CELLS AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS

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 Cells and Simple Circuits
 Electrical energy is used for lighting, Heating and operating
electronic devices such as T.V, computers etc. This energy is
carried through conductors like wires.

Electric Current
 Electric current is the rate of flow of charge (flow of charge
per unit time). SI unit is the ampere (A)
 From the definition above,
𝐂𝐡𝐚𝐫𝐠𝐞 ,𝐐
𝑪𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕, 𝑰 =
𝐓𝐢𝐦𝐞 ,𝐭
𝑸
𝑰= , 𝑸 = 𝑰𝒕
𝒕

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Simple Electric Circuits
• A simple electric circuit consist of a cell, a bulb,
switch and connecting wires.

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 Simple Electric Circuits
• A circuit that allows charges to move in a complete path when the switch
is closed is said to be a closed circuit.
• A circuit that does not allow charges to move in a complete path when
the switch is closed is said to be a open/broken circuit)

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 Circuit symbols
•

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Electromotive Force (E) and Potential Difference (V)

 Potential difference (V) refers to the voltage across the

terminals of a battery in a closed circuit.
 Electromotive force (E) refers to voltage across the terminals of
a battery in an open circuit (when no current flows in the
circuit)
 Pd and E.m.f are measured in volts by an instrument called
voltmeter.
 The difference between V and E is known as lost voltage

𝒍𝒐𝒔𝒕 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 = 𝑬 − 𝑽
 This voltage is lost because of the opposition to the flow of
charges within the cell (internal resistance)

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 Cells in Series
 Two or more cells are connected such that the positive terminal
of one is joined to the negative terminal of another one.
 Two or more cells connected in series make a battery

The total E.m.f is the sum tatal of the E.m.f of each cell

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 Cells in Parallel
• Two or more cells are placed side by side, the positive
terminals joined together and the negative terminals also
connected together.
• Current is supplied for a longer time in parallel connection
of cells.

• The total E.m.f of the cells in parallel is equal to the E.m.f of one
individual cell
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 Bulbs in Series
switch switch

• They are all controlled by one switch/key

• If one bulb blows off, others also go off.
• There’s increased resistance thus the bulbs might not
be as bright as those in parallel connection.

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 Bubs in Parallel

• Each bulb is controlled by its own switch. If one blows off,

others continue lighting.
• There’s decreased resistance as the current has many
alternative loops (complete paths) through which to flow.
• The bulbs in parallel are brighter than identical bulbs in
series.

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 Conductors and Insulators
 Conductors are materials that allow electric current to
flow through them e.g. copper, silver, graphite and
aluminium.
 Insulators are materials that do not allow flow of
electric current through them e.g. plastic, paper and
rubber.
Note:
 Materials whose electrical properties fall between
those of conductors and insulators are referred to as
semi-conductors e.g. silicon and germanium.
 Some liquids such as dilute sulphuric acid, sodium
chloride solution and potassium hydroxide conduct
electricity. They are referred to as electrolytes.
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 Sources of Electricity: Simple Cell

Defects of a simple cell

a) Polarization – accumulation of bubbles around the copper plate (positive
plate). This defect provides insulation to the flow of current and also
sets up some “local” cells with copper whose electron flow tends to
oppose the flow of electrons from the zinc plate. The overall effect is
increase in the internal resistance of the cell, which reduces the flow of
current. Potasium dichromate prevents Polarisation
b) Local action – the zinc plate is depleted as it reacts with dilute sulphuric
acid. Impurities in zinc promote local action. A layer of mercury is
applied on the zinc to reduce local action. This is called amalgamation.
Use of pure zinc also reduces local action
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 The Dry Cell
It is referred to as dry cell
because it has no liquid but
ammonium chloride jelly or
paste which is used as the
electrolyte.
Manganese (IV) oxide and act
as the depolarizer. It
oxidizes hydrogen to water.
This is why a dry cell
+
becomes wet after long use. carbon
Carbon powder increases the powder
surface area of the positive
electrode (carbon Rod)
The zinc case acting as the negative electrode gets depleted by the
ammonium chloride and changes to zinc chloride. Local action is still a
defect in this cell. The cell cannot be renewed once the chemical action
stops. A new dry cell has an E.m.f of 1.5 V.
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 The Dry Cell
Care for the dry cell
• Large currents should not be drawn from the dry cell
within a short time.
• The terminals should not be shorted.
• The cells must be stored in dry places.

Uses of the dry cells

• Dry cells are used in torches, calculators and radios.

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 Lead – acid accumulator
• Consist of positive and negative plates
which are made of lead-antimony alloy.
• The plates are dipped in sulphuric acid
solution which is an electrolyte.
• The caps have small vent holes which
allow gases to escape (02 and H2)
• If the density of the acid becomes too
low the accumulator is said to be
discharged.
• It is charged by connecting a d.c source
as shown below.
• This is the most reliable, long lasting
and cost-effective of the secondary cells.
A 12 V lead-acid accumulator has six
cells connected in series.

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 Lead – acid accumulator

(a) (b)
In (a) the process of charging takes place. The positive plate (anode) turns
chocolate brown while the negative (cathode) plate remains metallic grey
(lead. Gas bubbles form on the two plates. The ammeter deflects away from
the zero mark. This deflection decreases with time.
In (b) the process of discharging takes place. den (passing current to an
external circuit). The ammeter deflects in the opposite direction from
charging. The dark brown colour on the positive plate turns to grey and gas
bubbles are seen on the plates.
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 Capacity of an Accumulator
• This is the amount of current that can be drawn in a given
time from the battery.
• It is expressed in ampere-hours (Ah).
Examples
A battery is rated 120 AH. How long will it work if
it steadily supplies a current of 4A?

𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 = 𝒄𝒖𝒓𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒔 × 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔

𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝑨𝑯 = 𝟒 𝑨 × 𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆
𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝑨𝑯
𝒕𝒊𝒎𝒆 = = 𝟑𝟎 𝒉𝒐𝒖𝒓𝒔
𝟒𝑨

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 Maintenance of the Accumulators
1. The level of the electrolyte should be checked regularly and maintained
above the plates. Topping up should be done using distilled water not
acid. Acid can only be used in cases where there has been spillage.
2. The accumulator should be charged when the emf of the cell drops
below 1.8 V and when the relative density of the acid falls below 1.12.
The relative density of the acid is measured using a hydrometer.
3. Large currents should not be drawn from the battery for a long time.
This loosens the lead (IV) oxide and the lead in the mesh framework of
the plates, causing them to fall off. The plates then buckle.
4. The accumulator should not be left in a discharged condition for a long
period. The lead (II) sulphate deposits on the plates harden up and
cannot be converted back to lead (II) oxide and lead. This is called
sulphation.
5. Shorting or overcharging the accumulator should be avoided.
6. The terminals should always be kept clean and greased.
7. The accumulator should not be directly placed on the ground during
storage. It should be rested on some insulator like a wooden block.
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 Alkaline Accumulators
• The electrolyte in this case is an alkaline solution, such as
potassium hydroxide.
• The common types are nickel-cadnium and nickel-iron
accumulators.

Uses of Alkaline Accumulators

They are used in ships, hospitals and buildings where large currents
might be needed for emergencies.
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 Advantages of Alkaline Accumulators over
Lead – Acid Accumulators
Advantages
1. Large currents can be drawn from them over a short
period of time.
2. They require very little attention to maintain.
3. They are lighter (more portable) than the Lead – acid
accumulators.
4. They can be kept in a discharged condition for a very
long time before the cells are ruined

Disadvantages
1. They are relatively expensive.
2. They have a lower E.m.f per cell.

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 Solar electrical energy
Solar electrical energy is gaining prominences as a substitute for hydro-
electrical and diesel generated power energies which are increasingly becoming
limited as the global climate change takes toll. Solar energy is preferable since it
is clean and renewable.
The main component of a solar electrical system is the solar panel consisting of
solar cells. Solar cells convert energy from the sun into electricity.
The solar cells contains a special crystalline material based on silicon which
absorbs energy from the sun resulting in generation of electrons hence current
flow.

Solar electrical energy is used in solar calculators ,cars etc.

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1. Distinguish between a primary cell and a secondary cell.
2. Define the term “e.m.f ” of a cell.
3. Distinguish between electromotive force and potential difference
4. State one major difference between a primary cell and a secondary cell
5. State the major difference between a dry cell and a wet cell
6. State two advantages and one disadvantage of alkaline cells over lead acid
accumulator.
7. Name two advantages which a lead accumulator has over a dry cell
8. Give a reason why it is necessary to leave the caps of the cells open when
charging an accumulator.
9. State the reason for topping up a lead acid accumulator with distilled water.
10. Give a reason why it is not advisable to smoke a cigarette near a charging
battery.
11. Recharging is one of the practices of maintenance of accumulators. State
two measurements, which need to be taken to help you decide when an
accumulator is due for charging.
12. State two qualities that are used to determine whether accumulator require
charging or not.
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13. The figure below shows a simple cell made of copper and zinc electrodes
dipped in dilute sulphuric acid.

a) Identify the cathode and the anode.

Cathode
Anode
b) State the two common defects in a simple cell.
c) Explain how the defects in b) are minimized.
14. Differentiate between local action and polarization as defects in a simple
chemical cell
15. State how polarization is reduced in a dry cell
16. Explain how polarization affects the working of a simple cell.
17. Distinguish between open and closed circuit.

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18. The figure below shows the features of a dry Leclanche cell. Name parts
A, B, C and D. Indicate on the same diagram the positive (+) and the negative
(-) terminals.

19. State the use of manganese (IV) oxide in a dry cell

20. State two precautionary measures you would take to maintain the
efficiency of an accumulator.
21. State the advantage of Nickel-cadmium battery over the lead -acid type
22. Give a reason why it is not advisable to arrange cells in parallel unless they
have identical e.m.f .
23. A form two student found his dry cells leaking on removing them from his
torch. He asked his friend what could be the cause of this. What answer did his
friend provide?

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24. A charge of 360 coulombs flows through a lamp every minute. Calculate
the number of electrons involved (electron charge is 1.6x10-19C).
25. A charge of magnitude flows through a point in 15 minutes. Calculate the
current.
26. Calculate the amount of current flowing through a bulb if 720C of charges
flow through it in 200 seconds.
27. A battery is rated 120AH. How long will it work if it steadily supplies a
current of 4A.
28. Fig (a) and (b) show two possible arrangements of a bulb to a source of
power. In which of the arrangement above would the cells drain faster. Explain
your answer.

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