. There is also a tendency of the metal to get
deposited on the tool. This metal, therefore, must be removed by some method,
either by ion exchanger or by periodically reversing of the current.
Chemistry of ECM
The electrolysis process is governed by two laws given by Michel Farada.
1. The amount of chemical energy change produced by the electric current,

that is the amount of any material dissolved or deposited is proportional to
the quantity of electicity passed.
2. The amount of different substances or deposited by the same quantity of
electricity are proportional to their chemical equivalent weights.
During ECM, there will be reactions occurring at the electrodes. i.e., at the
anode or workpiece and at the cathode or the tools along with the electrolyte.
Let us take an example of machining of low carbon steel which is primarily a

ferrous alloy mainly containing iron. For electrochemical machining of steel,
generally, a neutral salt solution of sodium chloride (NaCl) is taken as the
electrolyte. The electrolyte and water undergo ionic dissociation or separation as
shown below as potential difference is applied
NaCl Na+ + Cl-
H2O H+ + (OH)-
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84
As the potential difference is applied between the workpiece (anode) and the
tool (cathode), the positive ions move towards the tool and negative ions move
towards the workpiece.
Thus, hydrogen ions will take away electrons from the cathode (tool) and
from hydrogen gas as:
2H++2e- = H2 at cathode
Similarly, the iron atoms will come out of the anode (workpiece) as
Fe = Fe++ + 2e-
Within the electrolyte iron ions would combine with chloride ions to form iron
chloride and similarly, sodium ions would combine with hydroxyl ions to form a
sodium hydroxide
Na+ + OH- = NaOH
In practice FeCl2 and Fe (OH) 2, would form and get precipitated in the form of
sludge. In this manner, it can be noted that the workpiece gets gradually machined
and gets precipitated as the sludge. Moreover, there is no coating on the tool, only
hydrogen gas evolves at the tool or cathode.
Figure shows depicts the electrochemical reactions schematically. As the material

removal takes place due to atomic level dissociation, the machined surface is of
excellent surface finish and stress-free.
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85
Summary of cathode and anode reaction is given below
Cathode Reaction
Na+ + e- = Na
Na + H2O = Na(OH)+ H+
2H++ 2e- = H2 (Hydrogen evolution)
It shows that there is no deposition on the tool but only gas is formed, whereas,
in the cathode in machining an iron.
Anode Reaction
Iron (Fe) Fe+++ 2e-
Fe++ + 2Cl- FeCl2
Fe++ +2(OH) - Fe(OH)
FeCl2 + 2(OH) - Fe(OH)2 +2CI-
It shows that metal (workpiece), i.e, Fe goes into solution and hence machined.
In this reaction iron chloride and iron-hydroxide are produced as a precipitate.
This precipitate is taken away between the tool and the work by the electrolyte
Smaller the inter-electrode gap (IEG), greater will be the current flow because
resistance decreases and higher will be the rate of metal removal from the anode.
Higher current density, in small spacing (usually about 0.5 mm or less), promotes
rapid generation of reaction products.
OR
Chemistry of ECM Process
Figure shows the chemical reactions in electrochemical machining of a

low carbon steel workpiece (containing iron as chief constituent) with sodium
chloride (NaCl) solution in water as electrolyte.
When a suitable potential difference is applied, the electrolyte undergoes

ionic dissociation as shown below
NaCl Na+ + Cl-

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86
H2O H+ + OH-
As the potential difference is applied between the workpiece (anode) and

the tool (cathode), the positive ions (Fe++ ) from the workpiece, move towards
the cathode tool, reacts with the negative hydroxyl ions (OH- ) that have been
attracted to the anode workpiece to form ferrous or iron hydroxide Fe (OH-)
Fe +2H20 Fe (OH)2+ H2
Also, within the electrolyte, iron ions would combine with chloride ions to
form iron chloride (FeCl2). Both FeCl2, and Fe (OH)2 get precipitated in the form
of sludge. The process continues and in this manner the workpiece gets gradually
machined and gets precipitated as sludge. The flowing electrolyte carries away
the products of machining. As machining takes place, the cathode tool is
advanced towards the anode workpiece at the same rate at which the material is
removed. The cathode tool reproduces its shape in the anode workpiece.
It is important to note that only hydrogen gas is evolved at the cathode tool
and hence the shape of the tool remains unaltered during the machining process.
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87
ECM Process characteristics: Material removal rate, accuracy, surface

finish.
Metal Removal Rate

(VTU Dec. 2012)
In ECM, the material removal rate depends on feed rates. The feed rate
determines the current passed between the work and the tool. As the tool
approaches the work the length of the conductive current path decreases and the
magnitude of current increases. This reduction in gap and increase in current
continues till the current is just enough to remove the metal at a rate equal to the
rate of tool advance.
If the tool feed rate is reduced, the tool advance will momentarily lag
behind increasing the gap and thus resulting in a reduction of current. This
happens until a stable gap is once again established as shown in Figure.
Rapid feed rate increases productivity as well as surface finish. The main
limitation of rapid feed rate is the removal of hydrogen gas and the product of
machining. If the gap is small, then the flow of electrolyte is difficult. When the
fluid velocity is insufficient, then short circuit may occur between the electrolyte
and the work, sparking occurs and damages the tool and the work. Another
limitation of higher feed rate is the requirement of filtering systems.
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88
Accuracy
ECM under ideal conditions gives a tolerance of ± 0.02 mm and less.

Repeatability of ECM process is also good. This is largely due to less tool wear.
The tool wear is virtually non-existent in ECM. Complex shapes give less
tolerances compared to simple geometry ECM results in internal radii greater than
0.2 mm and external radii of the order of 0.05 mm. Taper is of the order of 0.010
mm for 10 mm depth and the side overcut of 0.1-0.2 mm.
Surface Finish
ECM under a certain condition can produce a surface finish of 0.4 microns.
The important variables affecting the surface finish are feed rate, gap dimensions,
electrolyte composition, viscosity, temperature, and flow.
Very coarse surface finish may occur due to the wrong adjustment of
process variables, defects on tool face like nicks, scratches, and burrs.
Improper distribution of electrolyte flow can also cause poor surface finish.
The tool surface must be polished to get good surface finish. The mechanical and
chemical polishing are generally used.
Harder the material, the better is the surface finish. Certain metals like
cobalt alloys give a mirror-like finish. While copper and aluminium tend to give
a matte finish. Optimum surface finishes are obtained by careful electrode design,
feed rate and additives to improve surface finish.
The effects of different parameters are given below in Table
Process parameters:
1.Current density
Current density is simply the current that can be passed into a square inch of work
area. Machining voltage variations have a severe effect on over cut. Higher
voltage gives large overcut, and lower voltage gives smaller over cut. For better
accuracy, there must be minimum variation in machining voltage. The ECM
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89
power supply systems maintain a constant pre-set voltage for varying incoming
line voltage and thus the total machining current.
The relationship between current density & metal removal rate is shown in figure.
The electrochemical machine used for a particular application must have
sufficient current available to maintain a current density of 50-1500 A/in2 .
Fig. Relation between current density and MRR
2.Feed rate of the tool:
The tool feed rate is directly proportional to current density. If the feed rate is
increased, the electrical resistance of the tool-work gap reduces to allow more
current to flow resulting in high metal removal rates. Also surface finish and
accuracy is improved.
3. Gap between workpiece and tool
The tool and the workpiece are positioned as close together to encourage efficient
electrical transmission. Small gap results in high current densities and hence,
more metal removal rate. The gap size may vary from 0.25-0.76 mm. A gap size
of0.25 mm is often used.
4. Velocity of electrolyte flow
Electrolyte flow may be between 15-60 m/sec. If electrolyte flow is too low, the
heat and by-products of the electrolytic reaction (hydrogen gas bubbles, sludge
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90
etc.) build in the gap causing non-uniform metal removal. Too high velocity will
cause cavitation, also promoting non-uniform metal removal.
5. Type of electrolyte, its concentration & temperature:
The type of electrolyte selected depends on the tool and the workpiece material.
For instance, sodium chloride is cheap and possesses good conductivity.
However, it is corrosive and hence, cannot be used on tungsten carbide or
molybdenum materials. Sodium nitrate is also popular due to its less corrosive
nature. But, it does not produce a good surface finish as that of sodium chloride.
Also it is more expensive than sodium chloride. It is preferred for machining
aluminum and copper.
The electrolyte in water at various concentrations affect the surface finish

produced. Low concentrations decrease the equilibrium machining gap resulting
in better surface finish and tolerance control Electrolyte temperature seriously
affects the overcut. The power loss in the electrolytic reaction gives rise to an
increase in the temperature of the electrolyte. The heat must be carried away from
the cutting area so as to maintain stable and steady conditions. Low temperature
of electrolyte is conductive to better surface finish and tolerances.
Through ECM can get the surface finish of 0.1 to 0.5 micron for nickel based,
cobalt based and stainless steels. Surface finish of 0.5 to 2 microns is achievable
for iron base alloys and steels.
In ECM, there is no appreciable change in the mechanical properties such as

hardness, ductility, yield strength, etc. Fatigue strength of stainless steel is found
to decrease by ECM. This can, however, be overcome by cold working after ECM
process.
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ECM Tooling:
ECM tooling technique & example
Fig (a)
Figure (a) shows a simple round tool. The leading edge is sharp, and the
shank is not insulated. This type of tool produces a round hole with a considerable
amount of taper because of the complete surface area of the hole produced is
being constantly machined. Lack of insulation on the sides of the tool causes
unwanted machining of the work and loss in accuracy.
Fig (b)
Figure (b) illustrates the same tool with insulation on the sides. Such a tool
technique eliminates
taper, however this type of tool is still not correct in its design, because the
electrolyte tends to
become turbulent as it passes around the sharp corners of the tool leading to arcing
and possible
shorting at the corners of the tool.
/n
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92
Fig (c)
Fig (c) shows a tool with its leading edge radiused to encourage uniform
electrolyte flow around the corners of the tool. Alternately, another improvement
can be done by overlapping the tip of the tool as shown in figure (d).
Fig (d)
This arrangement causes the electrolyte flow to break up as it passes around

the radiused corner thereby minimizing the effect of any stray current which are
likely to cause additional machining over the already finished surfaces. Observe
that in all the above techniques, the flow of electrolyte is from the inside of the
tool, then around the cutting edges and up through the hole.
Fig (e)
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93
Figure 4,5(e) shows a tool which has its tip flush with the main body and
insulation, and the flow of electrolyte reversed. This technique produces holes
with minimum taper and excellent finish.
Tool & insulation materials.
TOOLS FOR ECM
Tooling design is the key to successful application of ECM. There are two aspects
of ECM tool design
(i) Determination of tool size together with appropriate machining conditions

necessary to produce the required shape.
(ii) Selection of appropriate tool materials and fixing it on the machine,
connecting to the power supply, arranging an adequate supply of the electrolyte
between the tool and the workpiece and insulating the part of the tool to prevent
undercutting and generating a taper.
Factors for Design of ECM Tools

1. Proper selection of the tool or electrode material:
Tools and fixtures are in a corrosive environment of the electrolyte and stray
electric current for along duration. In order to avoid rapid corrosion of the tool, it
must be made of proper tool material. Stainless steel, copper, brass, Monel,
reinforced plastics, or copper- tungsten alloys are used.
2. Proper selection of electrolyte:
All electrolyte ducts need to be made of non- corrosive materials. No particles of
corrosion should enter the gap.
3. Rigid tools:
Fixtures and tools should be rigid enough to avoid vibrations or deflection under
the high hydraulic pressure forces which they are subjected to.
4. Proper alignment:
Proper alignment between the tool and work fixtures is essential and is best
achieved with removable settling pieces.
5. Electrical joint:
Electrical joints in the tool must be minimum as it fails in wet, and
corrosive conditions.
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94
6. Use of non-metallic materials:

Non-metallic materials are non-conductive and corrosion-resistant and
hence, can be used as a tool.
Insulation of ECM Tool
The area on the tool where ECM is required should be insulated. Lack of
insulation on the sides of the tool causes the unwanted removal of work and loss
in accuracy (Figure 4.9). Rubber coating is applied to the sides and sometimes
solid pieces of insulating materials are attached.
With regard to insulation, the most commonly used materials are porcelain,
vinyl, phenolic enamel, Teflon, and epoxy. These are applied to the electrode by
spraying or dipping. sometimes they are attached to the tool in the form of pre-
machined, self-supporting member.
Another factor to be considered in applying the insulation is to prevent the areas
where insulation is bonded to the tool material from being directly in line with
the high-pressure electrolytic flow. If this is not done, frequent chipping of
insulation occurs. It is usually best to provide a shoulder on the tool and apply the
insulation up to the shoulder as shown in Figure 4.10.
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95
Process parameters in ECM
1. Power supply: continuous or pulsed

• Type DC
• Voltage 5-30 V
• Current -50-40,000 A
• Current density-150-500 A/cm2
2. Electrolyte
• Type NaCl, NaNO3, proprietary mixtures.
• Temperature - 26 to 650
• Flow rate -16 to 20 LPM (10-60 m/s)
• Velocity - 1500 m/min to 3000 m/min
• Inlet pressure -2200 kPa
• Outlet Pressure 300 kPa
3. Working gap
• 0.075 to 0.75 mm
4. Side overcut
• 0.125 to 1 mm
5. Feed rate
• 0.500 to 13 mm/min
6. Electrode material
Copper, brass, bronze
7. Tolerance
• 0.025 mm to 0.050 mm
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96
8. Surface roughness
• 0.1 -1.5 microns
9. Specific power consumption
• 5-10 W / mm3 / min
Applications ECM
(VTU Dec. 2010; June 2012)
1.ECM can be used to make disc for turbine rotor blades made up of High
Strength Temperature Resistant (HSTR) alloys.
2. Die sinking. ECM is used as an alternative to cavity type EDM.
3. ECM can be used for slotting very thin walled collets.
4. ECM can be used for copying of internal and external surfaces, cutting of
curvilinear slots, machining of intricate patterns, production of long curved
profiles, machining of gears and chain sprockets, production of integrally bladed
nozzle for use in diesel locomotives, production of satellite rings and connecting
rods, machining of thin large diameter diaphragms.
5. ECM principle has been employed for performing a number of machining

operations, namely, turning, trepanning, broaching, grinding, fine hole drilling,
die sinking, piercing, deburring, plunge cutting, etc.
6.ECM can also be used to generate an internal profile of internal cams.
7.ECM can be used for complicated profiles like jet engine blades, turbine blades,
turbine wheels, rifle barrels.
8. ECM can be used for drilling small holes in nozzles.
9.Machining of cavities and holes of irregular shapes.
10. Machining of blind holes as in forging dies.
11. Fabrication of thin-walled parts. ECM does not produce surface stress in the
workpiece therefore even brittle and easily deformed materials can be machined
using thin walled shapes.
Typical applications of ECM is given in Figure 4.20.
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97
Advantages of ECM
(VTU Dec. 2011; June 2012; Jan. 2015)
1. ECM can machine 3D highly complicated and curved surfaces in a single pass.
The rate of machining does not depend on the hardness of work material.
2. A single tool can be used to machine a large number of pieces without any loss
in its shape and size. Theoretically, tool life is longer.
3. Machinability of the work material is independent of its physical and

mechanical properties. The process is capable of machining metals and alloys
irrespective of their strength and hardness.
4. Machined surfaces are stress- and burr-free having good surface finish.
5. It yields low scrap, almost automatic operation, low overall machining time,
and reduced inventory expenses.
6. There is no thermal damage or HAZ (heat affected zone).
7. The metal removal rate by this process since the metal removal is entirely by
metallic ion exchange and the workpiece is in stress-free state. As a result of this
operation, no residual stresses are developed in the workpiece.
8. If proper electrolytes are selected, there is no wear and tear of the tool.
9. There is no cutting force involved in this process since the metal removal is
entirely by metallic ion exchange and the workpiece is in sress-free state. As a
result of this operation, no residual residual stresses are developed in the
workpiece.
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10.High surface finish of the order of 0.2 to 0.8 microns can be obtained.
11.Very thin sections can also be machined without damage.
12.Close dimensional tolerance is possible with this process. Close tolerance of

0.005 mm can be achieved. This process can be automated easily.
13.ECM is a versatile, simple and fast machining process. It is well suited for
mass production of complex shapes in extra-hard materials.
Disadvantages of ECM
(VTU Dec. 2011; June 2012; Jan. 2015)
1. High capital cost of equipment.
2. Design and tooling system is complex.
3. Hydrogen liberation at the tool surface may cause hydrogen embrittlement of

the surface.
4. Spark damage may become sometimes problematic.
5. Fatigue properties of the machined surface may reduce as compared to

conventional techniques (by 20%).
6. Non-conductive materials cannot be machined.
7. Blind holes cannot be machined in solid block in one stage.
8. Corrosion and rust of ECM machine can be a hazard.
9. Space and floor area requirement are also higher than for conventional
machining methods.
10.Consumption of power is nearly 100 times compared to conventional turning

or milling.
11. Design of tooling and tool feeding system is complex and costly.
12. Post-machining treatment is needed to avoid the internal corrosion of the part.
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99
13.Sharp corners cannot be easily achieved, since tool design is complicated and
requires cut-and-try techniques to achieve the final required shape.
14. Some additional problems related to machine tool requirements such as power
supply, electrolyte handling, and tool feed servo systems.
Electrochemical grinding
(VTU June/July 2009; July 2014; Jan. 2015)
The main problem with conventional grinding is a problem associated with burrs,
HAZ (heat affected zone) and grinding induced stresses. These three problems
can be overcome by using electrochemical grinding. In electrochemical grinding
95% of the metal is removed by electrolytic action and remaining 5% is by
mechanical abrasion. It is also known as mechanically assisted electrochemical
machining. The diamond wheels are used for cemented carbides and conventional
metal bonded wheels for steels.
Difference between ECG and conventional grinding giving in the following Table
(VTU Dec. 2010)
Principles of electrochemical grinding process
Principles of electrochemical grinding process are shown in Figure 4.21. In

electrochemical
grinding material is removed by
1.Mechanical abrasive action using grinding wheel

2.The electrochemical anodic dissolution of the work material
3. Removal of oxide films
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100
29
101
Figure.21
In this process, the rotating wheel is cathode and the workpiece is anode of
an electrolytic cell. The electrolyte is usually a neutral salt solution such as
sodium chloride, sodium nitrate, and potassium nitrate is passed through the
machining zone. The effective gap between the anode and the cathode is about
0.025 mm. The abrasives in the grinding wheel are of insulating material but are
held by conductive bonds in the wheel. When a low voltage of 5-10 V is supplied,
a high current density will set up at the machining zone, and the electrochemical
cell between the conductive bonds and the workpiece will be completed by the
electrolyte. Metal will be removed from the workpiece by the simultaneous action
of mechanical abrasion and electrochemical action. The force required to remove
the material by abrasive action is low compared to conventional grinding process
because the material is removed mainly by electrolytic action.
Electrochemical Grinding Equipment
Below figure shows an electrochemical grinding unit. It consists of
1. Power supply system

2. Grinding wheel
3. Electrolyte feeding unit.
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102
1.Power supply:
In electrochemical grinding, the work is an anode and the grinding wheel a
cathode. In order to make the grinding wheel negative, it is connected to the
negative terminal of the DC power supply, the grinding wheel spindle is insulated
from the rest of the machine. The diamond particles of grinding wheel act as
insulating spacers between the work (anode) and the grinding wheel (cathode).
Direct current is supplied from the power source through a rectifier circuit and
flows from positive terminal through the machine table, vice, workpiece and
grinding wheel through the electrolyte.
2.Grinding wheel:
The grinding wheel of ECG is similar to the conventional grinding wheel, but it
is electrically conductive. The abrasives used in the grinding wheels are diamond
particles. Diamond is an insulator, but the bonding element is a conductive
material. The diamond abrasive particles are embedded in the metallic matrix of
copper. The metallic bond makes the grinding wheel conductive.
3.Electrolyte feeding unit:
The electrolyte is fed in the form of a thin jet on a face of grinding wheel in the
direction of the rotation of the wheel. The abrasive action of the grinding wheel
combined with the flushing action of the fluid serves to remove the product of
machining. A thin film of the electrolyte is made to flow through a nozzle in the
machining zone between the grinding wheel and the
machining zone between the grinding wheel and the workpiece (tungsten carbide
tool is used as workpiece here) by pumping it with the help of a pump motor set
as shown in figure 4.22. The electrolyte film acts as a conductive path for the
direct current to complete the circuit through the grinding wheel. The electrolyte
can be filtered through a filter and regulated using a flow control valve (not shown
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103
in Figure). The electrolyte coming out of the machining zone contains sludge,
precipitates, etc., and is filtered through a filtering unit and sent back to the sump.
Applications of Electrochemical Grinding
1. ECG is most widely used for grinding carbide cutting tools. ECG doesn't
induce any micro-cracks and other defects. ECG does not damage the micro-
structure of carbide tools.
2. ECG is specifically employed for grinding delicate and fragile component parts
such as contour grinding of honeycomb structures and thin walled tubes.
3. ECG can be used for grinding heat-sensitive and hard materials, super alloy
turbine blades without forming thermal cracks and without any distortion.
4. ECG can be used for reprofiling and form grinding of worn-out gears. ECG
doesn't change the hardness of the gears or residual stresses.
5.ECG is also used for burr-free sharpening of hypodermic needles.
6.ECG can be used for grinding of chilled iron castings and magnet alloys.
7.ECG can be used for machining cemented carbides, satellites, refractory

materials and stainless and other alloys without any burr.
8. ECG is used to grind flutes of drills and reamers in a single pass without
causing any thermal cracks and distortion.
Advantages of Electrochemical Grinding
1. Cost of grinding can be reduced up to 40% compared to conventional grinding.
2. ECG gives burr-free grinding of cemented carbides, satellites, SS steels and

other alloys.
3. ECG introduces less heat affected zone compared to conventional grinding.

Heat is not generated due to electrochemical metal removal rather than
abrasion.
4. ECG gives a good surface finish (0.25-microns).
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104
5. There is no thermal damage and burr-free surface can be produced.
6. Wear is negligible. ECG gives about 75 % saving in grinding wheel costs.

Because in ECG mechanical metal removal is less. Grinding wheel need not
be frequently dressed.
7. Cutting tools can be resharpened quickly using ECG.
8. Hard materials can be easily machined without cracks, burrs and distortion.
9. Simple fixtures can be used for holding the work.
10.Higher amount of material removal rate is possible.
11.Chip breakers on tungsten carbide tool bits can be ground without spoiling can
be ground without spoiling cutting edges with 0.5 mm depth of cut in one pass.
12. Chromium plated materials, flame hardened, temperature-sensitive, hard

material can be machined without thermal cracks and distortion.
13. There is less cutting force since the main mechanism of metal removal is not
mechanical but electrochemical (90%)
14.Same grinding wheel can be used for roughing and finishing operations as the
tendency of the wheel clog or glazing is less compared to conventional
grinding.
15. Harder the metal better is the surface finish, tolerances of 10 microns and 0.2-
0.6 micron surface roughness is easily achievable.
Disadvantages of Electrochemical Grinding
1. High capital cost of equipment.

2. Ceramics cannot be machined using ECG process.
3. Electrolytes are expensive, and maintenance cost is high.
4. Handling, storing of electrolytes is problematic because most of the electrolytes
are corrosive in nature.
5. Equipment, tools, and fixtures are to be protected from the corrosive
electrolyte.
6. Machining of cast iron by ECG is difficult.
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105
7. It cannot be used for non-conducting materials.

8. High preventive maintenance cost.
9. Power consumption is high.
ELECTROCHEMICAL HONING
(VTU Dec. 2010; Dec. 2011; July 2014)
Honing is a super finishing process carried out for drilling or reaming or
counter boring operations. The purpose of honing is to give good surface finish
and produce characteristic hatching pattern/lay. These hatching patterns retain the
lubricating oil. Honing is a mechanical process in which tool carrying honing
sticks rotates as well as reciprocates at slow speed. Because of a combination of
these two motions, fine helix marks are produced. Fine abrasive particles of
diamond, or boron carbide or silicon carbide are embedded in the honing stick by
powder metallurgy technique.
Electrochemical honing is similar to conventional mechanical honing
process except that an electrolyte is used between the tool and the workpiece.
ECH combines the high removal characteristics of ECM and the conventional
honing process.
Description of Process
Electrochemical honing is a modification of the conventional honing process,
whereby the material is removed from the electrically conductive workpiece
through a combination of anodic dissolution and mechanical abrasion. As much
as 90% of the metal removal is by electrolytic action, and 10 % of MRR is by
mechanical abrasion. The workpiece is an anode and stainless steel tool is the
cathode. The mechanical action removes material and generates round, straight
and geometrically true cylinder.
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106
During anodic dissolution, due to the presence of oxygen released during the
dissolution, an oxide layer will be formed. Mechanical abrasion removes the
oxide layer and exposes fresh surface to anodic dissolution. Therefore,
electrochemical honing gives better surface finish, shorter machining time and
improved tool life (nearly 5 times).
Equipment of Electrochemical Honing (ECH)
Fig shows the typical ECH system and support equipment
ECH equipment consists of

1. DC power supply source
2. Electrolyte and pumping systems
3. Tool holder and honing sticks
4. Fixtures
1. DC power supply source: Usually,6-30VDCpowersupply is used. Current

density of 450 A/cm2 is used in ECH. Power supplies are either water or air
cooled.
The following protections are used in power supplies:

(i) Over-temperature protection
(ii) DC over-current limitation
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107
(iii) DC short-circuit current limitation; and

(iv) Input current limitation.
2.Electrolyte and pumping systems
(i) Electrolyte: A pump is used to supply the electrolyte. As in ECM, the

electrolyte can be recirculated and reused after passing through filtration units.
Electrolyte pressure (around 1000 kPa) will be limited by a relief valve. Usually,
sodium nitrate solution is used with a concentration ratio of 250 gm of sodium
per litre of water. Specific conductivity of the electrolyte depends upon the type
of the electrolyte and its concentration. Sodium chloride is not used because of
its corrosive nature. Temperature of 35-40 is maintained. Flow rate of 90-100
LPM (litre per minute) is used. Functions of the electrolytes are
• Completing the electrical circuit and allowing current to pass in between

the electrodes sustaining the required electrochemical reaction.
• Carrying away the heat generated.
• Carrying away the waste products like sludge, debris, etc.
(ii) Electrolyte Filtration: Since the particle size is very small, fine so a high
capacity filter is used. Usually, cartridge type of filter is used for easy
replacement. During the operation of the machine, the electrolyte is circulated
continuously by a pump from the dirty tank through the filter and into the clean
tank.
3.Tool holder and honing sticks: ECH tool consists of hollow stainless steel
body that has expandable, non-conductive honing stones protruding from at least
three locations around the circumference. These honing stones are identical with
those used in the conventional honing operation, except that they are corrosion
resistant. They are mounted in tool body with a spring-loaded mechanism so that
each of the stones exerts equal pressure against workpiece. The length of the stone
is selected to be approximately one-half the length of the bore being processed.
Honing stones or sticks: The abrasive honing stones remove surface oxides
produced by the electrolytic action as well as any high spots resulting from non-
homogenous material or non-uniform electrolytic action. As material is removed
from the bore, the stones expand to maintain constant contact. As the cycle
progresses, the gap between the workpiece surface and the stainless steel tube
(cathode) increases by the amount of material removed, sometimes increasing as
much as 0.5 mm. As the gap increases, and the electrochemical action slows, a
proportionately large percentage of material is removed by mechanical abrasion.
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108
In the beginning, stones protrude only 0.075-0.127 mm from the stainless steel
body, establishing gap through which the electrolyte flows. The electrolyte enters
the tool body via a sliding sleeve from which it exists into the tool workpiece gap
through small holes in the tool body. After passing through the gap, the electrolyte
flows from the workpiece through the gap at the top and bottom of the bore.
Hence, closed bores cannot be effectively processed by ECH because of
electrolyte stagnation.
4. Fixtures: Fixtures are made of conductive material, and the workpiece is

precisely located and supported on the fixture. The gap between the electrode and
the workpiece at the work zone is usually 0.076 to 0.25 mm.
Applications of Electrochemical Honing

1. It is used in honing gears with a hardness of 60-62 HRc.
2. It is used in micro-finishing of pump parts and valves.
3. It is used to correct out of roundness, straightness error, taper and produce true
and produce true cylindrical components like engine bore (Figure 4.25).
4. The cross-hatched cut surface is obtained after machining which is most

desired
after any load bearing surface.
5.It is used in form error correction of bevel gears.
Advantages of Electrochemical Honing

1. Conducting materials of any hardness can be machined by ECH.
2. It is 100% faster than conventional honing.
3. It gives better surface finish.
4. It gives better tool life compared to conventional honing.
5. No micro-scratches are left on the surface of the work material.
6. It imparts no residual stress in the workpiece.
7. It can hone heat-sensitive materials.
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109
Disadvantages of Electrochemical Honing

1. It can be used only for conducting materials.
2. High capital cost.
3. Electrolytes are corrosive and pose safety hazards.
CHEMICAL MACHINING (CHM)
Definition:
Chemical machining is stock removal process for the production of desired
shapes and dimensions through the selective or overall removal of material by
means of controlled chemical attack with acids or alkalis.
Areas from where the material is not to be removed are protected by
masking.
In chemical machining material is removed from the workpiece by
controlled dissolution using strong chemical reagents known as etchants.
Principle:
Chemical machining is controlled chemical dissolution of the machined
workpiece material by contact with a strong acidic or alkaline chemical reagent.
Special coatings called maskant protect areas from which the metal is not to be
removed.
The process is used to produce pockets and contours and to remove
materials from parts having a high strength-to-weight ratio.
The process can be suitably applied to different types of operations such as
milling, engraving and blanking.
The different chemical processes are
(i) Chemical milling or chemical contouring is used for selective overall material
removal from thick stock.
(ii) Chemical blanking is used for cutting or stamping parts of thin sheet
materials.
There are two methods of metal removal by chemical means. They are:
1. Non-selective metal removal
2. Selective metal removal

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110
In non-selective metal removal, metal is removed from the entire exposed

surface of a part. It is advantageous in removing burr/metal from casting, forging,
extrusions, etc
Removal of the material by immersing the workpiece in the etchant. In

selective metal removal, work is covered with a chemical-resistant layer and
thereby preventing chemical action on these areas. The area where metal removal
is left unprotected. The work is then placed in an etchant solution, and the metal
is removed from the unprotected area.
DESCRIPTION OF CHEMICAL PROCESS

Schematic diagram of chemical machining is shown in Figure .
The workpiece is first coated with the maskant material. Depending on the
type of the maskant used, the surfaces to be etched are then located by scribing
the maskant by using photographic techniques or by screen printing technique.
It is a case of selective metal removal process, where an unmachined

portion of the workpiece is protected by an etchant-resistant material known as
maskant or resist.
In the chemical machining process, the desired metal is removed using

etchant solution. The etchant can be either sprayed onto the workpiece, from
where the metal is to be removed or the workpiece can be dipped in the etchant
solution.
The metal is gradually transformed into a metallic salt by chemical

reaction. The metal removal rate can be controlled by controlling concentration,
composition, and operating conditions of the etchant solution.
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111
Steps for chemical machining
Chemical machining process has several steps for producing machine

parts. They are given below.
1. Workpiece preparation:
The workpiece material has to be cleaned to remove dirt, oil, grease, dust
or rust. Good cleaning produces good adhesion between the work material and
the maskant. Ultrasonic and chemical cleaning is commonly used.
2. Coating with the masking material:

Proper choice of masking material is essential. Mask should be readily
strippable, chemically impregnable and should adhere well and be able to
withstand chemical abrasion during etching.
3. Scribing of the mask:

It is guided by templates to expose the areas that receive chemical
machining process. The selection of mask depends on the size of the workpiece
material, number of parts to be made and complexity.
4. Etching:
This step is the most important stage to produce the required component
from the sheet metal. This stage is carried out by immersing the work into selected
etchant. It is shown in the below Figure.
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112
5.Cleaning the masking material:

The final step is the removal of masking material from the etched part. The
inspection of the dimensions and surface quality are completed before shipment.
An example is shown in the below Figure.
ELEMENTS OF PROCESS
The characteristics of the chemical process are usually governed by the
following two
important process parameters:
1. Maskant-or etchant-resistant material: Type and thickness of the resist.

2. Etchant solution: Composition, concentration and operating conditions.
Etching medium and etching time.
Maskant
Etchant-resistant material:
Etchant material used in practice can be classified as:
(a) Cut-and-peel maskant (b) Photoresist maskant (c) Screen print

resists.
a) Cut-and-peel maskant
i. The entire workpiece is coated with maskant either by spraying or by dipping

the workpiece or flow coating.
ii. The thickness of the maskant coating usually varies from 0.02 to 0.2 mm.
iii. The desired shape to be processed on the work material is cut on the maskant
with a scribing knife. Usually, a template is used to scribe the shape.
iv. After scribing unwanted portion of the maskant is peeled away, exposing the
area to be chemically etched.
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v. The material is removed from the area where chemicals are exposed and is not
removed from the area where mask is present. Mask offers high resistance to the
etchant. Depending upon the thickness of the maskant, etching depth of 10 mm
or more is possible with cut-and-peel maskant.
vi. Step etching is possible using these maskants.
Typical cut-and-peel maskants are vinyl, neoprene rubber and butyl based
materials bee wax etc.
Advantages of cut and neel-maskant are
1. This can be used to machine parts which have many irregularities and large
in size.
2. It is the most rapid and economical method for simple geometry and to
produce multi-steps on the work surface.
3. Etching depth of 7 mm or more from one side is possible.
Disadvantages of the cut and peel-maskants are:

(i) They are not suitable for thin parts because of the possibility of
distortion by the scribing and peeling operation.
(ii) Very high accuracy is not possible using this kind of maskant
(iii) Skilled personnel is required.
(iv) It is an expensive and time-consuming process.
(v) Repeatability of the process is less due to the possibility of human error.
(b) Photoresist Maskant

This type of masking is also known as photochemical machining and is
used to produce
intricate and precise shapes by using a photographic image to selectively cure the
photoresist mask on a workpiece.
The first step in this technique is the preparation of photo master: The
profile to be produced on the workpiece is hand drawn or generated using the
computer. Usually, the profile is drawn to a large scale (around 20 to 50 times the
original dimension). This computer generated profile is photographed, and photo
master is prepared. If the application requires many identical parts to be blanked
out of one sheet of material, a precision step and repeat camera is used to provide
duplicate images on a single photo master.
The second step in this technique is parts preparation: After the photo
master is created, the part must be cleaned to remove all dirt and oxides. After
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cleaning, the part is coated with a thin layer of light-activated, etchant-resist

material. It is then baked dry.
The third step is to expose the part to strong ultraviolet light source. A
strong ultraviolet
light source is used to selectively expose the photoresist while the photo master
and the workpiece are held together.
After exposure, the photoresist is developed to remove the coating from all
areas where
etching is desired. After the photoresist has been developed, the parts are
chemically etched, stropped of residual photoresist and inspected.
Advantages of Photoresist maskants are:
(i) This can be used to machine thin parts up to 0.005 mm thick.

(i) High accuracy of the order of 0.015 mm can be obtained.
(ii) High production rate is possible using automatic photographic technique.
(iv) Highest and most consistent details can be obtained.
(v) Only photographic negative is needed, and no printing equipment is needed.
(vi) Changes can be incorporated easily in photo master
Disadvantages of photoresist maskants are
(i) They are used to etch depth up to a thickness of 2 mm.

(ii) Good clean room facility is required.
(iii) Skilled operator is required to perform job.
(iv) Processing cost is higher compared to other
(v) Etchant if not adhered, causes more undercutting.
(c) Screen print maskant

Screen-resists are materials which can be applied to workpieces through a
normal silk
screening technique, that is, the material is applied through a silk or stainless steel
mesh which has a photographically made stencil placed on it. Stencils avoid
deposition of resists in areas that will be subsequently etched away.
The stencils are generally made photographically. Printing accuracy is less

than the
photoresist maskant but better than the cut-and-peel method. Coating thickness
deposited by screen printing is intermediate between the photographic resists and
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115
cut-and peel maskant. Therefore, the chemical resistance is substantially higher

than the photographic resists but lower than the cut and peel maskant.
The etch depth and accuracy in screen printing is restricted to 2 mm and

0.1 mm respectively.
Advantages of screen print maskant are
(i) It is an extremely rapid method of producing a large number of parts to

moderate accuracies. It is a high volume production process.
(ii) Accuracy is higher than the cut-and-peel maskant.
(iii) Setup cost is low.
(iv) Wide variety of etchants is available for different materials.
(v) Lower production cost.
Disadvantages of the screen print maskant are
(i) They are used for parts having only flat surfaces or moderate contours. They
cannot be used for complex contours.
(ii) Printing accuracy is less than the photographic printing.
(iii) Changes are difficult to incorporate when compared to photo printing.
Process steps involved are:

1. Cleaning the material to remove dirt and oil films
2. Applying resist by screen printing.
3. Drying the image either by air or baking cycle.
4. Etching of part.
Etchant
The basic function of the etchant is to convert a material into a metallic salt
that can be
dissolved in the etchant and thus removed from the workpiece. Commonly used
etchants are given in Table.
The factors which affect the selection of the etchant for a give component
are:
(i) Material to be etched

(ii) Type of maskant or resist used
(iii) Depth of etching
(iv) Surface finish required
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(v) Potential damage to metallurgical properties of the work

(vi) Rate of material removal
(vii) Economy
CHEMICAL BLANKING
Chemical blanking is used mainly on thin sheets and foils. In most
applications, photo-
resist (photosensitive masking) is used to define the location on the workpiece at
which the material is to be removed.
The steps involved in chemical blanking are:

1. Preparation of the workpiece
2. Preparation of masters
3. Masking with photoresists
4. Etching for blanking
1. Preparation of the workpiece:

Flowchart for preparation of the workpiece is shown in Fig. The workpiece
is cleaned, degreased and pickled by acid or alkalis. The cleaned metal is dried,
and photoresist material is applied. It is then dried and cured.
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117
2. Preparation of the master
Flowchart for preparation of the masters is shown in Figure. Masters are the tools
for chemical blanking. It consists of artwork and negative used to produce an
acid-resistant image. The artwork for chemical blanking should be made from
dimensionally stable material such as paper, polyester film or glass base scribing
film. The original artwork usually is made 4 times the actual size of the work, but
it may range from 2 to 200 times the actual size depending on the equipment, part
size and accuracy required. Individual size can vary from micro dimensions to a
maximum of 350 by 350 mm. This is then reduced photographically, and multiple
image masters are made.
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3. Masking with photoresists:
Flowchart for masking with photoresists is shown in Figure.
(i) Photoresists are applied to the workpiece by dipping or whirl coating or

spraying. Whirl coating gives a uniform coating. This is then dried at room
temperature and baked for about 15 minutes at a temperature of 1100C to remove
the residual solvent. Lower temperature can be used by prolonging the baking
time.
(ii) Exposure of conventional photoresist to ultraviolet light partly polymerizes
the exposed areas of light-sensitive resins thus increasing its resistance to organic
solvents used as developers. Each side of the workpiece can be exposed
individually, or the two sides can be exposed at the same time between a pair of
mirror image masters. A vacuum printing frame with a vacuum of 500 mm of
mercury is used for this purpose.
(iii) Development is done by immersing the workpiece in a suitable organic

solvent. After this, the workpiece is raised to remove the developer and dissolved
polymer from the non-image areas.
(iv) After the development photoresist is dried at room temperature and baked
again at 1100C for 15 minutes. This process increases hardness and chemical
resistance of the photoresist.
4. Etching for blanking:

Removal of material by etching is done by immersing the workpiece in a
bath containing etchant. The bath is agitated by air or mechanical means.
Specially designed spray etching machines are used where component size is
large. The cutting rates range from 0.01 to 0.05 mm/min depending on the
material and its metallurgical state. The basic purpose of the etchant is to convert
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119
metal into a metallic salt which can then be dissolved in the etchant. Ferric
chloride solutions are used for chemical blanking of a wide variety of metals.
Sodium hydroxide is used for etching aluminium and aluminium alloys.
ACCURACY OF CHEMICAL BLANKING
The main disadvantage of chemical blanking is undercutting (Figure ).
During the etching operations, material is eroded in a downward direction

as well as the lateral direction. Material removal in downward direction is known
as depth of cut. Material removal in the lateral direction is known as undercut.
The amount of undercut depends on various factors like strength of the etchant,
workpiece material, depth of the cut. The compensation must be made during
selective masking to ensure the proper final size and is given etch factor. Etch
factor is defined as the ratio of the depth of cut to undercut.
Etch factor = Depth of cut

Under cut
The actual depth of the cut can be controlled by controlling etch time.
During etching
certain gases are released due to chemical reactions between the workpiece and
etchant. These gases form bubbles in the solution. These bubbles act as insulator
and, therefore, result in non-uniform material removal. To avoid these, workpiece
is tilted at an angle so that bubbles escape easily.
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120
Other defects during the etching are shown in fig.
(a) Overhang (deep cuts with improper agitation).

(b) Islands (isolated high spots from dirt, residual maskant or work material in
homogeneity.
(c) Dishing/thinning in the centre due to improper agitation or stacking of parts
in the tank.
Burrs are not produced in chemical blanking but the edges obtained at the
instant of
complete breakthrough may be irregular. Edge uniformity depends on the
uniformity and fineness of grain structure of the workpiece, local stresses, edge
orientation, uniformity of resist edge, adherence quality of resists, variation in
concentration of the etchant, the direction of its flow, etc, slower etching rates
produce more uniform edges. Edge quality can be improved by subsequent bright
dipping or by chemical or electrolytic polishing.
APPLICATIONS OF CHEMICAL BLANKING

One of the major advantages of chemical blanking is in the manufacture of burr-
free, intricate stampings. Few applications of chemical blanking are given below.
1. This is used for aluminium aircraft wing skin. A large volume of

unwanted material is removed from the surface to reduce the weight,
thereby increasing the strength to weight ratio. Shallow cuts in large
thin sheets are the most popular applications especially for weight
reduction of aerospace components.
2. Used for helicopter vent screen. Multiple designs can be machined from
the same sheet at the same time.
3. Used for instrument panels such as a front panel of the oscilloscope,
where high detail engraving is required. The practical depth of cut
ranges between 2.54 to 12.27 mm.
4. Used for machining reactor soft aluminium sample holder.
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121
5. Applications range from large aluminium alloy airplane wing parts to

minute integrated circuit chips, thin out walls, webs, and ribs of parts
that have been produced by forging, casting, or sheet metal forming.
6. Used for eliminating alpha case from titanium forgings and superplastic
formed parts.
7. Used to remove decarburized layer from low alloy steel forgings.
8. Used for removal of recast layer from parts machined by EDM (electro
discharge machining)
9. Removal of sharp burrs from conventionally machined parts of complex
shapes.
10.Used for making laminations of electric motors, magnetic recording
heads, slotted springs disks and gaskets, meter parts, camera parts, fine
screens, etc.
11.Used for producing stepped webs.
Chemical Milling
Chemical milling is used mainly to produce three dimensional shapes by
selective or overall removal of metal from relatively large surfaces areas.
Steps for Chemical Milling
Chemical milling is an unique invention of aircraft industry. Chemical

milling is the process used to produce parts with exact tolerance by chemical
removal of metal using etchant.
The chemical milling process consists of five main steps
1. Cleaning
2. Masking
3. Scribing
4. Etching
5. Damasking
Precleaning:
Thorough cleaning is required to ensure good adhesion of maskant and
uniform dissolution of the metals. Different cleaning methods are used.
Refractory materials like tungsten are cleaned by wiping with solvent only. It is
difficult to clean porous materials because the cleaning solvents get trapped.
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122
Generally, cleaning involves vapour degreasing, alkaline cleaning and

deoxidizing. After cleaning parts must be allowed to dry.
Masking:
The mask is usually applied by the dip method, flow coat or airless spray
methods. The type of mask and number of coats depend on the size and
configuration and material of the part.
Aluminium and magnesium are usually given two coats whereas steel is
given four or more coats. After the coat is applied, the part is cured for 3 to 24
hours, depending on the size of the part. Suitable curing temperature must be
maintained to get a good masking.
Scribing
The patterns are placed on the maskant and scribed using a fine knife.
Usually, chemical milling templates are made of epoxy impregnated fibreglass or
aluminium or steel. After the part is scribed, the mask is hand-stripped. Areas to
be milled are exposed to the etchant,
Etching:
Etching for chemical contouring is done by immersion. Sometimes
spraying is used. Step etching is done by repeated cycles of scribing and peeling
off unwanted mask areas followed by etching. Taper machining is done by
immersing or withdrawing the workpiece from the etching bath at a controlled
slow rate (Figure).
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The positioning of the workpiece in the tanks should be such as to prevent

the trapping of gases which prevent the chemical attack by the etchant and also
reduce the heat dissipation. The etchants used in chemical contouring are similar
to those described under chemical blanking. Large quantities of etchants are
generally required because of large areas to be machined. Therefore, other factors
such as the cost of the chemicals, ease of control of regeneration and waste
disposal, safety precautions, ventilation and materials for the construction of
tanking and piping are to be considered carefully.
Demasking:
Mask removal is done by manual stripping or by immersing the masked
part in a suitable demasking solution. After the part is damasked, it is cleaned and
inspected (Figure).
Process Characteristics
The important process characteristics are:
1. Metal removal rate
2. Accuracy
3. Surface finish
4. Hydrogen embrittlement
1.Metal removal rate:

Material removal rate depends on the etchant. Etchants that remove metal
faster tend to have many side effects such as:
• Reduction in surface finish
• Increased undercutting
• Higher heating
• Greater change of etch rate with temperature
• Attack on the bond between the maskant and workpiece
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124
The etch rate is generally limited to 0.02 to 0.04 mm/min. Etch rate can be
as high as 0.1-0.2 mm/min where surface finish and accuracy are not important.
In aircraft industry, metal removal rate for aluminium is about 140-150 cm2/mm.
2.Accuracy:
The undercutting is same as in the chemical blanking operation. Undercut
per edge is approximately equal to the depth of the cut. Etch factor in chemical
contouring is defined as the undercut divided by the depth of the cut. Allowance
for undercut must be made in the design itself. With optimum time, temperature
and solution control, accuracy of the range of ± 0.01mm can be achieved on
relatively shallow depths of the cut. Maximum taper, when produced by
controlled slow immersion or withdrawal is usually 0.08 mm for 100 mm depth
in steel and 0.08 mm for aluminium alloys. Sharp radii cannot be produced in the
cutting direction.
3.Surface finish:
Initial surface waviness and defects are not greatly altered in contouring
most metals, but may be smoothened out to a certain extent. The quality of finish
is lower for extrusions, forgings and castings. The surface finish obtained may be
around 5 microns. Aluminium alloys show better surface finish of the order of
1.6 microns.
4. Hydrogen embrittlement:
Hydrogen embrittlement may occur owing to absorption of hydrogen in
chemical machining in some metals. Aluminium alloys are not subjected to
hydrogen embrittlement. Care should be taken to avoid hydrogen embrittlement
in steel, stainless steel, copper alloys and nickel alloys.
If hydrogen embrittlement occurs, it can be overcome by heating the
workpiece at around 1200C for 1-4 hours. The surfaces produced by the chemical
machining process are otherwise stress-free and show no thermal effects.
Applications of Chemical Milling

1. It is used to remove material from irregular shaped parts such as forging,
casting
extrusions or formed part.
2. To reduce the web thickness in part, which is difficult to do with conventional
machining.
3. Produce stepped webs.
4. The following parts are manufactured by chemical milling:
(i) Aircraft doors and access panels
(ii) Shells for missiles
(ii) Helicopter blades
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125
(iv) Architectural trim panels
Advantages of Chemical Machining
1. Parts can be milled from both sides simultaneously. This reduces the
warpage, distortion of formed surface and residual stress.
2. Large pieces can be milled.
3. The weight of extrusions, forgings and castings, can be reduced
significantly using chemical milling.
4. Complicated parts can be milled, and it reduces the use of riveting,
welding, metal bonding or additional stiffening.
5. Parts may be formed and heat treated before chemical milling. This reduces
the warpage.
6. No mechanical work is done on the job surface which offers higher fatigue
strength.
7. No burrs are produced in this process.
8. Tooling cost is less.
9. Tolerances of 0.075 mm are obtainable in 12 mm depth of the cut.
10.Up supported sections as thin as 0.375 mm can be machined.
11.Parts manufactured by CM do not need subsequent treatment.
Disadvantages of Chemical Machining
1. Fillet radius produced by chemical machining is determined by the depth

of the
cut, alloy, etchant, maskant, etc. Sharp cuts are not possible.
2.Porous and heterogeneous materials like aluminium are normally difficult to

mill chemically.
3. Welded area if milled by chance results in pits and other defects.

4. Surface irregularities, dents, scratches are reproduced in chemical milling.
5. Deep and narrow cuts are difficult to make using chemical milling.
6. Larger space area is required for large workpieces.
7. Process is slow and consumes considerable time for removal of large quantities
of
material.
8. Not suitable for etching holes.
*****
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126
Module -3
Question Bank
1.What are the various elements of electrochemical machining process? Explain

any two
2. Explain with schematic diagram the eletrochemical grinding proces.
3.What is Michael Faraday's law. How is this law implemented for
electrochemical machining process? Explain.
(VTU Dec. 09/Jan. 10)
4.What are the essential properties of electrolyte for electrochemical machining
process?
5. What is the insulation to the ECM tool? Why is it required? Explain.
6. Explain with a neat sketch, the electrochemical machining process.
(VTU May/June 2010)
7. Explain the elements of ECM process.
(VTU May/June 2010)
8. What are the functions of an electrolyte? Mention any two electrolytes used in
ECM process.
(VTU May/June 2010)
9.List the industrial applications of ECM.
(VTU Dec. 2010)
10.Differentiate between ECG and conventional grinding.
(VTU Dec. 2010)
11. Explain the following processes: (i) electrochemical turning: and (i) electro-
chemical honing.
(VTU Dec. 2010)
12.Describe the various process parameters affecting ECM.
(VTU June / July 2011)
13. Differentiate between fledging and non-fledging electrolyte
15.Explain with a neat diagram, ECM process
(VTU Dec. 2011)
15. With a neat sketch, explain the working principle of ECM process
(VTU June 2012)
16. Sketch and explain different types of tools used in ECM process
(VTU June 2012)
17. List the advantages, limitations, and applications of ECM process
(VTU June 2012)
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127
18. Explain ECM with a schematic diagram.

(VTU Dec. 2012)
19.Explain the function of electrolytes used in ECM and name 3 electrolytes with
their specialties.
(VTU Dec. 2012)
20. With suitable sketches, explain the metal removal mechanism in
electrochemical grinding
(VTU Dec. 2013)
21. Why are chemical machining and electrochemical machining regarded as
chipless machining? Explain the mechanisms of metal removal in both cases and
compare them with the conventional grinding process.
(VTU June 2013)
22. Explain the chemistry in ECM process, with diagram
(VTU July 2014; July 2015)
23. What are the advantages and disadvantages of ECM ?

(VTU Jan. 2015)
24. With a sketch explain the following: (i) electrochemical grinding; and (ii)
electro chemical honing
(VTU July 2014)
25. Explain with a neat sketch the principle of electrochemical grinding

(VTU Jan. 2015; June/July 2015)
26. List the functions of the electrolyte in ECM process.
27.Explain the elements of the chemical machining process.
28. Explain with a flowchart the chemical blanking process.
29. What are the advantages and disadvantages of chemical machining
30. What are the elements of chemical machining process? Explain.
(VTU Dec. 2009/Jan. 2010)
31.What are the factors which affect the selection of an etchant for a given
component?
(VTU Dec. 2009/Jan. 2010)
32. Enumerate the advantages and applications of chemical machining.
(VTU Dec. 2009/Jan. 2010)
33. With neat sketches, explain the steps involved in chemical blanking.
(VTU May/June 2010)
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128
34.Discuss the following in the chemical machining (CHM) process:

i) etchant; and (ii) maskant. (VTU May/June 2010)
35. Explain the sequence of operation in chemical machining. (VTU Dec. 2010)
36. List the factors to be considered in selection of etchant in chemical machining.

(VTU Dec. 2010)
37.Discuss the factors to be considered for selection of the maskant and types that
are used in chemical machining. (VTU June/July 2011)
38. Differentiate between chemical milling and chemical blanking.

39. Write a note on etchants in chemical milling.
40. What is chemical machining? Explain briefly the elements of the process.
(VTU Dec. 2011)
41. Explain briefly, the chemical milling process with the help of the neat
flowchart.
(VTU Dec. 2011)
42. Discuss the advantages and applications of CHM.
(VTU Dec. 2011)
43. Which maskants are used in chemical machining? Explain the different types
(VTU June 2012)
44. What are the factors to be considered in selection of etchant.
(VTU June 2012)
45. Write a short note on etchants indicating factors to select them.
(VTU Dec.2012)
46. Explain the chemical blanking process stepwise with the flowchart.
(VTU Dec.2012)
47. What are advantages of chemical machining?
(VTU Dec.2012)
48. Explain in brief the following in chemical machining process: (i) maskant and
(ii) etchant.
(VTU June 2013)
49. With the help of neat sketches, explain the steps involved in chemical
blanking
(VTU June 2013)
50. What is chemical machining? Explain its fundamental principle

51. Explain the following with sketches: i) chemical milling; and (ii) chemical
blanking
57
129
52. Explain the different types of maskant used in chemical machining

(VTU JuneJuly 2014)
53 List the advantages and disadvantages of chemical machining.
(VTU Dec. 2014/Jan. 2015)
54. Explain the important steps involved in chemical milling to produce pockets
and contours
(VTU Dec. 2014/Jan. 2015)
55. List the major applications of CHM and other process applications related to
improving the surface characteristics.
(VTU Dec. 2014/Jan. 2015)
56. Explain the elements of chemical machining process.
57.Explain with a flowchart for the chemical blanking process.
(VTU June/July2015)
58. Mention the limitations of chemical machining process.
*****
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130
MODULE 4
ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING (EDM)
Introduction, mechanism of metal removal, EDM equipment: spark erosion

generator(relaxation type), dielectric medium-its functions & desirable properties,
electrode feedcontrol system.
Flushing types; pressure flushing, suction flushing, side flushing, pulsedflushing.
EDM process parameters: Spark frequency, current & spark gap, surface
finish,Heat Affected Zone.
Advantages, limitations & applications of EDM, Electrical discharge grinding

(EDG), Traveling wire EDM.
PLASMA ARC MACHINING (PAM)

Introduction, non-thermal generation of plasma, equipment mechanism of metal
removal, Plasma torch.
Process parameters, process characteristic.
Safety precautions. Safety precautions.
Applications, advantages and limitations.

08 hours
*****
131
ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINING (EDM)
The EDM process involves a controlled erosion of electrically conductive material by the
initiation of rapid and repetitive spark discharge between the electrode tool (cathode, -ve) and
the workpiece (anode) separated by a small gap (0.01 to 0.50 mm) known as a spark gap.
In EDM, the tool is an electrode and its movement is controlled precisely using servo
drives. Cutting energy is provided by means of short duration electrical pulses. Discharge is
submerged in the dielectric medium so as to concentrate the spark energy into a smaller area.
EDM has paved a way to machine high strength temperature-resistant alloys (HSTR) and
other hard-to-machine conducting materials.
It is example for Electro Thermal process.
Mechanics of metal removal in EDM
(VTU Dec. 2011; Jan. 2010; June/July 2013, June/July 2015; May/June 2010)
The sequence of events constituting the process of metal removal from the work surface
by a single discharge in EDM process can be explained in the following sequence
132
1.When the voltage is applied to the work and the tool, separated by properly chosen spark
gap filled with suitable dielectric fluid, the breakdown of the dielectric medium takes place due
to strong electrostatic field between the electrodes.
2. The strong electrostatic field produces a cold emission of electrons from thecathode (tool)
and accelerates it towards the anode (work). Thus, a free electron liberated from the cathode
will be accelerated towards the anode by the electric field, and the electron will acquire high
velocity.
3. Free electron will collide with the dielectric fluid while moving through the dielectric medium.
4. If the energy contained by the electron at the instant of collision is not sufficient enough to
eject another electron from a dielectric molecule, an electron will rebounce with diminished
energy.
5. If the energy contained by the electron at the instant of collision is sufficient enough to eject
another electron from a dielectric molecule, then a greater number of collisions take place.
6.Due to this collision, the dielectric fluid molecules will be broken up into electrons and
positive ions. Consequently, a small ionized fluid medium will be formed.
7. Due to this ionization of dielectric fluid column, the resistance of fluid layer will decrease,
and an electrical discharge is initiated with the resulting flow of electrons.
8. Each electrical discharge causes a focused stream of electrons from the cathode towards the
anode and ultimately creates compression shock waves on both the electrode surfaces.
9.The pressure created by these shock waves is many times more than the ultimate strength of
the electrodes. The generation of shock waves develops a local rise in temperature, and a
surface layer gets deformed. The transient pressure of shockwaves can go up to 1000 bars.
10. This phenomenon will take place in microseconds and temperature of the spot will rise up
to 10,0000C.
11. Pulse energy is ultimately released as heat. This heat results in an increase in temperature
of the work and causes pyrolysis of the dielectric medium a10,0000C.
133
12. The inertia of the surrounding dielectric medium develops a high pressure and creates a
blast causing the metallic vapour to form wear products in the shape of the metallic globules,
leaving craters in the anode and cathode. Erosion takes place on both electrodes, but not to
the same extent.
13. The momentum with the positive ions strikes the cathode surface is much less than the
momentum with which the electrons strike the work surface. The mass of an electron is much
smaller than positive ions. This is due to the fact that the striking velocity is much higher than
the positive ions. Therefore, there will be less wear of the electrode (cathode) and more wear
(metal removal) on the work(anode).
DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT
A schematic layout of EDM is shown in Figure . EDM has the following major modules
(a) Machine frame
(b) Power supply
(c) Dielectric system
(d) Tool and workpieces
(e) Servo systems
134
(a) Machine Frame
Nearly all the machines are of vertical C type consisting of a base, a column and a head.
The coordinate table which supports the workpiece is usually mounted on the base. Machines
with fixed work table are also available at a lower cost.
In EDM, there is no contact between the tool and the work, yet sturdy machine frames
for spark erosion are required because:
1.Weight of the workpiece like dies, etc., is normally high.
2. To withstand vibrations during sparking.
3.Required for precision setting of jobs with accuracy
4.No misalignments after changing the worn out electrode.
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(b) Power Supply
The power generator is one of the most important parts of an EDM system. The primary
function of the power generator is to convert an alternating current (AC) to pulsed direct
current (DC). DC is used to produce the unidirectional spark discharges between the gap of the
tool and work.
The power supply has a solid state rectifier circuit to convert AC to DC and a pulse to
generate DC pulses or unipolar pulses. A fraction of DC power is used to generate a square wave
signal with the help of digital multi vibrator oscillator.
For a given input voltage, a spark can be generated only at or below a certain gap
between the tool and the workpiece. EDM power supply senses the voltage between the
electrode and tool and sends a relevant signal to the servo system, which maintains the desired
gap between electrodes
This pulsing unit is of four different types
1. Rotary impulse generator
2 Relaxation generator
3. Pulse generator
4. Hybrid generator
The essential functions of the spark generator are
1. To supply adequate voltage to initiate and maintain the discharge
2. To adjust the discharge current intensity
3. To adjust the discharge duration
4. To control gap (Inter-Electrode Gap - IEG)
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(c)Dielectric System
It consists of dielectric fluid, reservoir, filters, pump p and delivery devices. The dielectric
tank is provided with an automatic level controller. It is also equipped with a safety device to
shut down the operation in case temperature exceeds a certain limit.
Dielectric may be fed into the working area either by pressure or by vacuum suction.
The dielectric has to be filtered in order to remove the metal and graphite particles. It is not
necessary to use any centrifuge. It should be ensured that there is good circulationand flushing
of the dielectric fluid. Manufacturers provide rotary tables with built-in suction and injection
ports which provide built-in arrangement for circulation of the dielectric medium.
Fluids commonly used are transformer oil, paraffin oil, kerosene, lubricating oils and
deionized (DI) water.
(d) Tool and Workpiece
The workpiece can be directly mounted on machine table (either fixed or coordinate
with a suitable work holding devices like a magnetic table, vice, chucks or special work holding
devices.
The material used as tool electrode should have the following properties. It should:
1. be easily maintainable;
2 have low wear rate;
3. be a good conductor of heat and electric current;
4. be easily available and economical; and
5. be easily manufacturable.
High electrical conductivity:
Electrons are cold emitted more easily, and there will be less bulk electrical heating.
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High thermal conductivity:
For the same heat load, local temperature rise would be less due to faster heat
conducted into the bulk of the tool and thus less tool wear.
Higher density:
For the same heat load and same tool wear by weight there would be less volume
removal of the tool. Thus, less dimensional loss or accuracy.
Higher melting point:
It leads to less tool wear due to less loss of tool material for the same heat load.
The following are the different electrode materials:
1. Graphite.
2. Electrolytic oxygen free copper.
3, Tellurium copper-99% Cu and 0.5 % tellurium.
4. Brass.
(e) Servo System
It is used to maintain a predetermined gap between the tool and the workpiece. Too
large gaps will prevent the formation of sparks. If the gap is very small, there will be short-
circuit, which will damage both the tool and the work. There is a gap voltage sensor in the
power supply which sends a signal to servo system. As soon as it senses the gap between the
electrodes has been bridged by some electrically conductive particles; a signal will be sent to
the servo system to reverse its direction. Two requirements of servo systems are:
1. It should have good sensitivity for small movements.
2. Enough power to overcome the weight of ram, electrode and flushing forces
Electro-hydraulic servo control is usually preferred to electro-mechanical servosystem because

of its superior response time which is of the order of 2 milliseconds. The servo gets its input
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signal from the difference between a selected reference voltage and the actual voltage across
the gap. The signal is amplified, and the tool is advanced by hydraulic control.
EDM is a process of cratering out of metals using a spark. Spark of thermal power
concentration of 10 W/mm2 capable of melting or vaporizing small amount of work material, is
used. The process involves controlled erosion of electrically conductive materials by initiation
of rapid and repetitive electrical spark discharge between the tool (cathode) and the workpiece
(anode) separated by a dielectric fluid medium. A suitable gap (10-500 microns), known as spark
gap, is maintained between the tool and the workpiece to cause the spark discharge.
This spark gap is either flooded or immersed in the dielectric fluid. The spark discharge is
produced by the controlled pulsing of direct current between the workpiece and the tool. The
dielectric fluid in the spark gap is ionized under the pulsed application of direct current, thus
enabling a spark discharge to pass between the tool and the workpiece. Billions of electrons
are generated in each spark and thousands of arcs are initiated in each second. Each spark
produces enough heat to melt and vaporize a tiny volume of the workpiece material leaving a
small crater on its surface. The energy contained in each spark is discrete, and it can be
controlled so that the material removal rate, surface finish and tolerance can be predicted. The
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temperature by the spark may rise up to 10,0000 C causing the work surface to melt and
vaporize.
BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF EDM PROCESS
1. Both the workpiece and the tool material must be electrically conductive.
2. The workpiece must be held firmly and in exact position with respect to the tool.
3. A precise gap (usually,0.025 mm) must be maintained between the tool and the work.
4. The dielectric fluid must flow between the tool and the work. Flow rate and pressure must
be properly chosen to avoid collection of debris between the too land the work, which
otherwise causes short circuiting.
5. The power supply must provide a pulse of required characteristics like pulse energy, duration,
frequency of pulses.
6. Proper filtration system must be used to filter the debris of the electrolyte.
7. Proper safety precautions are to be taken to prevent damage to operator, equipment, tool
and workpiece.
TYPES OF GENERATORS
The power generator is one of the most important parts of an EDM system. The main
functions of a spark generator are:
• Its primary function is to convert an alternating current (AC) into a pulsed direct
current (DC).
• The main function is to produce unidirectional square wave pulses to the
electrode.
• To supply adequate voltage to initiate and maintain discharge.
• To adjust the discharge current intensity.
• To adjust the discharge duration.
• To control recurring rhythm of the discharge.
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There are four types of generator:
1. Rotary impulse generator

2. Relaxation generator
3. Pulse generator
4. Hybrid generator
Relaxation Generator
Schematic diagram of a relaxation generator is shown in Figure 6.6.
Relaxation generator is one of the most commonly used generators in EDM due to its
simplicity and low cost.
This uses resistance and condenser to generate a nearly sawtooth voltage waveform.
The condenser gets charged from a no voltage to the required voltage when it is connected to
DC source. Then the charged condenser is connected to the machine to discharge its charge to
the spark gap in the machine and so relaxed to zero voltage (voltage which cannot sustain
spark). The next discharge will not occur unless the condenser is charged again. The switch is
replaced by the resistance which varies the charging current. This helps in controlling the idle
period (charging time) and discharging period and pulse energy content (Figure 6.7)
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The main drawbacks of these generators are
• Current, discharge duration and energy are interdependent and cannot be chosen
individually.
• Values of current, discharge duration and energy vary from cycle to cycle hence, the
machining process is unpredictable.
• Time required for charging the capacitor is more, and consequently, it limits the use of high
frequencies.
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DIELECTRIC FLUID or MEDIUM- ITS FUNCTIONS & DESIRABLE PROPERTIES
Definition
Dielectric fluid is a medium that does not conduct electricity. It is an electrical insulator
that can be polarized by an applied electric field. When an electric field is applied across the
dielectric medium, electric charges do not flow through the dielectric medium but only slightly
shift from their average equilibrium positions causing dielectric polarization.
Because of dielectric polarization, positive charges are displaced toward the field and
negative charges shift in the opposite direction. This creates an internal electric field that
reduces the overall field within the dielectric itself. The dielectric does four important functions
namely, insulation, ionization, cooling, and removal of waste particles
The dielectric fluid serves as a spark conductor, concentrating the energy to a very
narrow region. In addition, it serves as a coolant to quench the spark and cool the electrodes
and also as a flushing medium for disposal of the products of machining. Dielectric fluid is a
medium that does not conduct electricity. In EDM process, the tool and workpieces are
submerged in a dielectric fluid medium.
The common dielectric fluids generally used are:
• Petroleum based hydrocarbon fluids

• Paraffin white spirits
• Transformer oil
• Kerosene
• Mineral oil
• Polar compounds such as glycerine water (90:10) with trimethylene oil as an
additive
• Silicone oils
The dielectric fluid must not be hazardous to the operator or corrosive to the equipment. The
choice of dielectric fluid depends on the workpiece, size, type of shape, tolerance, MRR and
surface finish. White spirit is best suited for machining tungsten carbide. The dielectric fluid
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should not be frequently changed on a machine, and it is chosen according to the most frequent
application to be carried out in the machine.
The dielectric fluid must circulate freely between the tool and the workpiece. The
eroded particles should be flushed out at the earliest since it reduces the further metal removal
rate.
The functions of dielectric in EDM are:
1. To act as coolant between the tool and the workpiece and to prevent arcing.
2. To serve as a conducting medium on ionization and conveys sparks.
3. To act as a coolant in quenching the spark.
4. As a flushing medium in removing chips.
Requirement of dielectric fluids
1. The dielectric should have high dielectric strength (180 V/25 microns) such that it
remains electrically non-conductive until the breakdown voltage between the tool and the
work is reached.
2. It should break down electrically in the shortest possible time once the breakdown
voltage has been reached. It must ionize and deionize rapidly.
3. It should not chemically react with the tool, the workpiece and parts of equipment
such as bed, etc.
4. It should have good wetting ability and low viscosity
5. It should carry away the eroded particles. It should be capable of carrying away the
swarf particles in suspension, away from the working gap.
6. Quench the spark rapidly and deionize the spark gap after the discharge has occurred.
7. It should have high flash point to avoid fire hazards.
8. It should not produce any toxic vapours/fumes.
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9. It should have good degree of fluidity.
10. It should serve as an effective cooling medium.
11. It should be cheap and easily available.
12. It should be non-corrosive.
These requirements can be met by hydrocarbon oils having a viscosity of 5-6 cSt at 200C
such as kerosene. Other dielectric medium are silicon oils, deionized water and polar liquids.
The choice of the dielectric depends on the:
• Workpiece size
• Complexity of shape
• Tolerance
• Surface finish
• Metal removal rate
White spirits are used to machine tungsten carbide. The same dielectric is used to
machine small parts with intricate details and good surface finish. The dielectric liquid is kept
in circulation using pumps. It is continuously filtered through such medium as wound cotton
yarn cartridges to remove the debris of machining. The rating of filters usually ranges from 5 to
2 microns.
The dielectric fluid is flushed through the spark gap and is supplied through a hole in the
tool or from external jets. It may also be supplied through holes in the workpiece. For this
purpose pressure and suction ports are used on work holding devices.
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ELECTRODE FEED CONTROL/ELECTROMECHANICAL CONTROL UNIT
The basic requirements of electrode feed controls are:
• In EDM, both the workpiece and the tool are eroded and, therefore, feed control
must maintain a movement of electrode towards the workpiece at such a speed
that the working gap, and hence the sparking voltage remains same.
• Hunting of the mechanism is not allowed because the gap is small.
• Overshooting of the mechanism may be short circuit and damage both the tool
and the work.
• Low inertia drive is required for rapid response of the mechanism.
• It should have rapid reversing speed with no backlash.
Servo mechanism used for electrode feed control can be either electro-hydraulic or
electro-mechanical. An electric motor driven type of gap control mechanism is shown in Figure.
Here the electrode is carried in a chuck fixed to a spindle, to which a rack is attached. The axial
movement of the spindle is controlled through a reduction gear box driven by DC shunt motor,
which is reversible so that the electrode can be withdrawn, if the gap is bridged by the swarf or
if there is an overshoot of the electrode feed mechanism.
The motor armature is connected to the bridge network, the arms of which consist of a
potential divider A connected across the DC supply, while the other arm consists of ballast
resistance B and condenser C of the charging circuit, the latter arms are also connected across
the supply. The control gear works as follows
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(a) When the gap is wide
Assume the electrode to be initially widely spaced from the workpiece and the current
supply switched on to the condenser. This will cause the condenser to be charged, and the
voltage will rise to approach supply voltage. The supply voltage across the lower arm the bridge
will prevail. The voltage across the other arm of the bridge will depend on the potentiometer
setting, and if the setting is midway, and then the voltage across the bridge (the difference
between the voltages across the two lower limbs) will be half the supply voltage. This voltage
tends to rotate the motor causing the electrode to close the gap. When the electrode reaches
the correct position, sparking takes place and the condenser will rapidly charges and discharges
so that a sawtooth waveform is produced across its terminals. The electrode will cease to move
when the average value of this voltage will equal that prevailing across the lower limb of the
potentiometer. Under this condition, bridge is balanced, and there is no armature current.
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(b) When the gap is narrow
If the electrode overshoots, the gap width will be smaller and the average condenser
will no longer be able to charge to the specific voltage. The bridge is now unbalanced with a
reverse polarity so the motor reverses and widens the gap unit-the correct position is reached.
(c) When the electrode touches the work
If the electrode touches the work, the condenser is short circuited; causing the supply
voltage to appear across the ballast resistance, and the electrode is lifted away from the
workpiece. A similar action takes place when the gap is bridged by swarf. The required gap can
be adjusted by setting potentiometer setting.
FLUSHING
Flushing is correct circulation of dielectric fluid between the electrodes and the
workpiece. The efficiency of the machine is highly dependent on the correct layout and
adjustment of the flushing system. If the eroded particles are not flushed thoroughly, they act
as obstacles in the gap and the material removal rate is affected. Flushing is the most critical
function for optimum process efficiency.
Poor flushing results in stagnation of the dielectric fluid and build up of tiny machining
residue particles in the gap. Stagnation usually results in low material removal rate or short
circuits.
Various methods have been used in practice to remove the de debris from the gap between
the tool and the workpiece. There are various techniques of flushing:
1. Vacuum flushing
2. Pressure flushing or injection flushing
3. Side flushing
4. Pulsed flushing synchronized with electrode movement
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Sometimes more than one type of flushing methods are used for effective removal of
by products to improve MRR and surface finish.
1.Vacuum Flushing
In vacuum flushing, a dielectric fluid containing the eroding product is sucked through
either the workpiece or through the tool as shown in Figure 6.21. This technique is employed
to avoid any tapering effect due to sparking between machining debris and the side walls of the
electrodes. Clean dielectric fluid from the working tank flows into the peripheral gap to replace
the used fluid. And the used fluid is sucked out. This type of flushing is used when a fine finish
and parallel walls are required on the workpiece. When using this method with narrow gaps
and small amounts of dielectric fluid flowing, care must be taken that enough dielectric gets
into the spark gap, so that spark erosion process remains stable (Figure 6.21)
Vacuum or Suction flushing
2.Injection Flushing
In this technique, pressurized clean dielectric is pumped into the EDM gap via either a
pre-drilled hole in the tool or the workpiece. The liquid flows upwards in the peripheral gap
sweeping the eroding products into the open work tank. With this method, tapering of
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components arises due to the lateral discharge action occurring as a result of particles being
flushed up the sides of electrodes. The amount of dielectric fluid flowing through the spark gap
is more important than the pressure of the flushing. Particles rising up through the lateral gap
cause additional erosion. This may cause minor surface defects. (Figure 6.22)
Injection flushing
3.Side Flushing or Open Flushing
This is the least effective method of removing the suspended particles from the spark
gap. The electrode can be cycled up and down in the vertical axis, drawing the new dielectric
fluid into the cavity thus diluting the contaminated fluid. When the electrode is cycled down, it
pushes the contaminated fluid (Figure 6.23).
Side flushing
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4. Pulsed Flushing with Synchronized Electrode Movement
When machining with metallic electrodes using pressure or suction flushing, there is an
abnormal wear of the electrode. This wear increases with the flushing pressure. To prevent this,
most of the EDM manufacturers now provide a system which employs dielectric injection which
is synchronized with the withdrawal or upward movement of the electrode. Therefore, the
spark gap is under dielectric pressure only during that part of the cycle when no machining
takes place, thus reducing the wear of the electrode.
CHARACTERISTICS OF EDM PROCESS
The following are the EDM process characteristics,
(a) Metal removal rate
(b) Accuracy
(c) Surface finish
(d) Heat affected zone.
(a) Metal Removal Rate
Metal removal rate increases with the current valve. The metal removal rate is generally
described by the volume of material removed per unit time. It is also defined as the volume of
the material removed per unit time per ampere which then yields a basis for the output
comparison of different machines or different electrode materials. The machining rate during
roughing of steel with a graphite electrode and 50 A generators is about 400 mm 3 / min and
with a generator of 400 A it is about 4800 mm3/min. For precision machining with low
amperage and high frequency, the material removal rate is as low as 2 mm3/min.
(b) Accuracy
Tolerance of ±0.05 mm could be easily achieved by EDM in normal production. By close

parameter control, we can achieve tolerance of ±0.03 mm.
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EDM produces taper, overcut and corner radii. A typical taper value is about 0.005- 0.05
mm per 10 mm depth. The tapering effect decreases substantially to zero after about 75 mm
penetration. The taper can be eliminated if the suction flushing is employed.
An overcut of 5-100 microns is generally observed in EDM depending upon the finishing
or roughing operation. EDM manufacturers supply over cut charts.
Another characteristic of EDM are corner radii which are equal to spark gap and
inevitable in spark erosion machining. Corner radii are minimum in finish machining where a
very low spark gap is used.
( c) Surface Finish
In EDM spark discharge produces crater in the workpiece. The volume of which is directly
related to the energy contained in the spark. The depth of this crater defines the surface finish.
The surface finish depends on the amperage, frequency and finish on electrodes. High
frequency and low amperage setting give the best surface finish. The best surface finish that
can be achieved on steel is about 0.4 micron.
(d) Heat Affected Zone
The workpiece material which gets melted is not completely expelled during the process
and its resolidfies on the machined surface of the workpiece to form a hard skin of about 2-10
microns deep. The hardness of this top layer is about 60 HRC. Thermal stresses, plastic
deformation and fine cracks may be formed in this grain boundary. The depth of this hard layer
is small in finishing operations and can be removed by polishing. Directly below this, there is a
layer of 0.05-0.2 mm deep in a tampered condition.
( e) Effect of Increasing current
Figures show the effect of increasing current. As the current increases, each individual spark
removes a larger crater of metals from the workpiece. The net effect is an increase in MRR.
Some effect is also observed when spark voltage is raised.
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(f) Effect of Increasing Sparking Frequency
Figure shows the effect of increasing frequency. Increasing in the spark frequency decreases
surface roughness. This is because the energy available for material removal during a given
period is shared by a large number of sparks and size of the crater is also reduced.
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(g) Effect of Pulse Duration on Surface Finish
Figure shows the effect of tool material with respect to surface roughness. Copper tools in
general yield better surface finish as compared to brass.
(h) Spark gap
Typical gap between the tool and the workpiece ranges from 0.01-0.05 mm. The smaller the
gap, the closer the accuracy with a good surface finish. However, efficient flushing becomes
difficult to achieve with small gaps.
HEAT AFFECTED ZONE in EDM
In EDM, metal removal from the workpiece takes place due to melting and/or
vapourization of the work material by the energy of the discharged electric spark. The
temperature of the discharged spark lies in the range of 8000 to 120000C. This high temperature
may result in microstructural changes leading to changes in the mechanical properties of the
machined surface. Microscopic study of machined components reveals the presence of three
different layers or zones: recast layer, heat affected zone, and converted layer as shown in
figure.
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Zone 1 Recast layer
During machining, if the molten (vapourized) material from the workpiece is not flushed out
quickly, it will re-solidify and harden due to the cooling effect of the dielectric fluid and gets
adhered to the machined surface. This thin adhered layer of about 2 -40 um is called the recast
layer. It is extremely hard, brittle and porous, and may contain microcracks. The layer must be
removed by secondary machining process before the workpart is put into use. The fatigue
strength has been found to increase by about 5% with the layer removal.
Zone 2 Heat affected zone
Around (or below) the recast layer is the heat affected zone formed due to rapid heating and
quenching cycles during machining. This layer is approximately 25 um thick. The heating-cooling
cycle and diffused material during machining are the responsible reasons for the presence of
this zone. Thermal residual stresses, grain boundary weakness, and grain boundary cracks are
some of the effects related due to this zone
Zone 3 Converted zone
Around (or below) the heat affected zone can be found the converted zone, where a change in
grain structure from the original structure is apparent.
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Around (or below) the converted zone lies the unaffected base layer which remains in the same
condition as it was prior to the EDM process.
APPLICATIONS OF EDM
1. It is used to machine any hard, tough, brittle, refractory, hard carbides, hardenable
steels and exotic materials provided it is electrically conductive.
2. It is used for manufacture of hardened steel die cavities and miniature holes
3. EDM is useful in the economic manufacture of dies for moulding, casting, forging,
stamping, coining and forming processes. It is also used for other high precision tool
room work.
4. EDM is used to make dies/cavities for extrusion and wire drawing processes.
5. Used for making tiny holes, orifices (50 microns) and micro-sized slots.
6. EDM permits the use of more durable die materials like carbide, hardened steel. Dies
are free from burrs and matte finish can be obtained.
7. Used for producing shapes which are extremely difficult to make like squares, D-holes,
splines, narrow slots, grooves and blended features.
8. The absence of almost all mechanical forces makes it possible to machine fragile parts
without distortion. In addition, fragile tools, wire can be used.
9. It is also a good method for making deep holes in fuel injecting nozzles. Wire electrode
of diameter ranging from 0.015 mm to 0.125 mm is used.
10. Hydraulic valve spools are made using EDM.
11. It is commonly used for thread cutting on jobs, drilling of micro holes, helical profile
drilling, curved hole drilling, re-sharpening of cutting tools and broaches, remachining
of die cavities without annealing, trepanning of holes with straight or curved axes.
12. Delicate workpieces, such as copper parts for fitting into vacuum tubes, can be
produced by this method. The workpiece, in this case, is too fragile to withstand the
cutting force during conventional machining.
13. EDM is used when repetitive parts are required; they can often be produced from the
easy to make male electrode.
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14. EDM is used when machining accuracy must be maintained after heat treatment of the
part. EDM is also used for metallurgical investigations.
15. It is used for trepanning of rectangular holes in thin valve sleeves on curved surfaces.
ADVANTAGES OF EDM
EDM is gaining worldwide reputation due to the following advantages:
1. The process can be applied to all electrically conductive metals and alloys irrespective of
their physical, mechanical and metallurgical properties of the work material.
2. About 80-90 % of the EDM work is used in the manufacture of the tool and die sets for
the production of casting, forgings, stampings and extrusions.
3. Any complicated shapes can be made on the tool and can be reproduced on the
workpiece.
4. Highly complicated shapes can be made by fabricating the tool with split sectioned shapes
by welding, brazing or by applying quick setting conductive epoxy adhesives.
5. Time of machining is less than conventional machining. This is true especially for hard
materials with complex contours.
6. EDM can be used to machine extremely hard materials. Hence, distortion of the
workpiece due to heat treatment can be eliminated.
7. No mechanical stresses are present in the process except the blasting pressure that
occurs during the disappearance of the plasma column. It is due to the fact that physical
contact between the tool and the work is eliminated. Thus, fragile and slender workpiece
can be machined without distortion.
8. The process is advantageous for tool maintenance and repair work. It is actually suited as
a corrective means for completely heat treated finished tooling.
9. The error involved in making dies is eliminated to a great extent and is limited to the tool
only.
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10. Catering type of surface finish automatically creates accommodation for lubricants
causing the die life to improve.
11. Considering easier and more economical polishing can be done on the cratering type of
the surface developed by EDM.
12. Fine holes can be drilled easily in EDM. Centre-to-centre distance of holes can be limited
to 0.01 mm and blind hole fillet radius can be as small as 0.05 mm. Aspect ratio of 100:1
during the drilling of small holes can be achieved.
13. Hard and corrosive resistance surface, especially required for die making can be
developed by the reaction between the hot work surface and dielectric decomposition
product causing the structural changes to occur at the surface, particularly due to rapid
cooling from high temperature.
14.EDM process gives good accuracy and high repeatability for tools and dies since it
facilitates easy machining of hard materials.
15. EDM machining produces chip/burr-free work surfaces.
16. The process once setup does not need constant monitoring.
17 EDM gives good surface finish. The surface finish of (0.08 - 3.0 µm) can be achieved.
18. No cutting forces are involved so thin and fragile materials can be machined.
19. The soft material electrode can be used to make hard material die. For example copper
tool can be used to make hardened steel dies
20. In some materials, longer die life is possible. This is due to hardening of the boundary
layer by high temperature together with carburizing effect. Die life is increased in some
cases up to 20% and good surface finish is obtained.
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DISADVANTAGES OF EDM
1. Power required for machining in EDM is high compared to conventional machining.
2 Reproduction of sharp corners is difficult in EDM. Complex contours are difficult to

reproduce.
3. Surface cracking may take place in some materials owing to their affinity to become
ductile at room temperature especially when higher energy per pulse is used.
4. The distortion of the surface micro structure by EDM is detrimental to some cases and
necessitates subsequent etching.
5. The process is not suitable for non-conductive materials. Non-metallic materials such as
ceramics, plastics, glass, etc., cannot be machined using EDM.
6.Difficult to employ more than one tool as it requires separate power generators and servo
mechanisms.
7. In some cases, EDM is confined to small workpiece and produces thermal distortions.
8. Electrode and overcut are serious problems of EDM.
9. In many cases, the machined surface has deeper microcracks.
10. Volumetric metal removal rate in EDM is low (0.1 to 10 mm³/min).
11. Perfect square corners are difficult to make using EDM process.
12. Tool wear is high, sometimes two or three tools are required to complete the operation.
This results in high tool cost.
Tool wear ratio(TWR)= Volume of metal lost from tool

Volume of metal removed from work
TWR is as high as 3 with brass/tungsten carbide and 1 with brass/hardened steel
workpiece.
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13. EDM produces heat affected zone (HAZ), leads to cracks. Excessive local thermal expansion
and subsequent contraction may result in residual tensile stress.
14. Gap cleaning is very crucial in EDM.
15. In some materials, there is a decrease in endurance limit up to 15% after EDM.
16. In most of the jobs, batch sizes of at least 25-30 workpieces are required for economical
production.
ELECTRIC DISCHARGE GRINDING
Electrical discharge grinding belongs to a class of hybrid grinding in which mechanical grinding
is assisted by some of the advanced manufacturing technologies like electro-discharge
machining, ultrasonic machining, electrochemical machining etc.
Process Principle
Electrical discharge grinding (EDG) is a spark erosion process used for precision machining of
electrical conductive workpieces. It is very similar in principle to EDM.
Figure 6.36 shows a schematic illustration of an EDG operation.
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A rotating electrically conductive grinding wheel is used as an electrode in EDG. Both

the wheel and workpiece are submerged in a tank containing a dielectric hydrocarbon oil.
Pulsed electrical energy is delivered to the wheel and workpiece from a power supply that is
capable of generating pulses at rates of up to 2,50,000 pulses/sec. The wheel is charged
negatively and the workpiece is charged positively.
The dielectric fluid flows through a small gap that is maintained between the wheel and
the workpiece. The rotating motion of the EDG wheel helps to flush the dielectric liquid
continuously without the need for a pump. The pump is needed to flush the dielectric liquid in
EDM.
When each pulse of electricity is delivered from the power supply, the insulating
properties of the dielectric fluid are temporarily broken down. This allows a spark to jump
across the short gap between the wheel and the workpiece. A small pool of molten metal is
formed on the workpiece at the point where the spark makes contact. A gas bubble forms
around the spark and the molten pool. When the pulse of electricity stops and spark disappears,
the gas bubbles collapse. The flow of cool dielectric fluid causes the molten metal to be flushed
from the workpiece, leaving a small crater. This action is repeated hundreds and thousands of
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times each second during the EDG process. This removes material from the workpiece in a
shape opposite to that of the grinding wheel.
Because there is no mechanical contact between the tool and the workpiece, EDG is
commonly used to perform an operation on very fragile parts or to produce thin sections
without damage. Wheels can be dressed to produce complex shapes in one pass.
Equipment
There are many similarities between EDG machines, EDM machine and conventional
abrasive grinding machine. The main important parts like power supply, dielectric supply
system and filtration systems are similar to those used in EDM machine. The motion of wheel
axis, wheel mounting, is similar to that of the conventional grinding machine.
Wheels: Wheels used for EDG are made from porous, low-grade graphite and are
common between 100 and 300 mm in diameter. Wheel width can range from 152 mm to 2.5
mm or even less. Because EDG wheels are made of graphite, shaping of EDG wheels can be
easily done by using high-speed steel tools.
Because there is always a gap between the active surfaces of the wheel and the
workpiece surface, the dimensions of the wheel will be different from those required of the
workpiece. Compensation for this overcut must be made when designing the wheel.
Because the wheel erosion takes place from the sparking action of EDG (although at
much slower rate than the workpiece erosion) wheel dressing is performed after every
machining parts.
Servo drive system:
The EDG servo drive system is a special feedback device, it must sense and maintain a
constant gap between the wheel and the workpiece while feeding the workpiece into the
wheel. This is done by the system monitoring electrical conditions at the machining gap and
comparing the results with preset limits corresponding to the desired gap distance. This results
in a condition in which the wheel is feeding into the workpiece at a rate equal to the rate at
which material being removed. If the circuit senses that the gap is becoming blocked with
162
particles of removed material, the workpiece will move back to allow the gap to clear itself
before starting to grind.
Applications of EDG
1. Any shape that can be ground by conventional grinding can be machined using EDG.
2. It is used for grinding carbide tools, dies, form tools, and thin workpieces.
3. Difficult to grind such as grooves and slots can be machined using EDG
Advantages of EDG
1. There is no contact between the wheel and workpiece.

2. Cost of the wheel is less.
3. Dressing procedure is simple.
4. Can grind any conductive material.
5. No distortion is produced during grindings.
Disadvantages of EDG
1. Recast layer is produced during this process

2. There is a fire hazard due to use of hydrocarbon dielectric fluid.
3. Wheels are fragile and careful storing, and handling is required.
WIRE ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING
Electrical discharge wire cutting is commonly known as wire EDM, and is used to produce
complex two- or three-dimensional shapes through electrically conductive materials.
In wire EDM, a wire of 0.05 to 0.3 mm diameter is used as an electrode and deionized water as
dielectric. A nozzle is employed to inject the dielectric in machining area in wire EDM.
Electrodes are connected to pulsed DC supply. Heat is generated due to sparking results in
melting of the workpiece and wire material. Sometimes part of the material may even vaporize
like in conventional EDM. A constant gap between the tool and the workpiece is maintained
with the help of computer controlled positioning system.
163
Equipment
Schematic diagram of wire-electric discharge machining is shown in Figure.
The wire EDM equipment consists of the following
1. Power supply systems
2. Dielectric systems
3. Positioning system
4. Wire drive system
164
1. Power supply systems
The major difference between the power supplies used for wire EDM and conventional
EDM are the frequency of pulses and current used. To produce a smoother surface, a pulse
frequency of 1 MHz is used in wire EDM. Such a high frequency ensures that small amount of
the material is removed from the workpiece.
Normally, isopulse generator is used in wire EDM, where peak current, on time, off time
and spark frequency can be controlled. Current in wire EDM is usually about 20-30 A. The
potential difference of 50-60 V is used between work and tool.
2. Dielectric system:
Effective flushing is important in wire EDM. Flushing nozzles are placed close to the gap.
Wire breakage occurs if the flushing is not proper. Flushing is difficult in wire EDM. So low
viscosity, deionized water is used as dielectric. Light oil with proper filtration is also used.
Advantages of water as dielectric medium are:
1. Water has the lowest viscosity,
2. There is no fire hazard with water.
3. High cooling rate.
4. High material removal rate (MRR)
5. Better surface finish.
6. Water will not pollute the atmosphere
7. Water is available
The low viscosity fluid is required in wire EDM to ensure the adequate flushing in small
cutting gap used in wire EDM. Therefore, water is used. Water also removes heat from the
cutting area more efficiently. The very high metal removal rate is possible with water as
dielectric, but tool wear is also high. In conventional EDM oil is used as dielectric and poses fire
165
hazard problems. But using water as a dielectric, the fire hazard problem can be eliminated.
Tool wear rate is high. Therefore, wire cannot be reused. The effective way of supplying
dielectric is by providing a stream of deionized water along the axis of the wire. The cost of the
dielectric can be reduced by reusing it after filtering. Filtration should be carried out with a 5-
micron disposable filter. Some special additives are added to deionized water to prevent rust
formation.
3. Positioning system:
Wire EDM machine consists of CNC two-axis (XY) table and in some cases additional
multi-axis wire positioning is also provided. The constant gap is maintained between the wire,
and work material is maintained using adaptive control systems. If small material comes in
contact between the wire and work, then there will be a short circuit. The positioning system
senses the gap and takes corrective action.
4. Wire drive system:
The function of wire drive system is to provide continuously fresh wire to the work area.
For wires, proper tensioning is required to avoid breaking, vibration marks, taper, etc. The wire
is guided by the wire guides (usually, made of diamond or sapphire), and it is passed through a
series of tensioning rollers before it rolls in the take up reel. Figure 6.35 shows wire drive
system.
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In wire cut EDM, cutting speed is given in terms of cross-sectionl area cut per unit. For example
for aluminium of 150 mm thick slab, metal removal is 45,000 min²/hour. For tool steel of 50
mm thick, metal removal is 18,000 mm²/hour. This amounts to linear cutting rate of 300 to 350
mm/hour.
Applications of Wire EDM
1. This is used to machine thick conductive materials. The thickness of 200 mm or more can be
machined.
2. It is used for manufacturing of dies. The machining of press stamping dies is simplified
because punch, die, punch plate and stripper can be machined from a single wire EDM-CNC
program. Clearances can be controlled accurately hence, the life of punch and die setup
increases drastically.
3. Wire EDM is useful in the economic manufacture of complex parts. Many hours of polishing
and grinding can be saved.
4. It is used to machine medical and dental parts/prototypes.
5. It can be used to machine delicate and thin sections. There is no cutting force involved in
wire EDM.
6. Wire EDM can be used for cutting titanium and cast alloys which are difficult to process by
another conventional machining.
7. Wire EDM is used for cutting hardened materials such as polycrystalline diamond (PCD), cubic
boron nitride (CBN), carbides, etc.
8. Wire EDM is used when machining accuracy must be maintained to close tolerances.
9. It is used for trepanning of holes in thin complex surfaces.
Advantages of Wire EDM
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Wire EDM has the following advantages
1. The process can be applied to all electrically conductive metals and alloys irrespective of their
physical, mechanical and metallurgical properties of the work material.
2. Electrode is wire. There is no tooling cost, storage cost or fabrication cost.
3. No mechanical stresses are present in the process.
4. Wire EDM is useful in the economic manufacture of complex parts. Many hours of polishing
and grinding can be saved.
5. Die cost reduces by 30 to 70%. Close tolerance can be maintained between the punch and
die.
6. Process gives high surface finish.
7. Rejections of parts are minimum because CNC programs can be simulated before
manufacturing.
Disadvantages of Wire EDM
1. High capital cost
2. Slow cutting speeds
3. Not suitable for very large workpieces
4. Electrolysis can occur in the same material.
*****
168
Module 4 Questions
1. Explain with sketch the mechanism of metal removal by electric discharge machining
(VTU June-July 2009)
2. Explain with sketch the process of electrode feed control in electric discharge machining.
3. Explain the different methods of dielectric flushing in electric discharge machining process.
4. What is electric discharge machining (EDM)? Explain the mechanism of metal removal.
(VTU Dec. 09/Jan. 2010)
5. Indicate and explain the parameters that govern the metal removal rate.
(VTU Dec. 2009/Jan, 2010)
7. Explain with a neat sketch, the mechanism of metal removal in EDM process.
(VTU May/June 2010)
8. Explain flushing, and explain any two methods of flushing in EDM process.
(VTU May/June 2010)
9. Explain the working principle of EDM with a neat sketch using electro-mechanical control
unit.
(VTU Dec. 2010)
11. What are the functions of dielectric fluid.
(VTU Dec. 2010)
12. Describe "dielectric fluid" used in EDM
13. Briefly explain the effect of: (i) current/power supply, and (ii) spark frequency
14. Briefly explain the rotary pulse generator in EDM process with a neat sketch.
(VTU Dec. 2011)
15. What are the requirements of dielectric fluid? Mention any two dielectric fluids
(VTU May/June 2010)
169
16. Explain in detail, the process characteristics, with reference to EDM.

(VTU Dec. 2010)
17. Draw a diagram of electrode feed control of EDM and label it. (VTU Dec. 2012)
18. Discuss the factors influencing the choice of electrode material in EDM.
19. Explain with help of neat sketches any two types of flushing methods used in EDM
20. Explain with the help of neat sketches, the mechanism of metal removal in EDM process
and also mention its advantages and disadvantages.
21. What are the requirements of a good dielectric fluid used in EDM process? Explain the
methods of dielectric flushing in EDM process.
22. Explain the following with respect to EDM: (i) EDM tool (electrode); and (ii) heat affected
zone.
23. With sketch explain rotary pulse generator type power supply circuit in EDM.
24. Name some of the dielectric fluids commonly used in EDM. Name few tool materials used
in EDM.
(VTU Dec. 2014/Jan. 2015)
25. What are the basic requirements of the dielectric fluid used in EDM
(VTU Dec. 2014/Jan. 2015)
26. With the help of a neat sketch, explain the wire cut electrical discharge machining.
(VTU Dec. 2014/Jan. 2015)
27. Explain with a sketch, the mechanism of metal removal in electric discharge machining
28. Explain the elementary relaxation circuit for EDM.
170
29. Explain the different methods of dielectric flushing in electric discharge machining
*****
171

Introduction, non-thermal generation of plasma, equipment mechanism of
metal removal, plasma torch. Process parameters, process characteristic. Safety
precautions. safety precautions. Applications, advantages and limitations.

Plasma arc machining is a material removal process in which material is
removed by directing a high-velocity jet of high temperature (11,000-30,0000C)
ionized gas on the workpiece. The relatively narrow plasma jet melts the workpiece
material in its path. Because of the high temperature involved, the process can be
used on almost all materials including those which are resistant to oxy-fuel gas
cutting.
Plasma is a mixture of free electrons, positively charged ions and neutral
atoms. It can be obtained by heating a gas to a very high temperature so that it is
partially ionized. The plasma torch confines the plasma forming gas in the arc
chamber, and the arc supplies a large input of electrical energy. The central zone
of the plasma reaches a 15,0000C and is completely ionized. Much of the heating
of the gas takes place in the constricted region of the nozzle duct, resulting in a
high-velocity gas exit
Plasma arc machining is similar in operation to oxy-cutting. However, for
machining hard-to-cut metals such as superalloys, particularly, during cut-off or
rough slitting operations, plasma arc machining is very useful.
In plasma arc machining the workpiece, heating is due to not only converting
heat from high-temperature plasma but also due to direct electron bombardment.
Many materials like aluminium, stainless steel have good thermal conductivity,
large heat capacity, and good oxidation resistance. As such, the material cannot be
cut by conventional cutting like oxy-fuel cutting. These materials can be cut by
plasma arc cutting.
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NON-THERMAL GENERATION OF PLASMA

The method of heating the gas to a high temperature to ionize the gas is a
popular method of generating a plasma. This can be done by two methods:
• By applying suitable electric field across the gas column
• By exposing gas column to radiation.
When the gases are heated to high temperature, the following phenomena
occur
(i) Elastic and inelastic collision between the atoms.
(ii) Ionization of gases takes place resulting in production of electrons and
ions.
(iii) Electrons collide with atoms. Collision will increase the temperature of
atoms and their thermal kinetic energy increases. Further, collisions will produce
more electrons and ions. Thus, the new matter which is called plasma is
characterized by its ability to conduct electricity due to the presence of free charges
is produced.
Temperature distribution in the 200-ampere plasma column is shown in
Figure. The temperature of plasma may reach as high as 28,000-30,0000C.
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Plasma can react to an electric field as well as the magnetic field. The source
of heat generation is because of recombination of electrons and ions into atoms or
recombination of atoms into molecules. Liberation of bond energy due to elastic
and inelastic collision is responsible for high kinetic energy. When such a high
temperature reacts with the work material, it melts and vaporization takes place.
MECHANISM OF METAL REMOVAL

The metal removal in PAM is basically due to the high temperature. The
workpiece is heated to a high temperature due to anode heating because of direct
electron bombardment and due to convection heating from the high-temperature
plasma.
The heat is sufficient to raise the temperature of the workpiece above its
melting point and the high-velocity gas stream effectively blows the molten metal
away. Under optimum conditions, up to approximately 45 per cent of electrical
power delivered to the torch is used to remove metal from the workpiece
174
Plasma arc cutting is primarily employed to cut metals that form a refractory
oxide outer skin. The arc heat is concentrated on a localized area of the workpiece
and it raises it to its melting point. The quality of cut is affected by heat flow
distribution, uniform heat supply throughout the thickness of the material produces
a cut of excellent quality. The optimum cutting speed depends on the uniform
distribution of heat flow at the plasma to material interface.
Description of Equipment
Plasma arc machining consists of:

1. Power supply
2. Gas supply
3. Cooling water systems
4. Control console and plasma torch.
(a) Power supply
PAM uses DC power supply. The power supply delivers up to 1000 amperes at
about 200 volts. The power supply should have saturation current, beyond which
the current should not rise even for short circuit. For easy ignition and maintenance
of arc, open circuit voltage must be higher than the load voltage. Normally, DC
motor-generator sets or transductor controlled rectifier unit with saturable core
reactors are used.
175
In a transductor controlled unit, current drawn is proportional to the drop across

the transductor. Thus, if the current increases, the drop also increases in the
transductor and voltage drops. Additional current regulation is provided to limit
the short circuit current.
Selenium rectifiers are preferred to silicon rectifiers because selenium rectifiers
offer more surge resistance. If silicon rectifiers are used; they should be protected
by RC network for bypassing the voltage surges and by fast acting fuse for current
surges.
(b) Gas supply
The flowing gas pressure can be up to 1.4 MPa resulting in plasma velocity of
several 100 m/s. Higher the gas flow rate, higher is the momentum of the plasma
jet. Higher flow rate also helps to remove the molten material from the melting
zone.
Carbon alloy and cast steels are usually cut with a mixture of nitrogen and
hydrogen in the compressed air. Stainless steel, aluminium and other non-ferrous
alloys are cut with argon, hydrogen or nitrogen. Typically, gas flow rates are 2 to
11 m3/hour and are controlled using mass flow controllers (MFCs)
Selection of gas: Any gas that does not attack the tungsten electrode or the
workpiece can be used. Carbon, alloys steel and cast iron are usually cut with a
mixture of nitrogen, hydrogen or with compressed air. Stainless steel, aluminium
and other non-ferrous metals are cut with mixtures of argon-hydrogen or nitrogen-
hydrogen. Typical flow rate of the gas is 2-11 m3/hour. Direct current rated at about
200 kW and 4000 V output is normally required. Arc current ranges between 150
and 1000 A for a cutting rate of 250-1700 mm/min.
(c) Cooling water system
Both the electrodes, that is, the anode and the cathode are water cooled.
(d) Plasma torches
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In PAM, constricting an electric arc through a nozzle, as shown in Figure 7.2,

generates the basic plasma jet. Instead of diverging into an open arc, the nozzle
constricts the arc into a small cross section. This action greatly increases the power
of the arc so that both temperature and voltage are raised. After passing through
the nozzle, the arc exists in the form of a high-velocity, well-columinated and
intensely hot plasma jet.
There are many torch designs used. They are:
1. Air plasma torch
2. Oxygen injected plasma torch
3. Water injected plasma torch
4. Dual gas plasma torch
(i) Air plasma torch: An air plasma torch uses air as an ionizing gas as shown in
Figure.
The metallic constricting nozzle is exposed to the workpiece. With this design, arc
can be created from the electrode to nozzle and then from the nozzle to the
workpiece. This undesirable arcing is known as double arcing and is the main
reason for nozzle failure.
Oxygen present in air supports exothermic burning of the metal and provides fast
cuts in oxidizable materials such as steel. Other materials such as aluminium also
can be cut by this torch, but cut edges are subjected to severe oxidation. Tungsten
electrodes are not used as electrodes because they oxidize very fast due to the
177
presence of oxygen and last for a few seconds only. Zirconium or hafnium are used
as electrodes because of their high oxidation resistance.
(ii) Oxygen injected torch: The basic heating phenomenon that takes place at the
workpiece is a combination of heating due to energy transfer of electrons,
recombination of dissociated molecules on the workpiece, and connective heating
from the high temperature plasma that accompanies the arc (Figure).
In some cases, it is desirable to achieve a third source of heating by injecting

oxygen into the work area and taking advantage of the exothermic oxidation
reaction. Once the material has been raised to the molten point, the high-velocity
gas stream effectively blows the material away.
Oxygen injected torch eliminates the electrode oxidation. These types of torches
use nitrogen as a plasma gas and oxygen is injected downstream of the electrode.
Oxygen lowers the nozzle life but improves the metal removal rate. Oxygen
injected nozzles are normally used for cutting MS plates. In the case of certain
ferrous metal, cutting speed can be increased up to 25%. Oxygen injected torches
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are normally used for cutting oxidizable steel because oxygen backs up the
exothermic burning of oxidizable steels.
(iii) Water injected torch:

Water is injected to constrict plasma. A small quantity of usually 10% of water
vaporizes and then forms a steam constricting plasma. It also insulates the nozzle.
Nitrogen at 1 MPa is used as plasma gas.
To avoid double arching, the lower part of the nozzle is made of ceramic. Water
constriction reduces smoke and increases life of the nozzle. The heat affected zone
can also be reduced using water injected torch.
This injection of water has many advantages, including:
1. A square cut can be made.
2. Arc stability is increased.
3. Cutting speed can be increased.
4 Workpiece is heated less
5. Less smoke and fumes are generated.
6. Nozzle life is increased.
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(v) Dual gas torch:

A dual gas torch, as the name indicates, uses two gases.
(i) plasma gas and
(ii) shielding gas.
Nitrogen is used as plasma gas and oxygen, carbon dioxide, water, hydrogen
are used as shielding gases.
There is no problem of double arcing in dual gas torches due to the use of
ceramic cup. Shielding gas also cools the ceramic cups and prevents them from
thermal damage. Sharp corners can be maintained on the top edge of the workpiece
using dual gas torch as shown in above Figure.
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Plasma arc machining process
In PAM, a flowing volume of gas is subjected to the electron bombardment of the

electric arc produced between the cathode and anode nozzle. High-velocity
electrons are generated by the arc colliding with the gas molecules and produce
dissociation of diatomic molecules of gases like H2, N2, O2, etc., resulting in
ionization of the atoms. An arc is struck between the cathode electrode of the
plasma arc generator and the anodic nozzle when the plasma forming gas is made
to flow through the nozzle. The flow of gas should be such that the arc can be
stabilized. Most of the heat transfer of the gas occurs at the constricted nozzle
region resulting in high exit gas velocity with high core temperature of plasma
column thus generated.
The plasma column can be used for cutting, welding, spraying, etc. Plasma can also
be used for machining and for preheating of the workpiece in hot machining like
friction stir welding, etc.
181
PARAMETERS THAT INFLUENCE PAM PERFORMANCE

The parameters that govern the performance of the PAM can be divided into three
categories
1. Parameters associated with design and operation of the torch
2 Parameters associated with the physical configuration of the setup
3. The environment in which work is performed.
1. Parameters associated with design and operation of the torch.

(i) Operation aspects:
The stabilized arc that comes from the nozzle is called plasma jet because the
plasma of arc column is pushed out of the nozzle in the form of high velocity jet.
There are two modes of the operation of DC plasma torches:
(a) Non-transferred mode
• Turbulent mode flame torches which use short flame and high-velocity jet
of plasma. It is used for spraying, insulator working and chemical synthesis
• Laminar mode flame torches which use low-velocity flames. It is used for
spheroidizing and melting ceramics.
• High power torches used for high current (2000A or higher) applications.
(b) Transferred mode

Cutting torches
- Single flow torches
- Dual flow torches
- Multiport nozzle torch
- Oxygen plasma cutting torch
- Welding torches
- Micro torches or needle torches.
182
The torches also operate on two flow modes:

1. Turbulent mode
2. Laminar mode
Turbulent mode:
When high-velocity flames are required for material removal by melt blasting or
spraying, high gas flow rates, which give rise to turbulent jets are used. These
flames are short in length and are rather cold outside the nozzle. These are used for
cutting, low-quality welding and spraying.
Laminar mode:
When low velocity or long flames are required, the laminar mode is used. Low gas
flow rates are maintained in long nozzles to obtain a laminar flame. This is used
wherever the processed material is not to be sputtered out or when the
disintegration of molten drops into fine droplets is undesirable. Flames with
velocities 50 m/s and lengths up to 900 mm can be achieved.
(ii) Design aspects: The plasma torch is designed to obtain the maximum thermal
output. The increase in efficiency not only helps in achieving better heating of gas
but also in reducing electrode losses and thereby increasing the life of the electrode.
The design also ensures that the erosion rates are minimum.
The following design parameters affect the performance of the torch
• Cathode size
• Convergence of nozzle
• Nozzle orifice diameter
• Orifice length
• Electrode gap
• Cooling of electrode
Cathode: The cathode tapers at the tip and diameter of the cathode affects the drop
183
across the cathode rod. The diameter and bluntness or sharpness of the cathode
determine the erosion rate, stability of arc and flame shape. Tapered rods with
slightly blunt tips are used for non-transferred applications while for cutting
applications, a flat disc sloped on the edges is used. The taper angle or sloping of
the disc is usually smaller or equal to the convergence angle of the anode nozzle.
For spraying and cutting, 10 mm diameter cathodes are used up to 500 amp. While
for welding, electrodes of 6 mm diameter are used. The cathode is pressed to fit
into a water-cooled copper holder and brazed to it
Anode nozzle: The anode convergence has a definite relation with the operation of
the torch and is matched to the cathode taper to obtain the best performance, that
is, minimum electrode erosion and electrode loss.
The nozzle orifice is designed on the basis of the development of a stabilized
plasma column. In a particular model, the plasma is divided into two zones:
undeveloped flow region and fully developed flow region. In the fully developed
region, the electrode losses are higher; hence in order to get minimum anode loss
and erosion, it is preferable that the plasma flame is out of the nozzle duct and fully
developed.
The nozzle diameter determines the power density in the flame. Nozzle diameters
are kept small for high-velocity plasma jets. In spraying, the diameter of the nozzle
should be variable to obtain different velocities and power densities.
For successful utilization of PAM process, it is necessary to analyze the following
process parameters
• Power supply
(a) Type: DC
(b) Voltage: 200 V
(c) Current: 50-1000 A
(d) Power: 2-200 kW
• Primary Gas
184
(a) Composition: N2: H2=90:10

(b) Pressure 10 bars
(c) Flow rate 0.5 to 6 m'/hour
• Shielding gas
(a) Type : CO2.H2O, Ar, H2
(b) Pressure : 11 bar
(c) Flow rate: 50 m3/hour
• Nozzle
(a) SOD: 6 to 30 mm
(b) Diameter: 0.80 to 6.30 mm
(c) Life: 2 to 5 hours
(d) Material: Zirconium, Hafnium
• Cutting parameter
(a) Tool: Plasma jet
(b) Maximum velocity of the plasma jet: 500 m/s
(c) Maximum temperature: 16,000 to 20,0000C
(d) Material removal rate: 150 cm2/min
(e) Max plate thickness 200 (material dependent)
(f) Cutting speed: 0.1-7.5 m/min
2.Parameters associated with the physical configuration of the setup
In PAM, variables such as standoff distance, angle, depth of cut, feed and speed of
the work towards the torch are important. The feed and depth determine the volume
of the material removed.
Standoff distance is the distance between the nozzle and the workpiece.
Effects of SoD are given below:
• Better quality cuts usually result from a short standoff distance since the arc
divergence is less and the thermal intensity of the arc is greater
185
• Excessively close standoff distance can promote arcing due to the

accumulation of slag drops on the tip.
• Increased power input is necessary when the standoff distance is great.
• Standoff distance can range from 6.5 – 76.2 mm.
Cutting speed:
Plasma arc cutting speed depends on the thickness of the material to be cut. Thick
material requires lower cutting speeds than thin materials.
3. Parameters associated with environment in which work is performed

Protective atmosphere has to be provided to reduce oxidation of the exposed high-
temperature machine surface. The deflection of the arc should be kept minimum.
The spread of the plasma column should be uniform on the impingement area.
APPLICATIONS OF PAM
1. Plasma arc methods are also employed in special applications to replace
conventional machining operations such as lathe turning, milling and planning,
heat treatment and metal deposition operations, and plasma arc welding.
2. PAM is used for profile cutting stainless steel, aluminium, titanium and other
non-ferrous material.
3. Plasma arc can be used for depositing filler material on the surface or corroded
or worn out part to obtain desired properties like corrosion resistance, wear
resistance, toughness and anti-friction properties.
4. PAM can be used to make cuts in electrically conductive metals.
5. PAM can be used in hole piercing. Reproducible and high-quality holes can be
made using PAM. Holes can be pierced much faster than they can be drilled.
186
6. PAM can effectively stack-cut stainless steel and aluminium.

7. Plasma arc can be used for spraying droplets of molten metal to obtain a surface
of required thickness.
8. Used for turning operation.
9. PAM is used for cutting grooves in hardened shaft.
10. PAM is used for underwater cutting
11. PACis used to cut non-conductive materials such as nylon, textiles,
polypropylene with a thickness ranging from 0.1 to 1 mm at very high speed of
1000 m/min.
ADVANTAGES OF PAM
1. It is used for cutting ferrous and non-ferrous materials at high speed. MS
thinner than 5 mm can be cut 10 times faster than oxy-fuel welding.
2. Profile cutting of SST and titanium is possible.
3. Simple work holding devices are enough. As there is no contact between the
tool and the workpiece.
4. Cutting rates of all materials is high.
5. Equally effective regardless of hardness of material and other properties of
material.
6. Can be automated easily
7. PAM can machine exotic metals at high rates.
DISADVANTAGES OF PAM
1. Burr is often produced.
2. Taper on the workpiece may occur.
3. Process alters the surface metallurgically. It produces very hard and uneven
surfaces.
4. Smoke and noise are produced during this process. Therefore, eye and nose
shielding is required.
187
5. Sharp corners are difficult to make.

6. PAM produces HAZ (heat affected zone). HAZ can cause premature failure of
the components.
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN IN PAM
Following are the safety precautions to be taken during plasma arc machining
1. The plasma flame emits a highly intense beam, particularly strong in the
ultraviolet and infrared radiations. These radiations affect eyes and may cause
permanent damage if proper care is not taken. Safet glasses or goggles with side
shields, or a welding helmet with appropriate lens shading must be worn by the
operator.
2. Touching live electrical parts can cause a fatal shock or severe burn. Operating
the plasma system completes an electrical circuit between the torch and the
workpiece. The workpiece and anything touching the workpiece are part of the
electrical circuit. Never touch the torch body, the workpiece or water in the water
table when the plasma system is operating.
3. The operator should ventilate potentially flammable atmosphere before cutting.
4. Overexposing of ultraviolet rays may lead to painful skin burns and cancer.
5. The operator should cover most of his body and eyes before starting the work.
6. It is necessary to operate the torch in an airy room with proper exhaust facilities
as many toxic gases are synthesized in the atmosphere.
7.The noise level while operating the torch is high. Hence, ear muff or plugs must
be used.
8. Asbestos gloves with an inner layer of leather should be worn for operating hand
torches.
9.Health physicians should be consulted regarding the number of hours operator
can remain close to the plasma torch.
10. In spraying and chemical synthesis of toxic powder, it is preferable to
mechanize the torch and operate it from a distance.
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*****
1. Explain with a sketch the principle of plasma generation and mechanism
2. What are the factors that govern the performance of plasma arc machining?
Explain any one of them
3. Mention safety precautions to be considered during plasma arc machining?
4. What is plasma arc machining? Explain mechanism of the metal removal
5. Explain PAM parameters that govern the performance
6. Explain the applications of plasma jet
7. With a neat sketch, explain the plasma arc machining (PAM) process
8. Discuss some important considerations in the design of plasma torch
9. Mention any two advantages, disadvantages and applications of PAM process
10. Explain the mechanism of metal removal in PAM
11. Briefly, explain the parameters that influence PAM performance
12. Write a note on generation of plasma in plasma arc machining
13. Sketch and explain any one type of plasma torch
14. Explain with a neat sketch, the non-thermal generation of plasma and
mechanism of metal removal
15. What are the different modes of operation of plasma torches? Explain.
16. Discuss the plasma arc surfacing and plasma arc spraying. (VTU Dec. 2011)
17, Sketch and explain transferred and non-transferred plasma arc systems.
18. Write a note on the process performance in plasma arc cutting process
19. Explain the non-thermal generation of plasma with the related diagram.
20. With a neat sketch, explain the plasma arc machining (PAM) process and also
mention its advantages and disadvantages
189
21. Which important considerations are to be made in the design of plasma torch?
22. Explain with sketch the principle of plasma generation and mechanism of metal
removal in plasma arc machining
23. Explain the safety procedures in PAM
24. Mention any two advantages, applications, and limitations in PAM.
25. Explain the basic principle of PAM.
26. With a neat sketch, explain the working of PAM. List the advantages and
limitations of PAM process.
27. Explain with diagram the working of plasma arc machining.
28. What are the factors that govern the performance of plasma arc machining
Explain any one of them.
29. Write the applications of plasma arc machining.
30.Mention any two advantages and disadvantages of plasma arc machining.
*****
190
MODULE 5
LASER BEAM MACHINING (LBM)

Introduction, generation of LASER, Equipment and mechanism of metal
removal, LBM parameters and characteristics, Applications, Advantages &
limitations.
ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING (EBM)

Introduction, Principle, equipment and mechanism of metal removal,
applications, advantages and limitations.
LASER
LASER is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of

Radiation. The laser is electromagnetic radiation.
In laser beam machining work material is melted and evaporated by

means of an intense, monochromatic beam of light called the laser. The heat
produced in the small area where the laser beam strikes can melt almost any of
the known material. LBM is used in machining difficult-to-machine material.
The light energy emitted by laser has several characteristics.
1. Spectral purity:
The laser is highly monochromatic and permits the use of simple lenses
for focusing beams. Expensive colour corrected lenses are not required.
2 .Directivity:
The laser is highly collimated with a small divergence angle.
3.High focused power density:
As a result of its small beam divergence, all of the laser beam energy can
be collimated with simple optics and focused onto a small area. Power density
can be increased by proper focusing. The power density of the beam and
interaction with the workpiece will determine whether the laser beam can be
used to perform cutting, welding, marking and heat treatment.
191
TYPES OF LASERS
Depending on the lasing medium, lasers can be classified as:
1. Solid state lasers and 2. Gas lasers
Solid state lasers can be further classified as:
1. Ruby laser 2. Nd (Neodymium): glass laser
3.Nd(Neodymium):Yttrium-Aluminium Garnet: Nd Y3Al5O12) laser
Gas lasers can be further classified as:
1. Helium-neon lasers
2. Argon lasers
3. Carbon dioxide lasers.
Solid State Lasers
The laser materials used in this process are ruby, neodymium glass (Nd-glass)
and neodymium-yttrium aluminium garnet (Nd-YAG). Of these Nd-glass and Nd-
YAG are widely used in machining applications. These laser materials are
fabricated into rods and their ends finished to high optical tolerances. The
method is used to inject energy into the material is by generating an intense
light flux which can be absorbed by these laser materials and then converted
into a collimated laser beam. The light flux of high intensity is provided by xenon
filled flash lamps. The life of this flash lamp is around 10,000- 1,00,000 pulses.
Nd-glass laser operates only in a pulsed mode with a pulse duration of a few
billionth of a second to a maximum of 1 millionth of a second. Nd-YAG lasers can
be operated either pulsed or in a continuous wave to produce a continuous
power output.
Working of solid state Nd-YAG laser
Solid state lasers consist of the following components
• A solid, crystalline lasing medium that can be pumped to a higher

state of energy.
192
• A pumping system to pump energy into the lasing medium (usually,

an optical flash tube).
• A resonator (usually, a pair of mirrors mounted at each end of the
laser) to bounce stimulated light through the lasing medium.
The flash tube stimulates the lasing medium to higher energy level. When
atoms, ions and molecules go back to their ground state, they emit a photon of
light in a random direction. These spontaneous photon emissions interact with
excited atoms, ions, and molecules and give laser light.
Figure shows the electrical circuit for operation of a solid state laser. The
flash tube is operated in pulsed mode by charging and discharging of the
capacitor. Thus, the pulse on time is decided by the resistance on the flash tube
side and pulse off time is decided by the charging resistance. There is also a high
voltage switching supply for ignition of pulses.
CO2 Gas Laser
CO2 laser system uses three gases, namely, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and helium
flowing through a glass discharge tube. Nitrogen functions as an intermediary
between electrical energy and vibrational energy of CO2 molecules. Thus,
nitrogen helps to sustain the gas plasma. Helium cools the gas mixture so that it
193
may be re-excited again. Construction of CO2 laser is shown in Figure. When a

high voltage is applied at the two ends, a gas plasma is formed. The energy of
this discharge leads to population inversion and lasing action. At the two ends
of the laser, there are two mirrors. One is 100% reflector, and other is a partial
reflector. The 100 % reflector redirects the photons inside the gas tube, and
partial reflector allows a part of the laser beam to be redirected to the output
port, where it is used for material processing. Laser tubes are cooled externally.
The power of CO2 the laser is typically around 100 watts per metre of tube
length. To get high power laser, a rather long tube is required, which is not
practical from a manufacturing point of view. Therefore, for optimal use of floor
space, high powered CO2 lasers are made of folded design.
Figure shows a folded axial flow laser. In folded laser there are a few 100%
reflective turning mirrors for maneuvering the laser beam from gas supply as
well as high voltage supply as shown in Figure.
194
Fig. CO2 laser setup: folded type
Advantages of CO2 laser over solid lasers are
• Relatively high and continuous output.

• High conversion efficiency. (Efficiency of ruby laser is around 1% whereas
for YAG laser it is around 10%.)
• CO2 laser has few maintenance problems, unlike the solid lasers which
require frequent replacement of flash lamps.
• Divergence is small, and it is available in many configurations.
• It is compact.
• High absorption of its output wavelength by many materials.
• Higher power levels.
Commonly used gases in laser machining
The following gases are generally used for gas lasers as lasing medium:
• Helium-neon
• Argon
• Carbon dioxide
195
Helium-Neon
The most common and inexpensive gas laser, the helium-neon laser is usually
constructed to operate in the red at 632.8 nm. It can also be constructed to
produce laser action in the green at 543.5 nm and in the infrared at 1523 nm.
Argon
The argon laser can be operated as a continuous gas laser at about 25

different wavelengths in the visible between 408.9 and 686. 1 nm, but is best
known for its most efficient transitions in the green at 488 nm and 514.5 nm.
Operating at much higher powers than the helium-neon gas laser, it is not
uncommon to achieve 30 to 100 watts of continuous power using several
transitions. This output is produced in a hot plasma and takes extremely high
power, typically 9 to 12 kW, so these are large and expensive devices.
Carbon dioxide
The carbon dioxide gas laser is capable of continuous output powers

above 10 kilowatts. It is also capable of extremely high power pulse operation.
It exhibits laser action at several infrared frequencies but none in the visible.
The CO2 laser is the most efficient laser, capable of operating at more
than 30% efficiency.
Description of Laser Beam Machining process
Laser Beam Machining process
196
A typical laser system can have output energy of 20 joules with a pulse
duration of 0.001 second, corresponding to a peak power of 20 kW. A typical
beam divergence for such a laser will be in the order of 0.002 radians. If the 25
mm focal length lens is used to focus this energy, the spot diameter would be
0.05 mm2. A power of 20 kW is focused on this small area of 0.05 mm. A power
density of this magnitude is sufficient to vaporize any known metal and even a
diamond. Thus, a laser is capable of drilling a hole in any metal.
Mechanics of Material Removal
Mechanics of Material Removal
Laser machining is basically a high-speed ablation process. The

evaporation of a small portion of a liquid metal takes place so rapidly under the
high intensities of a focused laser beam, that is, substantial impulse is
transmitted to the liquid. The material leaves the surface not only through
evaporation but also in the liquid state at a relatively higher velocity. Physical
process that occurs in the laser beam is shown in the above Figure.
PROCESS PARAMETERS of LBM
Power density and laser beam-workpiece interaction time are the most
important variables determining whether the beam will weld, cut, mark or heat
treat. For rapid heating of a surface without melting, a highly focused beam
producing power densities of only 1.5x102to1.5x104 W/cm2 is used. If melting is
desired, as in the case of welding or cladding applications, power densities
197
ranging from 1.5x104 to 1.5x 105 W/cm2 is used. Cutting and drilling action will
occur for power densities ranging from 1.5x 106 to 1.5x108 W/cm2.
APPLICATIONS OF LBM
Besides the usual applications in communication, navigation, ranging,

metrology, laser have a wide variety of machining applications. Some of them
are:
1. Material removal by drilling, trimming and evaporating
2. Material shaping by cutting, scribing and controlled fracture.
3. Welding of materials.
4. Thermo kinetic change like annealing, photochemistry, grain size

control, diffusion, zone melting.
1. Laser drilling: Micro-sized holes can be drilled using the laser in difficult to dril
materials such as ceramics and refractory materials. Because of the nature of
melting and vaporization process, high accuracy is not possible.
2. Laser cutting: Laser can be used to cut the material at a faster rate. In industry
gas assisted laser systems are used for cutting. The laser is focused by optical
systems, and coaxial tubes carry gases like oxygen, argon and nitrogen. Oxygen
gives good cutting rate, but HAZ edges are produced in oxy-cutting. Argon give
clear edges.
3. Laser welding: laser can be used to weld dissimilar materials. There are two
types of laser welding:
1. Conduction laser welding
2. Penetration laser welding
Laser is also used for spot welding and seam welding
4. Laser heat treatment: Laser can be used for heat treatment of the material.
Laser heat treatment can be used to carburized the material up to carburation
thickness of 2 mm. Normally, carbon dioxide laser is used for case carburization.
198
Piston walls, turbine blades, valve seating, piston rings are usually heat treated
using a laser.
5. Laser cladding: It is similar to the laser heat treatment. In laser cladding, the
special alloying element is deposited on the part by high-density lasers. The main
disadvantage of cladding is that a selective area can be cladded depending on
the functional requirement.
6. Laser scribing: Brittle materials like silicon wafers, glass and ceramics may be
effectively scribed using a laser. The part number of the silicon wafer is done by
laser marking or scribing. Silicon wafers are scribed with Q-switched YAG:Nd
laser using a peak power of 300 W. Pulse rate of 400 per second is used with a
pulse duration of 300 nanoseconds. The beam is focused on silicon wafers
with14 mm focal length lens, which is moved at a rate of 1500 mm/min.
7. Controlled fracture: Laser energy can be used to fracture in a controlled

manner. Beam is focused on a small area of an electronic circuit or components.
Its absorption creates a thermal gradient in the material. Because of this thermal
gradient, mechanical stresses are developed. These mechanical stresses cause
shearing of materials over a small region. Once the crack develops, it can be
propagated easily
8. Laser Trimming: Laser can be used for trimming operation. Small spot size is
focused, and material is trimmed by selective evaporation. Trimming of resistors
composed of chromium silicon oxide, deposited on the surface of silicon chip
has been achieved by use of an argon ion laser.
ADVANTAGES OF LBM
1. No direct contact between the laser (tool) and workpiece.
2 Optically transparent materials can be machined using this process.
3. Welding and machining of areas not readily accessible
4. Will melt and vaporize any known material.
5. Easily weld dissimilar materials.
6. Refractory materials are easy to work with
199
7. Machining hard, brittle and non-metallic materials.
8. Welding and machining in any desired atmospheric environment
9. Small heat affected zone, and negligible thermal damage or effect on adjacent
regions
10. Machining extremely small holes and precision welding of small sizes.
11. Easy control of beam configuration and size of exposed area.
12. There is no problem of tool wear as the tool is a laser beam.
13. Soft materials like rubber, plastics can be machined.
DISADVANTAGES OF LBM
1. Overall efficiency is low.
2. Pulsed mode operation (solid state lasers).
3. Practically limited to thin sheet plates.
4. Holes machined not always round or straight.
5. Control of hole size and weldage size is difficult.
6. Repetition rate is slow.
7. Durability and reliability are limited.
8. Short life of flash lamp.
9. Necessity for careful control of pulse length and power intensity to obtain the
desired effect
10.Effective safety procedure is required.
11.High initial equipment cost.
12.Not suitable for thermally sensitive materials like aluminium fibreglass

laminate.
13.Heat affected zone (HAZ) is present especially with CO2 laser.
200
ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING
In 1958, a German engineer Steigerwald designed prototype electron beam

equipment for a welding application. Later on this technology spread in other
industrial applications. Electron beam machining (EBM) is the material removal
process with the help of high velocity focused beam of electrons. These
electrons travel with the 50-80% of velocity of light (1.6 x 108m/s) and heats,
melts and vaporizes the work material at the point of bombardment. The
process takes place in a vacuum chamber to prevent scattering of the electrons
by collision with gas molecules.
EBM can be used to economically for micro-cutting of materials. EBM removes

the material by the process of melting and vaporization. The evaporated area is
a function of beam power. The EBM is widely used in making precision holes of
diameter ranging from 0.05 mm to 1 mm.
PRINCIPLE OF ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING
In EBM pulsating stream (20,000 Hz) of high-speed free electrons (accelerated

using very high voltage of 120 to 150 kV) strikes the workpiece. As the electron
impinges on the work, the kinetic energy of electrons is converted into heat. This
concentrated heat raises the temperature of the workpiece and melts and
vaporizes small amounts of work material.
Beams can be concentrated on spots as small as 0.0127 mm in diameter. The

process is usually carried out in vacuum to prevent collisions of electrons with
air molecules which would scatter or diffuse the electron beam. Also, lead
shielding is required to protect the machine operator from radiations. EBM is
used for drilling a small hole and cutting narrow slots or contour in thin materials
to close tolerance. There is no tool wear of pressure on the work. The material
removal rate is faster.
Mechanics of Material Removal in EBM
201
When a fast moving electron impinges on a work surface, it penetrates through

a layer undisturbed. Then, it starts colliding with the molecules and ultimately
comes to rest. The layer through which electron penetrates undisturbed is called
transparent layer. Only when the electron begins colliding with the lattice atom
does it start giving up its kinetic energy and heat is generated. So, it is clear that
the generation of heat takes place inside the material that is below the
transparent layer. The total range to which the electron can penetrate depends
on the kinetic energy. It has been found that
Penetration depth = δ(mm)=2.6x 10-17 V2 (Volts)

ρ ( kg / mm3 )
EQUIPMENT: GENERATION AND CONTROL OF EBM

The schematic arrangement of EBM is shown in Figure.
It consists of an electron beam gun, diaphragm, focusing lens, deflector coil and
work table.
202
Generation of Electron Beam Using Electron Gun

The electron beam is produced by heating tungsten or tantalum filament
to about 20000 C.
At this temperature electron cloud is emitted from the filament.
Electron gun consists of:
(i) Tungsten filament is connected to the negative terminals of the DC

power and acts as a cathode. The filament is also made of tantalum and function
is to emit electrons.
(ii) Grid cup is negative biased with respect to the filament. This is also
called bias cup or Wehnelt electrode. It acts as grid that controls the beam
current to 1-80 mA by controlling the number of electrons. The bias cup also
acts like a switch of the beam current.
(iii) Anode is connected to positive terminal of the DC power supply. The
perforated anode is kept at a high positive potential of about 150 kV.
Streams of electrons are emitted from the tip of the hot cathode, and it is
accelerated towards the anode by a high accelerating potential between the
anode and cathode. When the electrons pass through the perforated anode,
electrons are accelerated to high velocity (about the 50-80 % of the velocity of
light).
High accelerating voltages (120 to 150 kV) are given to anode to get high
energy intensities which, in turn, permit high depth to width ratio of the holes
machined.
Vacuum System
In order to avoid the collision of accelerated electrons with air molecules,

vacuum is required. High vacuum is needed due to the following reasons
(i) If there is no vacuum, then the emitter would oxidize in the presence of air
when the temperature is about 20000 C.
(ii) Electrons would lose the energy by collision with air molecules, and this
passage of electrons would be retarded.
(iii) If the vacuum is not maintained, contamination of metal vapour with debris
occurs.
Therefore, the entire setup is maintained in vacuum, usually 10 -4 to 10-5
203
Focusing Units
Focusing of the electron beam is done electromagnetically or electrostatically.

The function of electrostatic lens is to condense the divergent beam of electrons
into a narrow converging beam up to a diameter of 1 micron.
In electromagnetic focusing, the deflecting coil is used to have a range of

movement of 12 mm. The electron beam can be controlled accurately. A more
sophisticated multi-axis deflector can be used for drilling holes in complicated
shapes.
Working:
When a high-velocity DC source is given to the electron gun, tungsten or

tantalum filament wire gets heated to about 20000 C. Due to high temperature,
there will be thermionic emission of electrons from the cathode. These clouds
of electrons directed by grid cup travel from cathode to anode. The electrons
passing through the anode are accelerated to achieve high velocity equal to half
of the speed of light by application of 100 kV to 200 kV at the anode.
The high velocities of these electrons are maintained till they strike the
workpiece because electron beams travel in a vacuum without any collision.
Focusing lens is used to focus the electron beam on the desired spot on the
workpiece. An optical graduated viewing system is also provided in order to
204
allow the operator to see the work and in order to position the beam precisely
at a particular spot on job.
When the electron beam impacts on the workpiece surface, the kinetic energy
of high-velocity electrons is immediately converted into heat energy. This high-
intensity heat melts and vaporizes the work material at the spot of beam impact.
Since the power density is very high, it takes a few microseconds to melt and
vaporize the material upon impingement. This process is carried out in repeated
pulses of short duration. The pulse frequency may range from 16,000 to 25,000
Hz, and pulse duration may range from 4-65000 microseconds.
Steps of metal removal are shown in the Figure.
Process parameters of EBM
The main process parameters which influence MRR, Surface finish and accuracy
are:
205
1. Beam current
2. Pulse duration
3. Lens current
4. Beam deflection
5. Spot diameter
APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING
1. EBM is mainly used for micromachining operations on thin materials.

These operations include cutting, drilling, perforating, slotting, scribing, milling,
etc.
2. EBM can be used for producing metering holes either of round shapes
or profiled holes. These metering holes are required on sleeve valves, rocket fuel
injectors, injector nozzles of diesel engines.
3.Drilling of holes in pressure differential devices used in nuclear reactors,

aircraft engines,etc.
4. EBM can be used for slicing of silicon chips in semiconductor industry.
5. EBM can be used for making precise holes in wire drawing dies, Fine
orifices and spinnerets for the production of synthetic fibers.
6. It is used for removing small broken taps from holes.
7. Micro drilling operations up to 0.002 mm for thin orifices dies for wire
drawing, parts of electron microscopes, etc.
8. EBM can be used for mass perforation of holes in sheet metal and in
polythene sheets
9. EBM can be used to make holes in gas orifices used in aircraft, nuclear
reactors, for drilling fine holes in rotor and stator blades for supersonic
aircraft engines.
10. This technique is also used in electron beam lithography, which is used
in the manufacture of emission cathodes, integrated circuits and
computer memories.
11. It is particularly useful for machining of materials of low thermal
conductivities and high melting point.
12. It is used for drilling synthetic jewels in the watch industry.
206
13. Used for drilling holes through thin sheet metal, which are further
used for
making filters and screens in food processing industry.
ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING
1. Holes of different shapes and sizes can be machined using EBM. Very accurate
and precise holes down to 30 microns can be drilled
2 Drilling of fine holes at very high speeds (4000 holes per sec) is possible with
EBM
3. Machining any material irrespective of its properties is possible.
4. There is no mechanical or thermal distortion during machining, therefore thin,

fragile, brittle material can be machined.
5. There is no mechanical contact between the tool and the work. This is
excellent for micromachining
6. Harder materials can be machined quickly compared to conventional

machining
7. High aspect ratio (150:1 to 200:1) can be drilled using EBM.
8. Due to small beam diameter, close tolerances on the hole diameter can be
obtained. EBM can drill holes and cut slots in workpieces that cannot be done
using conventional methods
9. The process can be automated easily. In certain cases, the workpiece remains
stationary while the beam is programmed to move in a predetermined path.
Positioning and indexing can be done automatically.
10. Physical and metallurgical damage to the workpiece is less.
11. Extremely close tolerances of the order ±1 to 5 µm are possible in this

process.
12 Narrow slots of 25 microns can be easily machined using EBM
13. Jobs can be positioned precisely within a tolerance of ±10 µm
207
14. There is no tool wear or cutting pressure in this process.
15. Input energy can be controlled precisely. Therefore, distortion can be

reduced to minimum when machining thin sections
16. There is no physical or metallurgical damage to the surface. The depth of

surface layer affected due to machining is reduced to a minimum. HAZ is very
less
DISADVANTAGES OF ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING
1. The cost of the equipment is high and highly skilled operator is required to
operate the machine as well as to do CNC programming.
2. Machining is carried out in vacuum, pumping down time for creating vacuum
is non-productive and time-consuming. Maintaining a high degree of vacuum is
expensive. Also considerable time is required in evacuating the chamber after a
batch of jobs have been processed.
3. The process is generally not applicable to very thick material. Usually, part
thickness is about 10 mm.
4.EBM is a thermal machining process, recast layer of about 0.025 mm will

present after machining. The heat affected zone is also present due to EBM.
5. The metal removal rate is very small. Therefore, this is economical only for
small cuts
6. It is not suitable for large workpieces.
7. High specific energy consumption.
8. Straight sinking deep holes are difficult to make. Taper (about 5°) is inevitable.
9. All EBM operations are done in vacuum. So the workpiece size is limited to
the size of the vacuum chamber.
10. At the spot where the electron beam strikes the material, a small amount of
recast and metal splash can occur on the surface. This has to be removed using
an abrasive cleaning.
208
11. It is not possible to produce perfect cylindrical holes using this process. Holes
produced have a slight crater when the beam enters the work.
12. Large cycle time is required to set up the workpiece.
13. The interaction of the electron beam with the workpiece surface produces
X-rays. Therefore, the equipment should be used by a highly skilled operator.
14.Maintenance cost is high for EBM.
COMPARISON BETWEEN EBM AND LBM
Sr. Electron beam machining Laser bean machining

No.
1 High-velocity electrons strike When the laser beam strikes the
the work surface, and its workpiece
kinetic energy is converted it melts and evaporates the work
into heat energy. material.
2 Electron beam (electron gun) Laser beam (lasing material) is a

is a tool here. tool here.
3 Better surface finish. Comparatively less surface finish.

4 Metal removal rate is high. Comparatively, MRR is low.
5 Entire equipment must be Only laser producing unit must be
maintained in vacuum. in
vacuum.
6 Only metals can be machined Any material can be machined
except
plastic.
7 EBM can be used for micro LBM can be used for micro drilling
drilling up to 0.002 mm dia. up to 0.005 mm dia.
8 High power is required for Power requirement is less than

EBM EBM.
209
Comparison between thermal and non-thermal processes
Sr. Thermal processes Non-thermal processes

No.
1 Examples of thermal processes Examples of non-thermal processes
are EBM and LBM are
USM and AJM
2 MRR is due to melting and There is no melting and evaporation of
evaporation of materials
work
3 MRR is due to bombardment of MRR due to abrasion (USM) chemical
electrons with high temperature action (CHM) and not reaction of
electron beam
High energy densities
4 High energy densities are used in High energy densities are not used.
these processes
5 Thick structure can be machined Usually, thin structures are machined
6 Low resolution is obtained High resolution is obtained
7 MRR is less. MRR is more compared to thermal
processes.
8 Operating temperature is high. Operating temperature is low
9 It is suitable for drilling holes and It is suitable for machining large
making slots. surfaces.
****
210

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(An Autonomous Institute, Affiliated Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi ,

21ME751 - Non-Traditional Machining (Open Elective – I)

Introduction to Non-traditional machining, Need for Non-traditional

During the last 55 years, over 20 different non-traditional manufacturing

Fundamental Work Piece Transfer Energy

Mechanical Physical Cutting Traditional

Eg: Turnings, milling, grinding, lapping, drilling, shaping, etc.

The difficulties in Traditional Machining’s are

The above difficulties are overcome by the development of Non-Traditional

The following are the characteristic features of non traditional machining

2. In many processes material removal rate is independent of the hardness of

1.2 NEED FOR NON-TRADITIONAL MACHINING PROCESS

5) To improve the productivity by means of automation.

Case II: Small Hole with high Aspect ratio

Case III: Contoured Die Block

1.3 Classification & Energy Employed in Non-Traditional Machining Process

Classification of new machining methods is done on the basis of the type of

1.3.1 Mechanical Energy

Ultrasonic Machining - USM

1.3.3 Thermal Energy

(1) EDM (2) USM (3) LBM (4) ECM

Electrochemical – Ion Displacement – Electrolyte – High Current – ECM

Electrons High Voltage EDM

Themro-Electric Ion Stream Ionized material IBM

Fusion Hot Gases PAM

Classification of Non-Traditional Machining Processes

Difference between Traditional and Non traditional machining processes.

and work is typically rotary or complex 3D shapes and cavities

Selection of non-traditional machining processes

Physical parameter of the process:

Physical parameters of the Non Traditional Machining Processes

• EDM and USM require approximately same power

Process capability & Machining Characteristics

Process MRR Surface Accuracy Power (kW/

LBM 0.10 0.4 – 6.0 25 2700

EDM 15 - 80 0.25 10 1.8

Economics of the processes

Capital Cost Tool & Power Efficiency

Advantages of Non Traditional machining processes

Disadvantages of Non Traditional machining processes

Applications of non-traditional machining processes.

Ultrasonic machining (USM)

3. Casting and welding of metals.

Abrasive Jet Machining (AJM)

12.Removing flash and parting lines from injection moulded parts.

Water Jet Machining (WJM)

21.Mining industries- to cut coal from the face.

Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

26.Machining of fragile materials.

27.Facing and turning three dimensional surfaces.

37.Machining of few microns level.

Electric Discharge Machining (EDM)

41.Making stamping tools.

Plasma Arc Machining (PAM)

49.Welding of materials like titanium, stainless steel etc.

BRIEF OVERVIEW OF NON TRADITIONAL MACHINING

1 ULTRA SONIC MACHINING (USM)

2 ABRASIVE JET MACHINING (AJM)

3.WATER JET MACHINING (WJM)

4.ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING (ECM)