ANRS BUREAU OF AGRICULTURE

TRAINING MANUAL FOR ZONE AND WOREDA EXPERTS

MODULE 2
Part B
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF SMALL DAMS, NIGHT STORAGE
AND HUND DUG WELL

July 2013
Bahir Dar
 Design of diversion weir and canal

Contributors alphabetically:-
1. Alye Aragaw
2. Bizuneh Yiketu
3. Daniel Getachew
4. Endager Getinet
5. Eshetu Muluneh
6. Muaze Hassen
7. Muluberehane Getahune

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 CONSTRUCTION AND DESIGN OF SMALL DAMS ................................................... 3
1.1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Types of Dams ................................................................................................................. 3
1.3 Site Selection for Dams .................................................................................................. 8
1.4 Storage Capacity of a Reservoir ................................................................................... 10
1.5 Design of Embankments and Cut-Offs ......................................................................... 16
1.6 Masonry or concrete dams ............................................................................................ 19
1.6.1 Designing of the dam body of Masonry or Gravity dam ...................................................... 19
1.6.2 Stability Analysis .................................................................................................................. 23
1.7 Designing a Spillway .................................................................................................... 24
1.8 Construction Techniques .............................................................................................. 26
1.9 Protection, Maintenance and Use of Dams ................................................................... 30
1.9.1 Prevention and treatment of dam from siltation .................................................................... 30
1.9.2 Proper land management in the catchment area .................................................................... 31
2 NIGHT STORAGE ............................................................................................................. 32
3 HUND DUG WELLS.......................................................................................................... 35
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 35
3.2 Hand Dug Well Site Selection ...................................................................................... 35
3.3 Hand Dug Well Construction........................................................................................ 46

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1 CONSTRUCTION AND DESIGN OF SMALL DAMS

1.1 Introduction
A Dam is a structure built across a river to create a reservoir on its upstream side for
impounding water. The water stored in a reservoir is used for various purposes such as:
 Irrigation development
 Water supply for people and livestock.
Other benefits of dams are that they
 Improve supply of water for wildlife, industrial use and recreation
 Help in stream-flow regulation and thus flood control
 Conserve water
This chapter is intended as a guide to help zone and woreda agriculture’s experts to design,
construct and maintain small dams. The advice in this manual applies to dams in which.
 The catchment areas is less than 1,000 hectares
 The foundation and side banks of the valley (the basic soil or rock at the dam site) is
consolidated soil, bed rock or other hard material
 Suitable natural construction materials are available locally.
Dams on a formation sand, gravel or soft clay, or in areas where available construction
materials are poor (e.g. sand, soft rocks) should only be constructed under the
guidance of an engineer.

1.2 Types of Dams

Generally dams can be classified in to three types based on materials of construction:
 Earth dams It is made of earth
 Rock-fill dams It is made of rock
 Gravity dams It is made of masonry or concrete
In modern usage earth dam and rock fill dams are classified as embankment dams.

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Earth Dams
An earth dam has an embankment constructed of soil or earth. The foundation requirements are
less stringent. They can be built on all types of foundation. In most case this is the cheapest type
of dam and relatively easy to construct.
Sometimes only one type of soil used for the embankment, but a combination of different types
of soil can also be used. Thus, earth dams can be classified into two categories.
 Dams with homogenous embankments made of one type of soil ( Homogenous earth
dams)
 Dams with zoned embankments made of two or more types of soil (Zoned earth dams.)
Homogenous earth dams
An ideal soil for constructing an homogenous dam contains a mixture of fine-grained and coarse-
grained material. The fine-grained materials provide an adequate water barrier and the coarse
materials provide strength. However, with care, a small dam can be constructed with any type of
soil except a sandy soil. A homogenous dam is usually constructed where only one type of
material is economically available near the dam site and the height of the dam is low.
When the foundation materials is pervious, the dam is provided with a cut-off made from
relatively more impermeable material that extends down to an impermeable layer. This limits the
percolation beneath the embankment.
A purely homogenous section poses the problem of sliding and piping caused by seepage water
which will appear at the downstream side of the embankment to height approximately equal to
one-third of the height of the servitor level, as shown if figure 1 this seepage water may wash out
some of the embankment material, causing erosion and eventually collapse of the embankment.
This can be prevented by providing a large section with flatter slopes and adding sandy soil or
other suitable material at the bottom of the downstream side of the embankment.

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Reservoir water
Level

Impervious Material

Figure 1 A homogenous dam with a cut-off

Zoned Earth dams

A dam whose embankment is made up of several types of material is called a zoned earth dam. A
zoned dam is made of pervious or semi-pervious material with an impervious core in the middle,
as shown in figure 2. The impervious core is usually made up of clay, silt, silt clay or clayey silt
that provides a barrier to water and the pervious or semi-pervious material could be a sandy,
stone or gravel or a mixture of these materials to provide stability to the embankment by
distributing the load over a large area of foundation.

Impervious Material
Figure 2 A typical zoned dam

Just as with homogenous dams, a cut-off of impermeable material is essential when the
foundation material is pervious in order to limit percolation beneath the embankment.
A Zoned dam is generally more stable and safer than a homogenous dam. When a variety of
suitable construction materials is available, a zoned dam is preferred. The construction cost and

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the supervision requirement for a zoned dam are relatively high, but its advantages normally
justify the additional cost.
Rock –Fill dams
A rock- fill dam is built of rock fragments (called rock) and boulders of large size. The dam
embankment is constructed by dumping large-and medium –sized rocks using dump trucks or
human labor. Rock-fill dams are constructed where there is a solid foundation and where suitable
rocks are abundant. The slopes at both sides of the dam embankment are kept at a ratio of 1
vertical to 1.7 horizontal (1V:1.7H). A typical rock- fill dam is shown in figure 3
Seepage through the rock fill is prevented by putting an impermeable geo-membrane (e.g. thick
plastic sheeting or other similar material) suitable for use in the ground, or an impermeable layer
of concrete on the upstream side of the embankment, as shown in figure 3. An asphalt lining or a
clay core in the middle to check the seepage instead of an impervious upstream membrane can
also be used, but use of these materials requires the advice of a qualified engineer.

A. Well graded and compacted

coarse fill to provide the bearing
support for the concrete
B.Small sized rock and well
compacted fill
C.Big and strong good quality rocks

Figure 3 A typical rock fill dam

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Figure 4 A rock fill dam under construction (courtesy RELMA, 2002)

Gravity dams (masonry and concrete dams)

Gravity (Masonry and concrete or cyclopine ) dams require solid foundations and abutments. It
resists the water pressure and other forces due to its weight (or gravitational forces). Thus the
stability of a gravity dam depends upon its weight. The upstream side is usually kept vertical and
the downstream side can be constructed with a slope of (1V:0.75H; see figure 4). Dams
constructed of stone masonry or concrete are generally safer and durable than the other types of
dams, but they are more expensive.
The upstream side of a masonry dam can be covered with chicken-wire mesh and plastered to
prevent seepage through the dam wall. However, some seepage water does not pose a threat to
the stability of the dam.
Masonry and concrete dams are regarded as relatively expensive structures, but this is not always
the case if the dam is small. When the ground conditions are suitable and when plenty of stones
are available, their construction is strongly recommended. Masonry concrete dams can be
constructed during any season of the year and they can remain uncompleted for years because
they are normally not damaged by over-flowing water. A typical masonry or concrete dam is
shown in figure 4

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Figure 5 A typical Masonry or Concrete Dam

1.3 Site Selection for Dams

A dam is relatively a huge structure requiring a large amount of money. Care shall be taken
while selecting the site of the dam. When selecting a dam site, an exhaustive study of the
potential alternative should be conducted, including both physical and socio-economic factors.
The villagers of the area are the most important sources of practical information for such a study,
and they often have immediate proposals on suitable sites. However, it is important to consult as
many stakeholders as possible to avoid personal biases from individual or small groups. Possible
dam sites must be compared carefully, and a number of site visits are essential to identify critical
features
The following factors shall be considered very carefully when selecting the site of a dam:-
 Topography, As far as possible, the dam should be located where the river has a narrow
gorge which opens out upstream to create a large reservoir. In that case, the length of the
dam would be small and the capacity of the reservoir on its upstream would be large, that
would also minimize the embankment volume
 Suitable foundation, Suitable foundation should exist at the site for the particular type of
dam. If suitable foundation is not available but it can be improved by adopting various
measures. For gravity dams of great height, sound rock is essential. However, earth
dams can be constructed on almost any type of foundation. Provided suitable measures
are adopted.
 Type suitability and viability of construction materials, the dam requires a large quantity
should be available at or near the dam site to reduce the cost. This will also help to
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decide what type of dam is to be constructed. A rock-fill dam is obviously not a good
choice if there are no stones in the areas.
 Water tightness of reservoir, the bed and sides of the reservoir should be quite watertight
to reduce leakage losses of the stored water.
 Small submerged area, the area submerged by the reservoir on the upstream of the dam
should be small. Moreover, the reservoir should not submerge costly land and property.
It should also not submerge rare structure of archaeological or historical importance.
 Accessibility, the site should be easily accessible. It should be preferably well-connected
by a road line. This would facilitate transportation of labor and materials.
 Low sediments, the dam site should be such that the reservoir would not silt up quickly.
The life of the reservoir depends upon the rate of silting. If any tributary carries
relatively large quantity of sediments, the dam should be constructed upstream of the
confluence of that tributary with the river.
 Minimum overall cost, the site should be such that it entails the minimum overall cost of
the project, including subsequent maintenance. Generally, two or three probable sites are
selected and rough estimates are made. The site which entails the minimum overall cost
can be tentatively selected.
 Height of embankment, This will help determine whether the dam can be constructed by
the villagers on their own, or if outside assistance is required. Flat reservoir areas of low-
value land that can store a relatively large volume of water with a low embankment
height.
 Location of irrigable areas in relation to the dam
 Size, vegetation cover and other physical characteristics of the catchment area.
After identifying possible dam sites, they must be ranked in order of priority consider the factors
above.
To assure community support, frequent meeting should be organized to discuss the advantages
and disadvantages of different sites with the villagers.

1.1 Site Surveys

All alternative sites should be compared on the basis of reservoir capacity and type and amount
of labor and material required for the construction of the embankments. To achieve accuracy for
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these comparisons the main alternatives should be subjected to a more detailed survey. The
survey will provide the basis for the design of the embankment and determine the storage
capacity and cost implication of the possible dam and reservoir site.
Cross-sectional drawing of each dam site should be prepared. A contour map of the reservoir and
irrigable area with contour interval of 0.5 m is also required. The number of hectares between the
respective contour lines in the planned reservoir is determined. The catchment area is also
surveyed to determine its size.
1.2 Estimating Catchment Yield
The amount of run-off that can be expected to come from the catchment to the dam (the
catchment yield) should be estimated in order to determine the embankment height and reservoir
capacity. For simple techniques to estimate the yield of the catchment please refer the module for
physical soil and water conservation.

1.4 Storage Capacity of a Reservoir

Estimating the storage capacity of a proposed dam is important for planning to construction. The
storage capacity will determine how much water will be available for human and animal
consumption or how much land can be irrigated. A storage-capacity figure also helps to
determine the height that will be required for the dam’s embankment
Two methods can be used to estimates storage capacity of a proposed dam.
 A rough estimation, or
 An accurate estimation

Rough Estimation
Making a rough estimation assumes the reservoir is triangular in plan and that the valley is
triangular in section, the storage capacity can be estimated roughly using the following formula:
Q= L x T x H/6
Where
Q is storage capacity in m3
L is the top (Crest) length of the embankment in meters
T is the distance from the dam embankment to the tail end of the reservoir in meters
H is the maximum height of the embankment in meters.

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Example of how to make a rough estimate of dam capacity

A dam has embankment height (H) of 5 m, an embankment crest length (L) of 80 m, and
distance from the embankment to the tail end (T) is 230 m.
A rough estimate of the volume of this dam is therefore :
Q=L x T xH/6
Q= 80 x 230 x5:6 = 15,300 M3

1.2.1 Accurate estimation

When a more accurate determination of storage capacity is required, the following methods can
be used:-
 Prepare a contour map of the reservoir with a contour interval of 0.5 m( or 1 m for large
reservoirs)
 Using the contour map, calculate the surface areas at each contour level.
 Calculate the volume between adjacent contour by taking the depth as 0.5 or 1 m
(depending on which contour interval is used) and multiply by the average surface area
of the two adjacent contours.

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Example of how to calculate the volume of a reservoir using the more accurate method
A proposed reservoir area was surveyed and the contour map prepared. The next task is to
calculate the storage capacity of the reservoir.
The areas at different elevations were measured and found to be as follows:

At the 1,580 m contour = 1,176 m2

At the 1,581m contour = 3,530 m2
At the 1,582 m contour = 7,060 m2
At the 1,583 m contour = 10,590 m2
At the 1,584 m contour = 17,650 m2
At the 1,585 m contour = 25,410 m2
(a) The volume of the section below the lowest contour, in this case below 1, 5800 m is
normally ignored.
(b) Volume of section between 1,580 m and 1,581 m contours
Height: 1,581 m-1m580 m=1m
Average areas (1,176 + 3,530)/2 = 2,353 m2
Volume between 1,580 m and 1,581 m contours : 1 m X 2,353 m2 =2,353 m3
(c) Volume of section between 1,581 m and 1,582 m contours
Height: 1,582 m-1,581 m=1 m
Average areas 3,530 m2 + 7,0600m2)/2 = 5,295 m2
Volume between 1,581 m and 1,582 m contours : 1 m X 5,295 m2 =5,295 m3
(d) Volume of section between 1,582 m and 1,583 m contours
Height: 1,583 m-1,582 m=1 m
Average areas (7,060 m2 + 10,590)/2 = 8,825 m2
Volume between 1,582 m and 1,583 m contours: 1 m X 8,825 m2 =8,825 m3
(e) Volume of section between 1,583 m and 1,584 m contours
Height 1,584 m-1,583 m=1 m
Average areas (10,590 m2 + 17,650 m2)/2 = 14,120 m2
Volume between 1,583 m and 1,584 m contours : 1 m X 14,120 m2 =14,120 m3
(f) Volume of section between 1,584 m and 1,585 m contours

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Height 1,585 m-1,584 m=1 m

Average areas (17,650m2 +25,410m2)/2 = 21,530 m2
Volume between 1,580 m and 1,581 m contours : 1 m X 21,530 m2 =21,530 m3
Once the volumes between adjacent contours are calculated, the cumulative volume is
obtained by summing the results.
Therefore, the dam storage capacity at different water levels will be
At elevation 1,580 m ignored
At elevation 1,581 m 2,353 m3
At elevation 1,582 m 5,295+2,353=7,648 m3
At elevation 1,583 m 8,825+5,295+2,353=16,473 m3
At elevation 1,584 m 14,120+8,825+5,295+2,353=30,593 m3
At elevation 1,585 m 21,530+14,120+8,825+5,295+2,353=52,123 m3
The height of the proposed embankment is then determined by comparing the annual catchment
yield to the storage capacity of the dam at different heights. A dam should be no larger than
necessary because of the cost of construction. In practice, dams in dry areas are usually designed
to store 10% of the mean annual rainfall falling on the catchment. The height of the embankment
must have an extra margin (‘freeboard’) to allow for waves and for security.
In some years a dam designed on that basis will receive more water than it can store. Such excess
water will be safely disposed of through the spillway. The spillway must be slight lower than the
crest of the embankment. The difference is the safety margin, the ‘freeboard’ however, If the
required amount of water is less (for example, if there is only a small area to be irrigated) the
reservoir can be designed with a smaller storage capacity than the 10% of annual rainfall. In this
case the spillway will be in use more regularly.
These hints on storage volume in relation to the rainfall in the catchment can be used to
determine the suitable height of the embankment.

1.3 The Volume of the Embankment

To determine the cost of constructing a dam embankment, it is necessary to find out be forehand
how much construction materials is required. The most expensive structure is the embankment,
and the amount of material required for its construction is important factors in determining the

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cost of a dam. The volume of a dam embankment can be estimated by using the following
formula, which gives a reasonably accurate value.
V= 0.22 H x L (2C + H x S)
Where:
H= Dam crest height in meters
L= Dam crest length in meters
C= Dam crest width in meters
S= Combined slope value (that is, if upstream-side slope is 1:2.5 and the downstream side slope
is 1:2, S will be 2.5 + 2=4.5)
A newly built earth embankment may settle (sink) with time. The risk of setting is most
significant when the reservoir is filled with water for the first time. Settling is relatively less
significant in fine-textured soils. Embankments made of black-cotton soils do not usually settle
much since black-cotton soils expand when they become wet. Settling will be most significant
where the embankment is highest. Even if the embankment is compacted using water or
machinery, the amount of settling after construction may still be significant. Thus, about 5% or
25 cm should be added to the design height to take care of settlement for a dam that is 5 m high.
For higher dams the proportional amount added can be slightly lower, but the addition should
never be less than 25 cm for dams that are higher than 5 m.
Example
A proposed earth dam has an embankment with the following dimensions
Crest height (H) 4m
Crest length (L) 16m
Crest width (c) 3 m
Combined slope value 4.5
Using the formula for calculation of embankment volume :
V=0.22x4mx16m( 2x3m+xm+4.5)=(6+8) =338 m3
Since the soil is fine textured, and compaction will be done very thoroughly when the soil is
moist, the embankment is not expected to settle much. An extra 10-12 m3 as extra allowance
should be enough for settling and to ensure that the embankment will always remain slightly
convex. Thus, the total volume of soil required is estimated at about 350 m3.

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1.4 Selection of Construction Materials

The quality and quantity of potential construction materials such as soil, rock and sand should be
assessed carefully before using them to build a dam. In the case of small rock-fill or masonry
dams, it is not essential to determine accurately the quality of available stone and sand. Clean
sand and reasonably sound stone without fractures or weaknesses can be used safely. However,
for earth dams, carefully selection of fill materials is essential.
Suitability of embankment materials
Impermeable soils like clay, if available should be used in the cut-off below ground level and for
the core of a zoned dam (see figure 8.3) Because some types of clay shrink and crack on drying,
clay should not be used in parts of a dam likely to become dry at any time.
Soils to be used for homogonous dams and the outer section of zoned dams can be ranked as
follows in order of suitability.
1. Sand clay
2. Sandy clay loams
3. Clay loams
Materials that should never be used as the main material for dam construction are pure silt, sand
and material from anthills.
 Silts: - are very difficult to compact. Where testing soil for texture, care should be taken
not to confuse silts with clays.
 Sandy soils:- are too pervious, lack cohesion and are difficult to compact.
 Anthill soils: - can cause problems: as termites and their predators are attracted to old
anthill materials, use such materials can result in new ant colonies and undesirable
burrowing in the embankment.
However silt and sandy soils can be used both in the outer upstream or downstream sections of
the dam to add weight to it.
Sometimes a good site can be located, but there are no suitable construction materials in the
immediate vicinity. In that case the dam embankment can be constructed with what every
materials are available and then covered with an impermeable geo-membrane (plastic sheet or
other material).

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Borrow areas
The location from where construction materials is taken is called a borrow areas. Usually,
suitable embankment-fill materials are easily found very close to small dam sites. Areas close to
the dam downstream should be avoided; however, when the area in the dam reservoir is used as a
borrow area, transport time and costs are kept to minimum and the capacity of the reservoir is
increased.
Potential borrow areas can be identified by eye from the visible soil and vegetation cover:
 Undisturbed soil under mature woodland may be suitable for construction
 Sometimes waterlogged soils are subject to chemical and physical processes depending
on the function of the water level, normally such soils are unsuitable for embankments.
 Small low anthills may suggest that there is rock at a relatively shallow depth, and tall
massive anthills can indicate deep soil.
 A reddish brown soil indicates a favorable construction material
 Exclude areas where soils show signs of salt accumulation
Auguring and test pitting should be used to investigate the areas deemed to be suitable to
confirm the properties of the materials

1.5 Design of Embankments and Cut-Offs

Earth dams
The earth dam should be designed such that the failure of the dam or its foundation doesn’t
occur. The dam should be safe and stable during construction and throughout its life. For the safe
design of an earth dam, the following basic criteria should be satisfied.
 No over topping: - the dam should be safe against overtopping during occurrence of the
worst floods. An adequate free board should be provided so that dam is not overtopped
due to the wave action. A suitable allowance in the height of the dam should be made to
account for settlements.
 No seepage failure: - The seepage line (phreatic line) should remain well within the
downstream face of the dam so that no sloughing of the downstream face occurs. Seepage
through the body of the dam, foundations and abutments should be controlled by
adopting suitable measures.
- The dam and foundation should be safe against piping failure
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- There should be no opportunity for the free passage of water from the upstream to
the downstream either through the dam of through the foundation.
 No structural failure: - The upstream and downstream slopes should be safe during and
immediately after construction and also during sudden-drawdown and steady seepage
conditions.
 Proper slop protection: - the upstream slopes and downstream slopes and crest should be
protected against erosion by waves and erosion due to rain and wind respectively.
 Proper drainage: - The portion of the dam downstream of the impervious core should be
properly drained.
The following dimensions are recommended for small earth dams:
 Side slopes
- Upstream side 1V:3H (1:3)
-Downstream side 1V:2H (1:2)
 Crest width Minimum 3 m
 Cut-off (see figure 2) this will depend on the foundation materials. As a rule the cut-off
should go deep enough to reach rock or a non-fissured firm impervious soil layers. If the
soil is impermeable right up to the surface, a cut-off should still be constructed with a
depth not less than 1m. For hand dug cut- offs the bottom width must be not less than 2
m and the side slope should be 1:1 The cut-off is constructed parallel to the center line
of the dam embankment and should be located about 2-5 m upstream of the center line
of the dam embankment and should be located about 2-5m upstream of the center line. A
cut off is recommended on all types of foundation except solid unfissured rock.
 Free board: - free board is the vertical distance between the top of the dam and the
maximum water level. The free board should not be less than 2m in any case.
Rock- Fill dams
The design and construction of rock fill dam is governed by more or less the same principles as
those used in an earth dam. However, because of relatively large size of rock fill, individual
behavior of the rock fill has a marked influence on the stability of the rock fill dam.
The following dimensions real recommended for rock-fill dams:-
 Side:- slopes: 1V :1.7H on both side
 Crest width : minimum 3 m
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 A cut-off is not required for rock-fill dams because that is normally constructed on sites
with a rock surface or when the bedrock is at a shallow depth. Rock fill fames must be
sealed by other means for example an impermeable geo membrane or layer of cancer (
see section 8.2)
 Free board:- 1.5 to 3m above the water level recommended for rock fill dams
Masonry or concrete dams
 Side slope
- Upper stream side Vertical
- Downstream side 1V:0.75 H
 Crest width Minimum 0.56 M
 Free board: - 3m above the maximum water level recommended.
1.5 Design of the Outlet
Outlets are required for releasing the impounded water as and when needed for various purposes.
Outlets are usually provided with gates and valves for controlling the out flow. These gates are
valves may be used for regulating the out flow. These gates are valves may be used for
regulating the out flow or for completely closing the outflow, depending upon their location and
design.
For a concrete of masonry dam, the outlets pass through the body of the dam and are called
Sluice ways. For the earth dam rock fill dams, the outlets are generally placed outside the limits
of the dam. However, for small earth dams, sometimes the outlet conduits are permitted to pass
through the body of the dam. However, to prevent piping, adequate measures should be adopted.
An outlet can be a pipe buried in the dam embankment or dam foundation, or it can be a simple
siphon pipe. Usually a galvanized steel pipe or concrete pipes are used for outlet works
Earth dams
In the case of earth dams, a skilled engineer is required to supervises the work of installation if a
pipe buried in the dam wall is to used faulty installation of such outlets can easily ruin the whole
investment since it may causes the embankment to be wished away.
A siphon outlet (figure 8.9) is safer and recommended for small earth dams for the following
reasons.
 There is no seepage problem that might result from faulty installation
 It is easy to install and maintain
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 It is relatively cheeps
 There is no need for a qualified engineer to supervise the installation work.

1.6 Masonry or concrete dams

General
In the case of masonry or concrete dams, a concrete pipe can be buried in the embankment
without risk of dam failure. Installation of outlets in this type of dams is simple and cheapest as
the embankments are not very thick and made of martial that cannot be washed out. Therefore
masonry or concrete dams are usually provided with several outlets at different heights. One
advantage of this is that the level at which water is tapped can be varied depending on the water
level in the dam. The outlet can also serve as auxiliary spill ways. A large outlet located at a low
point in the embankment can sometimes be used for the removal of silt from the reservoir. Such
a large outlet can be opened to let water pass through when there are flash floods early in the
rainy season and, in the process, clean out soil from the dam.
Outlets should be provided with a trash track at the entrance and a gate at the other end. The
trash rack is a simple square mesh of wire bars and is installed to ensure that an unwanted
material such as branches and other debris does not block the outlet.

1.6.1 Designing of the dam body of Masonry or Gravity dam

Forces acting on the Dam
The most common external forces that act on the Dam are:-
 Water pressure
 Uplift pressure
 Frictional force between the dam bottom and the foundation material
 Pressure due to earthquake forces
 Silt pressure
 Wave pressure
 Ice pressure
 The stabilizing forces is the weight of the dam itself
But only some of the forces are usually considered in the design of small masonry/concrete dams
as explained in the following and as shown in figure below.
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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

 Static water Pressure (Pw):-

Once water that comes from the upper catchment enters to the reservoir found at deep
Gorge of the river, it will be accumulated and will have a static water pressure on the
Vertical upstream face of the dam. This pressure will act horizontally on the surface of
the Dam in the Down ward direction and as a result it develops overturning moment on
the Dam.
 Self-weight of the Dam (w):-
It is the vertically down ward force due to the self-weight of the dam body and is the only
force that develops a resisting moment on the Dam.
 Accumulated silt pressure (Ps):-
It is the horizontal pressure developed on the surface of the Dam like the hydrostatic
water pressure. It can be assumed to a given value of silt depth for small dams that can be
constructed by experts
 Friction force at the base of the Dam to counter balance the horizontal sliding force:-
This force is a force that act horizontally in the upward direction (towards the reservoir)
in order to counter balance the sliding action of the Dam. This force is a function of the
friction factor which has different value depending up on the types of contacting surfaces.
Most of the time the recommended friction factor (f) of contact surfaces as per ARORA
should not exceed 0.65 to be safe against sliding.
 Uplift pressure that acts at the bottom of the Dam due to seepage water (Pu):-
This force is the force that can be developed at the bottom of the Dam and act vertically
in the upward direction. The force is due to the seepage water through the bottom of the
Dam especially when the foundation materials are pervious. As a result this force will
develop an overturning moment on the body of the Dam. But this force can be neglected
if the foundation material is continuous basalt.

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

Figure 6 External forces that act on the Dam

Bottom width of the Dam

This bottom width (B) of the Dam is a function of all forces that act on the Dam
body. The minimum width of the Dam is the width at which the over turning
moments are fully counterbalanced by the resisting moment (moment due to self
weight of the dam in this case).There for the actual width of the dam should exceed
from that minimum allowable width depending up on the final result after stability
analysis has been done.
Possible assumptions for the design:-
 Unit weight of water is = 9.81 KN/M2
 Unit weight of Masonry is = 22 KN/M2 (24 KN/M2 for concrete)
 Saturated unit weight of soil is = 18 KN/M2
 Angle of internal repose (Ø) is = 300
The developed moment due to all forces are calculated about the toe of the Dam.

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

Moment of Overturning (Mo) = Moment of Resisting (Mr) -----------------------1

A. Moment of Overturning (Mo) is developed due to the forces of:-
1-Static water Pressure (Pw):-
Pw = ½ * γw*hw2
Then, moment about toe due to Pw is
M1 = Pw*lever arm = Pw*(hw/3)
2-Accumulated silt pressure (Ps):- Moment about toe due to Ps is
Ps = ½*γsub*K*hs2, but
γsub = γsat - γw =18KN/M2 - 9.81KN/M2 = 8.19KN/M2

The value of angle of internal friction ϕ can be taken from table 2-6, but it is usually
taken to be 300
Where K = active earth pressure due to silt
Then, moment about toe due to Ps is
M2 = Ps*lever arm = Ps*(hs/3)
3- Uplift pressure (Up):- Moment about toe due Up is
Up = ½*B*γw*hw
Then, moment about toe due to Up is
M3 = Up*lever arm = Up*((2B)/3)
Total Over turning moment (Mo) = M1 + M2 + M3
B. Moment of Resisting (Mr) is developed due to the forces of:-
1-Rectangular section of Dam (W1):-
W1 = Tw*hm* γm
Then, moment about toe due to W1 is
M1 = W1*lever arm =W1*((B-Tw) + (Tw/2))
2- Triangular section of Dam (W2):-
W2 = ½*(B-Tw)*hm* γm
Then, moment about toe due to W2 is
M2 = W2*lever arm =W2*2/3(B-Tw)
Total Resisting moment (Mr) = M1 +M2

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

Then by substituting the values of Mo and Mr in equation 1 above, the only unknown
will be the bottom width B of the dam, which is the minimum width that can be used
for initial estimate for the actual width. At this first trial width all external forces that
act on the dam will be counter balanced by the stabilizing moment due to the self-
weight of the dam without any safety factor. But the actual safe width of the bottom
of the dam will be fixed after the required stability analysis has been done.
1.6.2 Stability Analysis
Basic assumptions that should be taken are:-
 Maximum allowable friction factor, f between masonry and concrete can be taken
from table 2-5
 Minimum factor of safety against overturning is 1.5
 Maximum safe bearing capacity of Gravel material is 440 KN/M2 and for other
materials can be taken from table 2-7
The applied forces and their moment about the toe of Dam are shown below on the self-
explanatory table.
Table Forces and moments that act and developed on the Dam
Vertical Force Horizontal
Symbol (KN) Force (KN) Lever arm (m) Moment about toe (KN-M)
Pw ½ * γw*hw2 hw/3 -(Pw*(hw/3))
(B-Tw) +
W1 Tw*hm* γm (Tw/2) +(W1*((B-Tw) + (Tw/2)))
W2 ½*(B-Tw)*hm* γm 2/3(B-Tw) +(W2*2/3(B-Tw))
Ps ½*γsub*K*hs2 hs/3 -(Ps*(hs/3))
Up -(½*B*γw*hw) (2B)/3 -(Up*((2B)/3))
Summation of all +ve
∑M+ moments
Summation of all -ve
∑M- moments
∑M = ∑M+
∑ ∑V ∑H ∑M-

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

 Check for Overturning

∑
∑
 Check for Sliding
∑
∑

 The resultant of all forces acting on the structure should fall within the middle
third of the dam base so that tension will not develop at the base.
∑
| |
∑
 The contact pressure (stress) at the toe or heel of the weir body should be less than
the allowable bearing pressure of the foundation material.
∑
( )

Finally the bottom width of the dam will be the value of B at which the above conditions are
satisfied.
1.7 Designing a Spillway
A spillway is an important component of a dam; A spillway allows water to leave the dam and so
protects it from over-topping when there is excess water coming into the reservoir.
Normally a spillway is located at one side of the dam embankment. If the topography permits, a
spillway location not direct contact with the dam is to be preferred (see photo of the spillway
blow). In masonry or concrete dams, excess water can be allowed to pass over the dam
embankment because it cannot cause any harm to the structure.
There are many types of spillway. Which one of the different types you use will dependant on
the location of the spillway, the space available for the spillway and the construction materials.
The common types are:
 A spillway constructed by cutting through the soil on top of a soil or rock surface
 A spillway consisting of a raised masonry or concrete wall called a weir.
Spillways of the first type should be protected from erosion by planting a runner-type
grass such as Bermuda grass and by fertilizing and watering it regularly and keeping
animals off the spillway areaway.

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

A spillway founded on rock rarely requires erosion protection, and that is why it is much-
preferred option wherever possible.
The safest option is to construct the spillway some distance from the embankment, but this is not
always possible. If the spillway is adjacent to the embankment, it should be long enough on the
downstream side to ensure that the flow from the spillway does not cause any damage to the toe
(the lowest section of the downstream side) of the embankment
For maximum safety, a so- called training wall is constructed downstream of the weir to ensure
that the water flow will not damage the embankment at any time. The training wall should be
high, lone and strong enough to prevent erosion on the embankment.

Spillway size
Excess flood water coming in to the reservoir must pass through a spillway safely and not cause
any damage to the dam embankment or to surrounding land. Therefore the size of the spillway
must be adequate. The size or the capacity of an adequate spillway expend on the run-off the
catchments area and on the storage capacity of the reservoir. Very detailed calculations are
needed to accurately determine the size of spillway that will required for a particular dam. But in
the absence of hydrological or climatic data, and in the case of small dams, the dimensions
indicated in table below can be applied safely.
Recommended spillway dimensions for small dams
Spillway dimension
Catchment area(ha) Width(m) Depth below dam crest (m)
Less than 500 10 1.0
Between 500 and 1,000 15 1.5

However, if a suitable location and space is available for the spillway and the area received
heavy rainfall, it is advisable to make the dimensions even greater than those recommended. The
benefits in terms of dam safety can outweigh the additional cost involved
A qualified should be consulted to determine the capacity of the spillway in the case of a dam on
a catchment area exceeding 1,000 hectares.

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

1.8 Construction Techniques

General
When constructing any dam, you should plan to prepare the foundation and construct the
embankment during the dry season. Small dams can be constructed successfully using farmer’s
labor supported by ox- driven plough and scoop. However, to is highly recommended to employ
machinery and equipment such as tractors, bulldozers, dump trucks and compactors if the
volume of dam embankment is to be large.
Labor management
The farmers are organized in groups and sun-groups, with each group having its own
responsibility and foreman to supervise the work. The group or sub-group work can be soil
digging, soil transporting, soil moistening, compacting, etc. Each type of work is rotated
regularly among the groups. The work of each group must be measured quantitatively. It has
been found that is better to leave the responsibility for formation of work groups to the
community. The farmers know each other well and are in a better position to decide how the
groups should be formed.
Clearing the site
Dam construction starts by clearing the site. The borrow and spillway areas should be cleared of
all tress, roots, other vegetation and topsoil to a minimum depth of 15m. Roots should be dug out
completely. If there are anthills in or adjacent to the dam site, eradicate the ants and excavate the
affected soil and move it far away from the dam site.
The area for the embankment should be cleared of all vegetation, roots, topsoil and stones to a
depth of 0.3-0.5m. The cleared tops (except the anthill soil) should be piled on the downstream
side to be used later for covering the embankment surface before it is planted with grass.
In the case of rock-fill and masonry or concrete dams, site clearing involves completely
removing topsoil and any vegetation, removing soft, broken and loose rocks and making
foundation rock as rough as possible.
Preparing the foundation
Care should be taken in preparing dam foundation and in the construction of cut-offs. Mistakes
made in these early stages of the construction are almost impossible to correct later.
When rock is encountered in a foundation, prepare the rock in the following way before filling:
 Remove any loose layers and clean and wash the rock surface thoroughly

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 Roughen smooth surface by chipping and scraping

 If the rock is fissured, the cracks must be filled with grout made with a 2:1 ratio of sand
to cement. The mixture should have a cream-like consistency to be thin enough to
spread out on the rock surface and seep well in to minor cracks and fissure.
 Any deep or wide cracks should be filled using 1:2:4 cement, sand and gravel concrete
mix.
 Let the concrete and grout cure properly for at least five days before starting
construction.
Earth dams
Before starting filling, make sure the whole foundation is dry with no standing water. Then
harrow or rip the foundation to a depth of 10-15 cm so that the embankment becomes well
bonded to the foundation.
The Embankment is filled layer by layer. For a homogenous dam the same soil type is used
through, while for a zoned dam the core is filled with impermeable material and the rest with
other fill. The extent of the core must be measured form the centre line according to the design.
The following procedures are recommended when filling the embankment:
 Fill material is first spread to a depth of 20-30cm cover the surface. Fill the embankment
to a width greater than specified in the design (0.5m wider on both sides is
recommended) to ensure that the embankment will not be smaller than specified when it
is compacted. Large stones, rocs, organic material and topsoil carried to the
embankment should be removed.
 Once a layer is completed it should be compacted. Compaction is one of the important
activities’ in dam construction. Each layer must be compacted properly before the next
layer is added, and the maximum density will be achieved when the soil moisture
content is optimal. When a sample of the soil is squeezed by hand is shall for an easily
breakable ball and it should look almost dry. It is usually necessary to add water in order
to bring the fill material to the desired moisture-content range before it can be
compacted. With dry soils this is best done by sprinkling each layer with water before
every compaction, or by irrigating the soil in the borrow area over night. At all costs
avoid attempting to compact the soil when it is too moist.When the soil is too wet,
harrowing is the most efficient method of reducing the water content to desired rang.
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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

Even though it is highly recommended to use a compactor and roller, compaction can be
done manually using wooden or concrete poles. A tractor can also be used to compact
soil.
 After each compaction and before the next fill the top surface should be loosened to a
depth of 5 cm and moistened. This is to ensure that the different layers will be well
bonded to each other.
 Keep the outer edges a little higher than the centre, and continue filling across the full
width of the embankment in near horizontal.
 Add and compact some soil above the specified horizontal level to reduced the risk of
damage in case there is an unexpected settlement
Seepage water may wash out embankment material from the embankment, as explained earlier
and shown on Figure 6 any of the following two measures is recommended to prevent this from
happening:
 A sand filter is provided at the bottom of the down steam side of the embankment, as
shown in figure 7. This keeps the upper limit of the seepage line (periphery line) below
the surface of the embankment (see figures 6 and 7). A qualified engineer should be
consulted about the suitability of the available filter material
 Additional soil (permeable material) is put on the lowest one -third of the downstream
side of the dam, as shown in figure 8. This will filter the seepage water and prevent
embankment material from passing through while letting the seepage water pass through
slowly.
If no sand is available, filters can also be made by use other material, for example permeable
geo-membranes.

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Reservoir level

Figure 7 A dam without a filter

Figure 8 A dam provided with filter material inside

Figure 9 A dam provided with filter material on top of the toe

Rock-fill dams
A roc-fill embankment is the simplest kind to construct. The fill material of rocks and stones is
dumped in 0.50-0.75m layers. Normally a dump truck is used to carry the material, but farmer’s

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

labor can also be used, although this is tiring work and the stones used for construction must then
be limited to small ones, which is not ideal
Different sizes of stones are placed in different parts of the embankment. Smaller stones are used
on the upstream side, and medium-sized and large stones on the middle and downstream-side of
the embankment water should be sprinkled over the embankment to make the tones slippery so
that can fill empty spaces as much as possible. If sand is available, it is used to fill in spaces
between the stones by spraying it with a jet of water.
Finishing works
Finishing work may include the following:
 Restoring the site area to as natural condition as possible
 Fencing the reservoir area and embankment to prevent direct contamination of the stored
water, especially by livestock. Animal should never be allowed to drink directly from
the stored water. Fencing also reduces the risk of accident with children.
 Construction of cattle troughs, is required
 Grassing of the embankment surface and waterways.

1.9 Protection, Maintenance and Use of Dams

1.9.1 Prevention and treatment of dam from siltation
Siltation is a major problem which can reduced the useful lifespan of a dam. Unless measures are
taken to minimize the amount of silt coming into reservoir, it can become filled with silt very
quickly. Under ideal conditions, the useful life of the type of dams described in this manual is in
the range of 15-20 year. This period could b reduced to five years or less if siltation is severe.
The rate of siltation is related to many factors, some of which are:
 Dam size in relation to catchment size: - A small reservoir is more quickly filled with
silt than a large relation if other factors remind the same.
 Size of catchment area: - the larger the catchment area the greater the production of silt
and faster a dam silts up.
 Physical condition of the catchment area: silt is produced from ac catchments area as a
result of erosion. As explained in chapter 3 the rate of erosion is affected by various
factors, including vegetative cover, rainfall intensity, slope of the area and soil type
Dam siltation can be prevented or treated by:-
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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

 Proper land management in the catchment area

 De-silting
1.9.2 Proper land management in the catchment area
This is the most important activity to prevent siltation of a dam. Before the dam is constructed
conservation measured should be introduced in the catchment area to minimize erosion. Proper
management of a catchments area may include area closure, terracing, tree and grass planting,
gully and waterway stabilization. In the Ethiopia situation complete closure of the area to people
and animals, and introducing cut and carry system for livestock feeding, is the most effective
way of protecting a catchment area. Once the land management in the catchment is good, a dam
can be constructed.
De-silting
A dam with a small reservoir size can be de-silted on a regular basis to prolong its useful
lifespan. The silt can be transported to the individual farmer’s field and distributed there. This
improves the fertility of the field significantly, thus the farmers can be encouraged to more of it.
Large dams are very difficult and costly to de-silt. Preferably, de-silting should be done every 4 -
5 years.

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2 NIGHT STORAGE
Definition:
As the name directly tells that Night Storage Reservoir is a structure that store water during night
hour and on closure days as the irrigation is done mostly during day time. This structure can be
designed when there is a limited source of water in the diversion scheme and there is a suitable
site condition in the irrigation scheme.
In general the night storage pond is mainly used to balance the fluctuating demand from the
distribution system. And it is also applicable when the irrigable lands are remote or inaccessible
for women and elders at night time.

Selection Criteria
 Initial capital cost should be minimum.
 Reasonable size, shape and dimension of reservoir.
 Availability of construction materials & labor
 Acceptance by the beneficiary.
 The purpose for which the stored water will be used.
Other points to be considered during site selection:
 Locate the reservoir where the largest amount of water can be stored with the least
amount of digging or earth fill.
 Avoid sites near unstable ground, such as gullies or landslides, or near deep-rooted trees.
Do not plant trees with deep roots near the tank.
 Avoid the possibility of sudden collapsing of the reservoir, and put a solid foundation
under it.
 The reservoir site should be put in an appropriate head from the command area.

Categories of Storage reservoir

 Surface or above ground reservoir
 Subsurface or underground reservoir
Deciding the capacity of the reservoir

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The amount of water from the water bodies should be desirable in order to design the capacity of
the NSR. Therefore, using the following computation it is possible to determine the reservoir
capacity.
Hence,
Let q=the Lean flow of the river or spring
Hr= storing hour during night time
Therefore, storage capacity of the reservoir (Q) will be computed as follows;
Q=q*Hr*3600
Structural design of NSR
The capacity of the night storage pond may depend on the irrigation hours taken at the day time
and discharge of a water body. For instance if the beneficiaries agreed to irrigate 14 hours in the
day time the night storage pond will have a storage capacity of 10 hours flow.
Therefore the capacity of night storage pond should be determined as follows.
 Wall height

 Cross-sectional area
The cross-sectional area (A) of NSR can be computed from the reservoir capacity and wall
height
 Rectangular
A=Q/h where,
 Circular

A=Q/h where,

 Wall Cross-section
The cross-section of wing wall depends on the material of construction (self weight of the wall)
as well as water pressure exerted on wall.
The top width of the wall may be 0.5-0.6m.

Finally check the stability by considering the following forces:

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

 Weight of the wall

 Water pressure
Accessories of NSR:
Inlet- for entry of water.
Outlet- for exit of water.
Outflow-for the exit of water above full supply level.
Regulating structures of NSR:
Night storage reservoir consists with two main regulating structure fixed at the entry and exit
ends of the NSR. This structure serves as balancing of pond to meet the crop needs during
emergency.
1. Inlet structure
The intake structure consists with two types of gates. One of the gates located on the upstream of
this gate can be a sluice gate which is similar to the other gates found in another structure. The
function of this gate is for allowing water to inter into the reservoir whenever there is a need. The
other gate is a floppy type of gate, which can be opened and closed.
When the water level in the reservoir is below the design level, water from the primary canal
inter into the reservoir via floppy gate. The floppy gate only opens in one direction but when the
water level in the reservoir is above the designed level, the floppy gate will be closed. This
mechanism is essential for the safety of the NSR.
For detail information refers drawing.
2. Outlet structure
The outlet structure consists with the gate that permits the weir when there is a need to irrigate.
The measurement of the discharge in the outlet needs to be fairly accurate; hence the gate can be
constructed with the Romijin weir type. This type of gate has fairly accurate measurement and
has a relatively little head loss.
Design Structures never hold the designed volume due to:
A. Seepage
B. Silt up of Structures

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3 HUND DUG WELLS

3.1 Introduction

The hydrological cycle is constantly occurring process whereby, in simplified terms, water falls
to the ground as rain, or other precipitation, runs along the ground under the force of gravity or
percolates down to an impermeable layer of soil or rock, appears again at the surface, eventually
reaches the sea or lake and evaporates to form clouds which produce rain again. The process is
presented in Figure 1.

The part of the water that infiltrates the soil deep enough is called ground water. The water
percolates nearly vertically until it reaches the depth at which the ground water is continuous.
The level at which the ground water becomes continuous is called ground water table/GWT/ and
is represented by the water surface elevation in a well or in other excavations. The level of the
water table fluctuates up and down according to the seasons as the inflows and outflows vary
with the seasons of the year and the utilization by humans.

Ground water enters and travels through the earth’s crust through pores in permeable materials
and /or fissures in impermeable materials. The term “permeable’ simply means that water may
pass through it. Sand and gravel are highly permeable materials, while clay and hard rock are
usually impermeable. Soft rocks, such as sandstone may or may not be permeable, depending on
specific characteristics.

3.2 Hand Dug Well Site Selection

This guideline is prepared on the basis of scientific and community participation approach,
which brings the two approaches as one by compromising. This means, after exhaustively
collecting every-information, the final conclusion will be made together with community.

Before anybody locate the site, it is necessary to know the location and size of land to be
irrigated that is the main decisive factor to determine scale & type of a project.
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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

The Next step is to carry out field investigations. These investigations are categorized and
analyzed with the following parameters.
1. Data collection (Inventory).
2. Topography
3. Geology
4. Land use
5. Rain fall distribution
6. Vegetation pattern & Climate
7. Distance of the water source from the land to be irrigated
8. Capacity of a source/total land to be irrigated by the water source/
Data Collection (Inventory).
This part of the guideline provides the basic data for the expert in determining the actual well
site. In this inventory work the data of the previous and existing water points will be registered or
identified. During data collection, the following points should be recorded.

Previous works (Non- functional water points). –

These works include those water schemes that were constructed before but destroyed or are not
functional for different reasons and those water schemes, which are abandoned because of
rockiness or caving problem. Reasons for those not functional might be , displacement of people,
bad smell of water, etc. Therefore this part of study can be categorized in to three parts.

(1) Non- functional community hand dug wells.

These are the wells, which were constructed to serve a community for water supply or irrigation
purpose. Concerning this community hand dug wells; the following data should be collected.

Type of hand dug wells/ Cultural or modern/

Depth of each hand dug well – this helps to estimate the depth & static water level of
ground water of the new water point in the near by area.
Nature of rock Conditions – This is also very important to give information about the
underground rock nature of the new sites. This facilitates the guess whether the

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

expected work is easy or not. Accordingly the necessary precautions to avoid future
construction problems can be avoided.
- For example, previous caving problems indicate that there is a need to use large
diameter cylinder and carry out digging by using the sinking method.
- Previous hard rock problem helps to make reservations for chiseling work or
look for another site.
Empty the well and measure the water column rise in meters within 12 hours- from
this data underground water recharge can be evaluated for other hand dug wells
Water shortage time- this is useful for comparison with the present condition.

(2) Abandoned Hand Dug wells

These hand-dug wells were dug but not finalized to serve for domestic water supply or irrigation
purpose. Therefore, the real cause for abandoning of each water point should be known.

Possible causes can be

Hardness of rock - if this is the case do not locate the site near the abandoned
hand dug well
Caving problem - do not start digging unless you prepare protecting
mechanism
Absence of water- if there is not enough water within reasonable depth, don’t
locate the new site in the near by area.
Bad smells of water - don’t select the new one near the abandoned one unless
you have concrete evidence for water supply but may not be a problem for
irrigation purpose.
Construction Problem- this reason for abandoning can be corrected while
constructing the new one.

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

(3) Non- functional household (private) hand dug wells.

Check the existing water supply (household) or irrigation wells, which were abandoned and
reasons for abandoning. This increases your knowledge of possible expected problem, check also
if there are any abandoned or failed boreholes in near by. The records from the drilling are
available at Water resources development bureau and may provide important information on the
rock formation and ground water availability and quality.

Existing water points or sources & possible on-going construction

Check all available functional water sources and their present condition. There are springs,
HDW, deep wells, house–hold wells, rivers, small pits and ponds etc. The following data needs
to be recorded.
o Depth and their location.
o Static water level
o Rock nature.
o Water level rise in meters /12hours of the HDW.
o Yields of the springs etc.
Topography
Topography is one of the most important parameter, which should be considered during site
selection of hand dug wells and boreholes. Groundwater flows according to the topography of
the area unless the aquifer is confined (Fig 3). That is, ground water flows from high topography
to low topography. Naturally any surface and subsurface water follows this regulation. Therefore
the higher topography is the recharge area to the lowland area. This is the reason why all water
points are recommended at the lower area in order to get a recharge from the elevated land (Fig
6).

Besides to topography, catchments size is another criterion, which should supply enough amount
of water to the area of well site (Fig. 7).

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 Design of diversion weir, canal and small dams

In the consideration of topography the structural geology is very important. This means that if
the geology of the elevated area is layered rock formation and is bedded away from the well,
water percolation is away from the well instead towards the well. But if the layered beds are
tilted towards the well, ground water flow is directly to the low land area. See in Figures 11a &
11b.

There is also a case in which topography is neglected. This is, happened when the area is flat and
had wide area coverage. In this case, the area is saturated and has sedimentary or alluvial
formation. E.g. Fogera plain (alluvial soils). Therefore, in such case site selection can be
everywhere without any doubt if the area is homogeneous with good water bearing rock. Any
how one thing should be considered when flat plateau area is recommended for wells. If there is
escarpment having fractured and jointed rock around the plateau, the top area is not
recommended for hand dug wells or bore holes since water is drained out from the top area
through joints and fractures (Fig 9).
Geology of the area
Under this topic as the name implies the science of earth will be applied for the investigation of
surface and sub surface rock nature of the area. The following points that are very important
parameters for locating hand dug wells or bore holes, should be clearly justified and recorded.

Surface investigation: -
During this investigation what is observed on the surface from geological point of view will be
described. The most common important points are.

 Type of rock - this is very indicative of the work condition & ground water
expectation.
Massive rock formation is bad for water accumulation and infiltration. An area
covered by such type of rock is not suitable for rainwater to percolate or infiltrate
but rather the water passes in the form of runoff. E.g. massive basalt, rhyolite,
non-carasted limestone, non-fissured marble, etc. On the other hand, fragmented
rocks, big boulders, jointed and fractured basalts are good aquifers..

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 Degree of weathering - due to coldness & hotness of the weather rocks will be
broken down
- Highly broken one is good for water bearing formation.

 Rock distribution - Coverage of one type of rock in the vicinity area is

also determinant factor for ground water.
E.g. Perched aquifer is not recommended (See Figure 2).

 Permeability of rock - this also relates with type of rock and degree
of weathering
- Weathered rocks are more permeable than fresh rocks.
 Soil type - since soil is the end product of weathering it gives hint about
ground water.
E.g. - Black cotton soil is impermeable which is not good for efficient production
- Alluvial silts, sands or gravels are the best water sources.

Grain size distribution and permeability of common soil/rock type are shown in page

Subsurface investigation –
Beneath the surface, geology of the area might be different from what we observed on the
surface. Therefore, before determining the specific site, subsurface geology and hydrogeology
should be clearly interpreted from the existing and previous data (see data collection). .

From these data it is possible to know.

- Depth of alternated rock variations vertically and horizontally which help to know the
continuity of hard rock and soft rock (Fig 10).
- Subsurface geology can also be known by close observation of the area along:
- Gullies - these could be done by streams, rivers, seasonal floods, etc
- Rivers - are also other indicatives along their embankments.
Rivers can also show nearby area condition by observing the flow of water towards the river or
away from the river. Certain rivers recharge from the nearby area through embankments. This
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indicates the local area is rich in ground water. Other rivers discharge to the surrounding area
through their embankment. This shows the local area is dry and had no water. Hence observing
the water flow condition of the rivers is good evidence about the surrounding area near the river (
Figure 12a & 12b).

- Cliffs - along the cliff sequence of rocks and polio soils (contact soil) are
clearly observable.
In areas, which have no previous data of existing water points, information from the above
sources is good evidence for locating hand-dug wells. According to their permeability sub
surface formations can be classified as Aquifers, Aquicludes and Aquifuges. An area covered by
Aquifuges is totally hopeless for infiltration. Out of the three formations Aquifer is the best
source of ground water.

Rock formations that serve as good aquifers in their decreasing order are:
- Gravel, sand, and sand stone, alluvium
- Lime stone with cavities formed by the action of acid water
- Marble with fissures and joints, cracks
- Granite rock with fissures and joints
- Weathered genesis and schist
- Vascular basalt
- Fractured ingenious rocks.
Vegetation Pattern & Climate

Different vegetations are growing in different areas depending on climate, rainfall and soil
distribution. Vegetations vary in: -
- Height
- Leaf width & thickness
- Cell wall thickness in different areas.

In areas having hot climate with deep ground water table, vegetation types are short and narrow
leaf size or very thick flesh leaves with thick cell wall.

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E.g. Dedeho, kulkual (Beles) etc.

In areas having wet climate with shallow ground water table, vegetation types are long and broad
leaves with bushy growth. Therefore, vegetation types are good indicative for hand dug well
sitting.

Another importance of vegetation is their growing pattern. Mostly if there is a weak lineament or
fractured area with certain orientation, vegetation will grow along the weak zone (straight-line
vegetation pattern) (Fig 5). This indicates that there will be a good aquifer along the fractured
zone, which leads to the conclusion that hand dug wells along the weak zone, is promising.

The most useful indicators of ground water are the perennial plants (which are present year
round). Annual plants, such as, grasses, are not good indicators since they come and go
depending on rains and seasons of the year.Generally survey of vegetation to help find shallow
groundwater is most effective if carried out in the dry seasons.

Rainfall Distribution
In Dega area, the rainfall distribution is very high and the rock or soil is always wet or humid.
Degree of weathering in such area is also very high which disintegrate the rock in to smaller size
particles. These conditions mark the area fortune to get ground water at shallow depth and
available surface water. Hence, hand dug well locating in Dega area is easy everywhere, except
rare cases. In Dega, infiltration is very high, which favors the presence of many springs.

In Kola areas, rainfall distribution is lower with deep ground water table. Therefore, detail study
of the area is required. Spring development is more recommended type of water scheme or
irrigation than hand dug well since aquifers are not at shallow depth.

Based on altitude and temperature there are 5(five) traditional temperate or climatic zones as
differentiated below.

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1. Kur/Alpine/ - Altitude 3300m and above, Mean annual temperature less than or
equal to 100C.
2. Dega/Temperate/ - Altitudes 2300m to 3300m, Mean annual temperature 10oC to
15oC.
3. Weina Dega/Sub tropical/ - Altitude 1500m to 2300m, Mean annual temperature
15oC to 20oC.
4. Kola/Tropical/ - Altitude 500m to 1500m, Mean annual temperature 20oC to 30oC.
5. Bereha/Desert/ - Altitude less than 500m, Mean annual temperature 30oC to 40oC.

Distances to Improved Water Source.

a) The distance to an improved water supply has been proven to be one of the key factor in
improving conditions for irrigation. The constraints of supplying water close to irrigated land
are:.
- Availability of a suitable source that can be technically developed (technical feasibility).
- The cost of delivering water from a distant source and/or of distributing the supply to the
land to be irrigated (financial feasibility).
- Practical and economical considerations due to the density of land distribution
(economical feasibility).

b) The source of water for irrigation supply will vary dependent on the hydrogeological
conditions of the area. Generally, where a plentiful supply of shallow ground water is
available, wells or boreholes can be economically provided such a way that the maximum
distance from the land to be irrigated to the point source is governed by the means of
transporting the water.

c) It should always be noted however that the distance criteria will be influenced by
availability of source, size of land to be irrigated and cost criteria.

Therefore this recommendation should be taken as the desirable criteria with each actual
situation being judged on its merits taking full account of other factors.

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Capacity of a Source (size of land to be irrigated by the Source).

When locating water sources for irrigation, the size of land the source can serve needs to be
known.
Environmental consideration
Although the effect of the construction of hand dug wells and spring developments on the
environment is very minimal, some aspects should be considered during sitting. Before a site is
recommended for the construction, the following should be taken in to account:
 As much as possible avoid cutting trees to clear the site for construction.

Community Participation
Community participation in the choice of technology and site selection is required in
order to retrieve, as much local knowledge as possible and to secure the community
acceptance of the selected water source as it is a key factor for sustainability.

Locating Potential Sites

After Considering from different corners (collected data topography, geology, vegetation,
Climate, Rainfall distribution, , adequacy of the source, distance of improved source from the
beneficiaries and community participation) hand dug well sites will be located on one of the
following: -
1. Alluvial areas
2. Highly weathered and permeable rock with enough recharges area.
3. Up stream of the spring eye -Fig 4
4. At the foot of the mountain - Fig 6
5. River bank - Fig 8

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Figures and Other Important Attachments

Classification of sedimentary materials based on their grain size

Grain Size (mm) Name

Greater than 200 Boulders
200-60 Cobbles
60-2 Gravel
2-0.06 Sand
0.06– 0.002 Silt
Less than 0.002 Clay
Common Aquifers and Aquicludes with their permeability
Material Permeability (m/s)
Clay < 10-8
Silt 10-8 – 10-6
Sand 10-6 – 10-2
Gravel 10-2 – 1
Fracture 10-3 - 1
Karast 1

Geological Formations in Amhara Region

- Recent Volcanic Rocks, are dominant

- Tracyite - Volcanic ash
- Rhyolite - Tuff
- Basalt

Rare sedimentary and Metamorphic Rocks

- Sand stone - Sedimentary
- Marble and slate are Metamorphic

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Dominant Aquifers

- Volcanic ash, tuff

- Weathered and fractured basalt
- Alluvial soils
- Weathered tracyite

* The smaller particles of ash and dust may be blown by wind and spread over large areas in
layers; they become hardened in to rocks called tuff.
* Unconsolidated small fragments and dust particles ejected during an eruption (volcanism) is
called volcanic ash.

3.3 Hand Dug Well Construction

Introduction
Irrigation wells can be broadly classified into open (hand dug wells) and tube wells. But we deal
in only open wells for this training. It is dug into the ground to tap water only from the top
pervious stratum (aquifer). The depth of an open well is usually limited to 30m.It may be lined or
unlined.

Classification open wells based on depth

Open wells can be classified in to shallow open wells and deep open wells. Shallow open wells
penetrate the first pervious stratum only and draw water from it. The bottom of the shallow well
doesn’t rest on the impervious layer. Deep open wells rests on an impervious layer. The
impervious layer consists of beds of clay, cemented sand other hard materials below water tables.
A deep well resting on an impervious layer draws its supply from the aquifer below it through
the hole bored in it. The impervious layer acts as a beam and provides support to the well resting
on its top.

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Classification open wells based on lining

On the basis of lining (or staining), the open wells can be classified as :
1. Unlined wells
2. Well with pervious lining
3. Well with impervious lining

1. Unlined wells have no lining. The well sides are unprotected. These wells are temporary
nature. Unlined well is of limited depth. It caters to only small, local demands. This type of well
is sometimes constructed where the water table is at a shallow depth, below the ground surface,
and where the subsoil formation relatively hard and compact so that it can stand vertically at the
sides of the well
2 well with pervious lining: In this type of well, the sides are lined with dry bricks or stone
masonry (with out mortar) so that the lining is pervious. To give structural stability, a portion of
the lining above the water table is constructed in cement mortar. Generaly, a band of lining in
cement mortar, about 0.3m deep, is also provided at 1.25m vertical interval below the water
table. The water enters the well from the sides only, and therefore the flow is radial.
This type of well is suitable for construction in the formations consisting of gravel or coarse sand
deposits. For sand formations, brick ballast (gravel) up to 20mm size is packed behind the lining
to form a sort of filter which prevents the fine sand from coming in to the well with flowing
water. This type of well is quite suitable and economical for the limited rate water withdrawal.
3. Well with impervious lining: This is the most common type of well and suitable for all types
of formations. This is a permanent type of well commonly constructed for well irrigation of
small farms. It provides a dependable source of supply so long as the ground water conditions
are favorable. In sandy soils, the impervious lining is also essential from structural stability
consideration. These wells are fairly deep, but the depth is usually limited to 30m from the
consideration of an efficient and economical lifting of water.
The lining of such wells is in brick or stone masonry in cement (or lime) mortar or concrete. The
thickness of lining generally varies from 30cm to 70cm, depending on the depth of the well for
stone or brick lining. Bottom of the well is not plugged so that the water can enter the well from
its bottom. In this type of well the flow is not radial.

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Determination of Well Yield

A) Procedure to be used in discharge measurement.

Dewater all the water in the well using bucket or dewatering pump.
Measure the water column of the well after a certain time interval.
Calculate the volume of water stored in the well as follows:

Volume = 3.14/4 x d2 x h
Volume = 3.14/4 x d2 x
Where, d = diameter of the wel Where, d= diameter of the well,
h = water column height in the well after a certain time interval.

Calculate the yield of the well in l/s = Volume of water in litters/ Time taken to produce the
water volume in seconds
5. Determination distance between wells

When two wells are located close to each other, then their draw down curve will intersect and the
discharge of one well will interfere with the discharge of the other. This is known as wells
interference. Due to interference, the discharge of each well will be decreased. For this reason,
wells should be located at a distance as much as possible away from each other depending on the
ground water condition of the area. The number of wells recommend for a given catchments can
be determined by different reasons. Among them, the main ones are the following:
 The reserve of ground water with in the catchment
 Pumping rate
 Level of ground water table
 Type of Aquifer
On the other hand when the discharge of groundwater exceeds the recharge of the system,
several adverse effects can occur. Most common is lowering of the water table, resulting in
increasing the depth of drilling.
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Well spacing rules are designed to reduce the interference between wells when pumped. Table
14 shows possible limits of radius of influence in unconfined aquifer. Radius of Influence is the
radial distance from the center of a wellbore to the point where there is no lowering of the water
table or potentiometric surface (the edge of the cone of depression) (Fig. 58).

Figure 10 Radius of influence

From Table below, one can understand that the spacing between wells in coarse sand and gravel
soil formation free from silt and clay should be even over 600 meter apart while in fines and
layers with silt and clay texture, the spacing between wells could be as low as 100 meter

Table: Possible radius of influence in different unconsolidated deposit

No. Soil formation and texture Radius of
influence (meters)
1 Fine sand layers with some silt and clay 30-90
2 Fine to medium sand layers, fairly clean and free from silt and 90-180
clay
3 Coarse sand and fine gravel layers free from silt and clay 180-300
4 Coarse sand and gravel without silt and clay 300-600

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Water cycle

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Types of Aquifer

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Glossary

ABANDOND WELL -The well, which could not give water for different reasons.
ALLUVIAL FORMATION - The formation made by rivers, streams and flood accumulated on
the flood plain (Lowland)
AQUICLUD - A geologic formation, which can only store water but cannot transmit
Significant amount of water. E.g. Clay, shale.
AQUIFERS - Rocks and soils that transmit water easily through their pores and structures or
water bearing Geologic formations or strata, which yield significant quantity of
water for economic extraction from wells.
AQUIFUG - A geologic formation with no interconnected pores and hence neither
transmits nor absorbs water.

CATCHMENT AREA - An area, up stream of the well, which can furnish an adequate
supply of water or an area from which rainwater flows to rivers.
CAVING - Collapsing of earth materials to the well (soft or loosen materials have this
Problem).
CLIFF - Highly steeped or sloppy made by rivers, streams or by other geological_
processes.
COMPROMISING - Making an agreement between two things which have certain
differences by dropping certain ideas from one and accepting
ideas from another.
CONFIND AQUIFE - An aquifer with saturated water and lying between two
Impervious strata.
- Water table is above the top of the aquifer.

EMBANKMENT - Left and right side of the rivers and streams.

ESCARPMENT - Surface feature resulted from the combined lateral and down ward
erosion being specially favored on one side, which is steep slope at
edge of the plateau.

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FRACTURE - Cracking of rocks due to compression or tensional forces.

GROUND WATER FLOW - Movement of water in the zone of saturated ground

towards rivers, lakes, and the seas.

HOMOGENEOUS - Similar or uniform.

HYDROGEOLOGY - The study of ground water.
HYDROLOGY - The science, which deals with the occurrence, distribution and movement of
water on ground and underground, evaporation from the land and water
surface and transpiration from the vegetation.
HYDROLOGICALCYCLE - Circulation of water from precipitation on land to
Infiltration - percolation-ground water flow-evaporation
and then precipitation.

IMPERMEABLE - A soil or a rock which does not allow passage of water through it.
INFILTRATION - The entrance of rain water in to the ground.

JOINTS -Fractures along which practically no displacement of the rocks has occurred.

LINEAMENT - Line or vegetation growing, rivers courses bending and small cone like
mountains arrangement, which follow certain direction.

PALIOSOIL - Contact soil between two clearly bedded or formed geological formation
PERCHED AQUIFER - An aquifer occurs where a ground water body is separated
the main ground water by a shallow small impervious
strata above the main ground water.
PERCOLATION - Down ward movement of water to the saturated zone at depth.
PERMEABILITY - The property of a soil or a rock to transmit water through it.
PERNIAL FLOW - Continuous flow with out interruption through out the year.
PEIZOMETRIC PRESSURE LINE – A line which water level rises in a well of
artisan/confined/ aquifer

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PRDUCTIVE WELL - The well, which can give water for the anticipated purpose.

RECHARGE AREA - An area on which rainwater falls and percolates through it

To wards the well.

SATURATED AQUIFER - An aquifer which has no empty void space rather filled by
water.

TOPOGRAPHY - Surface feature of earth expressed by change of slope and elevation.

UNCONFINED AQUIFER - It is known as water table aquifer. Water table serves as the upper
surface of the zone of saturation.

WATER BEARING FORMATION - An aquifer holding water.

WATER STRIKE - The depth at which water starts to be obtained.

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