GEC 3 Mathematics in the Modern World Manuel C.

Francisco

Module 6: Mathematical Logic

Learning Outcomes
At the end of this module, the students should be able to:
o Translate English sentences into logical sentences;
o Create a truth table of a given logical proposition; and
o Identify the given proposition whether it is tautology, contingency, or contradiction.

Introduction
Logic is the study of the principles of correct reasoning. It helps us to differentiate correct reasoning
from poor reasoning. Logic allows us to determine the validity of arguments in and out of mathematics. It
illustrates the importance of precision and conciseness of the language of mathematics.
Discussion
o What is Mathematical Logic?
Mathematical logic is a branch of mathematics with close connections to computers. It includes both the
mathematical study of logic and the applications of formal logic to other areas of mathematics.
The importance of logic to mathematics cannot be overstated. No conjecture in mathematics is
considered fact until it has been logically proven and truly valid mathematical analysis is done only within the
rigors of logic. Because of this dependence, mathematicians have carefully developed and formalized logic
beyond some of the murkier “common sense” we learn from childhood, and given it the precision required to
explore, manipulate and communicate mathematical ideas unambiguously. Part of that development is the
codification of mathematical logic into symbols. With logic symbols and their rules for use, we can analyze
and rewrite complicated logic statements much like we do with algebraic statements.
o Statement or Proposition
A statement or proposition is a declarative sentence that is true or false but not both. Propositional
Variables such as p, q, r, s, t, etc. are used to represent propositions.

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Examples

Statements Explanations
1. San Fernando City is the Capital of La Union. Proposition because it has a truth value (TRUE).
2. Cielo is beautiful and sexy. Not proposition because it neither true nor false.
3. Where are you going? Not proposition because it is interrogative.
4. Please give me some water. Not proposition because it is imperative.
5. Mt. Apo is the tallest mountain in the Philippines. Not Proposition because it neither true nor false.
6. 1+1=2 Proposition because the sentence has a truth value
(TRUE).
7. x>5 if x=3. Proposition because the sentence has a truth value
(FALSE).

Remark: If a proposition is true, then we say its truth value is TRUE, and if a proposition is false, we say its
truth value is FALSE.
o Logical Connectives
Mathematical statements may be joined by logical connectives which are used to combine simple
propositions to form compound statements. These connectives are conjunction, disjunction, implication,
biconditional, and negation.
The truth value of propositions is presented in a truth table. A truth table displays the relationships
between the truth values of propositions. Truth tables are especially valuable in the determination of the
truth values of propositions constructed from simpler propositions.
Let p and q be propositions.
1. Conjunction
The conjunction of the propositions p and q is the compound statement “p and q” denoted as 𝑝 ∧ 𝑞 which
is true only when both p and q are true, otherwise, it is false.
Truth Table for Conjunction
p q 𝒑∧𝒒
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

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2. Disjunction
The disjunction of the propositions p and q is the compound statement “p or q” denoted as 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞 which is
false only when both p and q are false, otherwise, it is true.
Truth Table for Disjunction
p q 𝑝∨𝑞
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

3. Negation
The negation of the statement p is denoted by ¬𝑝 where ¬ is the symbol for “not”. The truth value of the
negative is always the reverse of the truth value of the original statement.

Truth Table for Negation

𝒑 ¬𝒑
T F
F T
4. Implication
The implication of the propositions p and q is the compound statement “If p, then q.” denoted as 𝑝 → 𝑞
which is false only when both p is true and q is false.
Truth Table for Implication
p q 𝑝∨𝑞
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

5. Biconditional
The bi-conditional of the propositions p and q is the compound statement “p if and only if q.” denoted as
𝑝 ↔ 𝑞 which is true only when both p and q have the same truth values.
Truth Table for Biconditional
p q 𝑝↔𝑞
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

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Examples
Construct the truth table for each of the following statements.
1. ¬𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑞
p Q ¬𝒑 ¬𝒒 ¬𝒑 ∨ ¬𝒒
T T F F F
T F F T T
F T T F T
F F T T T

2. (¬𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) ∨ (𝑝 ∧ ¬𝑞)
p q ¬𝒑 ¬𝒒 ¬𝒑 ∧ 𝒒 𝒑 ∧ ¬𝒒 (¬𝒑 ∧ 𝒒) ∨ (𝒑 ∧ ¬𝒒)
T T F F F F F
T F F T F T T
F T T F T F T
F F T T F F F

o Logical Equivalence
If the truth tables for two statements are identical, then the two statements are said to be logically equivalent
and we denote this by ⇔ or ≡.
1. Show that ¬(𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) is equivalent to ( ¬𝑝 ∨ ¬ 𝑞).

2. Show that ( 𝑝 ⇒ 𝑞) is equivalent to (¬ 𝑝 ∨ 𝑞).

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3. Is 𝑟 ∧ (𝑝 ∧ 𝑞) equivalent to (𝑟 ∧ 𝑝) ∨ (𝑟 ∧ 𝑞)?

o Tautologies, Contradictions and Contingencies

A statement is called
i. A tautology (or valid) if it takes truth values T under each possible assignment of truth values to the
statements which occur in it.
ii. A contradiction (or an absurdity) if it takes values F under each possible assignment of truth values
to the statements which occur in it, and
iii. A contingency (or satisfiable) if it is neither a tautology nor a contradiction.
Examples
Which of the fallowing forms are tautology, contradiction, or contingency?
i. 𝑝∨∼𝑝

ii. ∼ 𝑝 ⇒ ∼ 𝑞

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iii. 𝑝 ∧∼ 𝑝

iv. [𝑝 ⇒ (𝑞 ∧∼ 𝑞)] ⇒∼ 𝑝

o Translate the following into logical expressions

1. You can access the Internet from campus only if you are an Info Tech student or you are a
freshman.

Solution:
Let p be the proposition “You can access the Internet from campus.”
q be the proposition “You are an Info Tech student.”
r be the proposition “You are a freshman.”

Therefore, 𝒑 → (𝒒 ∨ 𝒓).

2. You cannot access the Internet if you are a sophomore unless you are an Info tech student.

Solution:
Let p be the proposition “You are sophomore.”
q be the proposition “You can access the Internet.”
r be the proposition “You are an Info tech student.”

Therefore, ¬[𝒑 → (¬𝒒)] → 𝒓.

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o Converse, Inverse and Contrapositive

For every implication or conditional statement, you can construct its converse, inverse and contrapositive.
Suppose we have the following statements for P and Q.
P: It rains.
Q: They can cancel school.
The implication, converse, inverse, and contrapositive will be writtem in the following forms.
Implication: 𝑷 → 𝑸
If it rains, then they can cancel school.
Converse: 𝑸 → 𝑷
If they cancel school then it rains.
Inverse: ¬𝑷 → ¬𝑸
If it does not rain then they do not cancel school.
Contrapositive: ¬𝑸 → ¬𝑷
If they do not cancel school, then it does not rain.

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Problem Set #3
General Instructions: Answer the following items as instructed. Write your solution set in A4.
I. Determine whether each of the sentences below is a proposition or not. Explain your
answer.
Statements Answers
1. All multiples of 5 are odd numbers.
2. x is a real number.
3. Sketch the graph of f.
4. Five is greater than 4.
5. -1<0
6. The sun is shining.
7. The sum of two prime numbers is even.
8. 3+4=7
9. It rained in Manila on October 30, 1999.
10. x + y >10
11. Is it raining?
12. Come to class!
13. n is a prime number.
14. The moon is made of green cheese.
15. All even numbers are multiples of 2.

II. State whether or not the following are propositions. In case of a proposition, indicate if
it is true or false.
Statements Answers
1. All perfect squares are even numbers.
2. Every decimal number is a rational
number.
3. The summation ∑100 𝑖=1 𝑖
4. Either x is divisible by 3 or it is not.
5. If 2x+7=x then x=-7.
6. 12𝑒 𝑥
7. {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ ℕ}
8. The sum of two real numbers is a real
number.
9. The function F
10. The sine function is an odd function.

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III. Construct truth table for the following logical formulas. Determine whether they are
tautology, a contradiction, or a contingency.
1. (𝑝 ↔ 𝑞) → (¬𝑝 ↔ 𝑞)

2. (𝑝 ↔ 𝑞) ∨ (¬𝑝 ↔ ¬𝑟)

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3. [(𝑝 ∨ ¬𝑞) ∧ ¬𝑟] ∧ ¬(𝑝 ∨ 𝑞)

4. [(𝑝 ∨ 𝑟) ∧ (𝑝 → 𝑠)] ∨ (𝑝 ↔ 𝑞)

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IV. Show that the following pairs of statements are logically equivalent.
1. (𝑝 ⇒ 𝑞), (∼ 𝑞 ⇒ ~𝑝)

2. [(~𝑝 ∧ ~𝑞) ⇒ ~𝑟], 𝑟 ⇒(𝑞 ∨ 𝑝)

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V. Let p, q and r be the propositions.

p: You get a 95 on the final examination.
q: You do every exercise in the class.
r: You get a 95 in MMW.
Write these propositions in symbols using p, q and r logical connectives.
1. You get a 95 in MMW, but you do not do every exercise in the class.

2. You get a 95 on the final examination, you do every exercise in the class and you get 95 in MMW.

3. To get a 95 on the final examination, it is necessary for you to get 95 on the final examination.

4. You get a 95 on the final examination, but you do not do every exercise in the class, nevertheless
you get a 95 in MMW.

5. Getting a 95 on the final examination and doing every exercise in the class is sufficient for getting a
95 in MMW.

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VI. State the converse, inverse and contrapositive of the following propositions.
Statements Converse Inverse Contrapositive
1. If you will review
your lessons, then
you will pass MMW.

2. Faye will attend the

party only if Joyce
will accompany her.

3. The boat will sink if it

is overloaded.

4. Ensuring that your

products are of good
quality implies you
will have a high
amount of sales and
profit.

5. I attend my class
whenever there is a
quiz.

References
o Auflrann, R.N., Lockwood J.S., Nation, R.D., and Clegg,D.K., 2013 Cengage Learning: Mathematical
o Excursions, 14"’ Edition Epp, S.S., 2011 Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning: Discrete Mathematics: An
o Introduction to Mathematical Reasoning, 1" Edition Reyes.N. Sr., 2018 Rex Book Store, Inc.:
Mathematics in the Modern World

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