Embedded Systems

Control Systems for Embedded Applications

Content Outline
Definition of control systems
Introduction Role of control systems in embedded applications
Importance of numerical methods in control system design

Feedback control systems

Block diagrams
Control System Fundamentals Transfer functions
Stability analysis
Bode plots

Microcontrollers and microprocessors

Embedded Systems Real-time operating control (MPC)
Hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) simulation

Root locus analysis

Bode plots
Frequency response analysis
Numerical Methods for Control
State-space representation
System Design Pole placement
Optimal control
Model predictive control (MPC)

Control algorithm implementation on microcontrollers

Control System Implementation Digital signal processing (DSP) techniques
Code optimization for real-time performance

Case studies of control systems in embedded applications (e.g.,, motor control, temperature
Case Studies autonomous vehicles)
Discussion of challenges and solutions in embedded control
INTRODUCTION
Embedded systems
Introduction
What is a control system?
A control system is a set of mechanical or
electronic devices that regulates other devices or
systems by way of control loops. Typically, control
systems are computerized.

Control systems are a central part of production

and distribution in many industries. Automation
technology plays a big role in these systems. The
types of control loops that regulate these
processes include industrial control systems, such
as supervisory control and data acquisition,
systems and distributed control systems.
Role of control systems in
embedded applications
Control systems are integral to the functionality and efficiency of embedded systems,
playing a crucial role in various applications. They enable precise monitoring,
regulation, and automation of processes, enhancing the overall performance and
reliability of these systems.
Importance of
Numerical Methods in
control system design

Numerical methods play a pivotal role in control system design, enabling engineers to analyze,
simulate, and optimize complex systems. These methods provide practical tools to tackle problems
that might be analytically intractable or computationally expensive.

Numerical methods are indispensable tools in control system design. They allow engineers to
model, simulate, and analyze complex systems that may not have analytical solutions. By
discretizing continuous-time systems, simplifying models, and employing various numerical
techniques, engineers can design, analyze, and implement robust control systems. These methods
are crucial for tasks like root locus analysis, Bode plot analysis, and optimal control. Additionally,
they enable the implementation of digital controllers and real-time control systems, ensuring precise
and efficient operation.
CONTROL
SYSTEM
FUNDAMENTALS
Feedback Control System
A feedback control system is a system that uses feedback to control its output. It
consists of a process (plant), a sensor, a controller, and an actuator. The sensor
measures the output of the process and sends the measurement to the
controller. The controller compares the measured output to the desired output
(setpoint) and generates a control signal. The control signal is sent to the
actuator, which adjusts the input to the process to bring the output closer to the
setpoint.
 Benefits of Feedback Control:

Improved Accuracy

Increased Stability

Reduced Sensitivity to Disturbances

Improved Performance
Common Control
Strategies
Proportional (P) Control

Integral (I) Control

Derivative (D) Control

Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) Control

Practical
Considerations for
Embedded
Systems
Sampling and Quantization
Real-Time Constraints
Noise and Disturbances
Limited Computational Resources
Control Systems
Block Diagrams

The block diagram is a visual representation of the system's equations. Each

block signifies a mathematical operation, interconnected to fulfill the system's
governing equations. It offers a procedural chart for combining simultaneous
equations, providing valuable information without the need for a complete
analytical solution.

Block Diagram Representation is used to build a mathematical model of a control

system which can be emulated on a computer. It is also used to calculate the
overall transfer function of the system.
ELEMENTS
OF A BLOCK
DIAGRAM
The signal into the block represents
the input.
The signal out of the block represents
the output.
The block itself represents the
Transfer Function of the system
R(s) – reference variable (input signal)

C(s) – output signal (controlled variable)

B(s) – feedback signal = H(s)C(s)

The above figure shows a basic building

block of a complex block diagram. The
arrows on the diagram imply the block has a
unilateral property i.e. a signal can only pass
in the direction of the arrows.

A box is the symbol for multiplication; the

input quantity is multiplied by the function in
the box to obtain the output.
 The transfer function can be Procedure in
TRANSFER
obtained through the determining transfer
FUNCTIONS
following steps: function

A transfer function is a Determine the governing We form the equations for the
mathematical formula that equation for the device system.
relates the output of a device to expressed in terms of the output
its input. and input variables. Now we take Laplace transform
of the system equations,
In linear devices, the transfer Determine the Laplace assuming initial conditions as
function is determined by the transforming the governing zero.
device's parameters and any equation, assuming all the initial
time-related operations it may conditions to be zero. Specify system output and input.
have, such as differentiation and
integration. Rearrange the equation to yield Lastly we take the ratio of the
the ratio of the output to input Laplace transform of the output
variable. and the Laplace transform of the
input which is the required
transfer function.
Concept of
Transfer
Function
The transfer function is generally expressed in
Laplace Transform and it is nothing but the relation
between input and output of a system. Let us
consider a system consists of a series connected
resistance (R) and inductance (L) across a voltage
source (V).
Additional Tips for Embedded Applications:

01 02 03 04
Sensor and Noise and
Discrete-Time Real-Time
Actuator Disturbances
Systems Considerations
Dynamics
STABILITY ANALYSIS

Stability analysis is essential in control system design to ensure system stability and
predictability under different conditions, especially for embedded systems with real-
time constraints and interactions with physical processes.
We can classify the systems based on stability as
follows:

Absolutely stable Conditionally Marginally stable

system stable system system
The Routh–Hurwitz stability criterion is a
mathematical test used in control system theory
to determine the stability of a linear time-
invariant (LTI) dynamical system. A stable
system is one where the output signal remains
bounded over time. The Routh test, proposed by
mathematician Edward John Routh in 1876, is
an efficient algorithm that checks if all the roots
of the characteristic polynomial of a linear
system have negative real parts, indicating
stability.
BODE PLOTS

Bode plots are a valuable tool in control systems engineering, offering a graphical
representation of a system's frequency response. They are essential for analyzing stability,
gain margin, and phase margin. Introduced by Hendrik Wade Bode in the 1930s at Bell
Laboratories, Bode plots can handle transfer functions with right half-plane singularities,
making them a straightforward method for determining system stability.
Advantages of Bode
Plots in Control System
It helps identify system stability,
phases, and margins with minimal calculation.
It calculates the system's transfer function.
It displays amplification and attenuation in the gain plot, aiding in filter
design.
 Disadvantages of Bode Plots in Control
System

This method is only May not be appropriate for It primarily examines the
suitable for linear time- systems with very high or frequency response and
invariant (LTI) systems. low frequencies. does not account for
transient time effects.
FOR YOUR
INFORMATION

01 What is the Bode plot’s stability?

03 What is the unit of Bode Plot?
Semi-Logarithmic graph paper. According to the bode plot, system is said to be
stable when gain margin is positive and the
phase margin should be greater than the gain
margin.

02 Which graph paper is used for Bode

plots?
04 What are decibels (dB)?
It is a unit of measurement which is used to
The bode magnitude plot measures the system calculate the logarithmic ratio of one value of a
Input/Output ratio in special units called power or field quantity to another. The
decibels. The Bode phase plot measures the logarithmic quantity is known as the power level
phase shift in degrees (typically, but radians are or field level, respectively.
also used).
Embedded
Systems
 Embedded
Systems:
An embedded system is a specialized computing system
that performs dedicated functions within a larger system,
often with real-time constraints. Unlike general-purpose
computers, embedded systems are designed to serve
specific tasks and are optimized for performance,
reliability, and efficiency in executing those tasks.
1. Definition and Real-Time Operation

Characteristics
Embedded systems integrate both hardware and Resource Constraints
software to perform designated functions. They are
found in various devices, ranging from consumer
electronics to industrial machines. Key characteristics of
embedded systems include:
Reliability and Stability

Application-Specific Design
2. Types of Embedded Systems

Embedded systems are

classified into various
categories based on
performance and complexity:
Small-Scale Embedded Systems: Use
a single microcontroller or
microprocessor, minimal hardware, and
are often programmed in assembly or C.
Medium-Scale Embedded
Systems:

Typically involve a combination of

microcontrollers and more complex
processors, allowing more flexibility and
control.
Sophisticated Embedded
Systems:

These systems use powerful processors,

operating systems, and may involve multiple
processors or distributed control.
3. Components
of Embedded Hardware

Systems
Software

Embedded systems are composed of

both hardware and software elements,
working in tandem:
4. Applications of Consumer Electronics

Embedded
Automotive Industry
Systems
Industrial Machines

Embedded systems are ubiquitous in modern

technology, used in a wide range of applications: Medical Devices

Telecommunications
5. Future of
Embedded Types of Microprocessors
in Embedded Systems
Systems Microprocessors are the central components that drive
the functionality of embedded systems. They process
information, control devices, and manage operations
Embedded systems continue to evolve, integrating
based on programmed instructions. Microprocessors
with technologies like the Internet of Things (IoT)
and artificial intelligence (AI). Advances in are classified into several types based on architecture,
microelectronics, wireless communication, and processing capabilities, and specific applications.
sensor technology are expanding their applications
in smart devices, connected vehicles, and more.
As these systems become more interconnected
and complex, there is a growing emphasis on
cybersecurity and energy efficiency.
1. Classification of Microprocessors

Complex Instruction Set

Computing (CISC):

Known for a large set of instructions that can

execute complex commands in a single
instruction cycle. CISC processors are used
in applications that require intensive
computations, like consumer electronics and
personal computers.
Reduced Instruction Set
Computing (RISC):

Uses a smaller, highly optimized set of

instructions. RISC processors are efficient,
consume less power, and are often used in
mobile devices and real-time systems.
Digital Signal Processors
(DSPs):

Specialized for high-speed numerical

processing, especially useful in audio, video,
and telecommunications applications.
Application-Specific
Integrated Circuits (ASICs):

Custom-designed for specific applications,

offering high performance and efficiency but
limited flexibility.
Field Programmable Gate
Arrays (FPGAs):

Can be reprogrammed for different

applications, providing flexibility for rapid
prototyping and custom embedded solutions.
2. Types of Microprocessors Based
on Applications in Embedded
Systems

Different microprocessors are chosen based on the requirements of the embedded systems they are designed
to support:

· General-Purpose Microprocessors (GPMs): These include standard processors, such as Intel and AMD processors,
typically used in PCs. While they aren't designed specifically for embedded systems, they are sometimes used in larger,
complex systems.

· Microcontrollers (MCUs): Combines a processor core, memory, and peripherals into one chip, making it ideal for simple
and cost-effective embedded solutions like home appliances, automotive control systems, and wearable devices.

· Embedded Microprocessors: Includes processors like ARM Cortex-M and Intel Atom, optimized for low power
consumption and efficiency. They are common in IoT devices, mobile phones, and similar applications.

· Digital Signal Processors (DSPs): Highly specialized processors for applications requiring real-time processing of audio,
video, and other signals.

· Graphics Processing Units (GPUs): Though typically associated with graphics, some embedded systems use GPUs for
parallel processing tasks, especially where visual data processing is crucial, like in automotive and gaming applications.
3. Applications Automotive

of Different Telecommunications

Microprocessor Consumer Electronics

Types Industrial Automation
 Advantages:

Efficiency
4. Advantages Customization

and Scalability

Limitations:
Limitations Cost
Flexibility
Microcontrollers Characteristics of
(MCUs) Microcontrollers

Integrated Design
Microcontrollers are an essential type of
microprocessor used extensively in embedded
systems. Unlike general-purpose microprocessors, Resource Efficiency
which focus on processing power, microcontrollers
are designed for specific, dedicated tasks, often in
Cost-Effectiveness
a single integrated circuit (IC) that combines
processing power, memory, and input/output (I/O)
peripherals.
 Consumer Electronics

Common
Automotive Systems
Applications of
Microcontrollers Industrial Automation

Microcontrollers are widely used in various

applications that require precise control and Medical Devices
efficient performance:

Internet of Things (IoT)

Popular Microcontroller Families

ARM Cortex-M Series:

Known for low power usage and efficiency,

widely used in IoT, automotive, and wearable
devices.
AVR and PIC
Microcontrollers:

Favored in educational, DIY, and low-cost

consumer applications due to their simplicity
and accessibility.
ESP8266 and ESP32:

Designed for IoT applications with built-in Wi-

Fi and Bluetooth capabilities, commonly used
in smart home and IoT projects.
 A Real-Time Operating System (RTOS) is a specialized

Real-Time operating system designed to handle tasks with a high

degree of predictability and determinism. Unlike general-

Operating purpose operating systems (GPOS) found in phones or

computers, RTOSes are engineered for quick, predictable

Systems (RTOS)
responses within strict timing constraints. They are
essential for applications where timely and precise task
completion is crucial, such as in embedded systems for
robotics, industrial automation, and autonomous vehicles.
 Soft Real-Time Systems: These systems

2. Types of RTOS: operate with some flexibility, allowing a

response within a few hundred

Soft Real-Time vs.

milliseconds, which is suitable for
applications needing human-scale reaction
times.
Hard Real-Time Hard Real-Time Systems: These systems
require stringent response times, often
within tens of milliseconds, and are crucial
RTOSes are classified into two categories: in scenarios where delay or inconsistency
could lead to severe consequences, such
as in medical devices or flight control
systems.
01 02 03
Determinism: RTOSes provide consistent High Performance: Due to optimized task Safety and Security: Used frequently in
output for repeated input, a necessity for execution, RTOSes are capable of handling critical systems, RTOSes require high
applications where precision and reliability tasks much faster than general OSes. standards of safety and security to prevent
are paramount. potentially catastrophic failures.

04 05
Priority-Based Scheduling: RTOSes use Compact Size: RTOSes have a small
priority scheduling, ensuring that high- memory footprint, making them ideal for
priority tasks are completed before lower- embedded systems with limited storage
priority ones, maximizing efficiency and capacity.
reliability.

3. Key Characteristics
of an RTOS
An RTOS has distinct features that make it suited to high-stakes
applications:
4. RTOS in Embedded
Systems
An embedded system is a dedicated computer within a larger machine (e.g., a robotic arm). RTOSes are
often integrated into embedded systems, particularly in applications where performance and timing are
crucial. In contrast to non-critical embedded systems that may run a GPOS like Linux, critical systems
use RTOSes to ensure reliable, fast responses. Examples include:

01 02
Industrial Robots Autonomous Vehicles
5. Advantages of Speed and Responsiveness

Using an RTOS Predictability

Security and Reliability

The unique attributes of an RTOS make it highly
suitable for time-sensitive and mission-critical
applications:
Developer-Friendly
Hardware-in-the-Loop
Simulation (HIL)
Hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) simulation is a technique used
in the development and testing of real-time embedded
systems. It is especially useful in fields where high fidelity
and real-time testing are essential, such as automotive,
aerospace, robotics, and renewable energy industries. HIL
integrates real physical hardware components with virtual
models to simulate complex systems accurately. By
allowing hardware components to interact with virtual
models, HIL enables thorough testing and development
under controlled conditions.
Principles of HIL
In HIL simulation, a real-time simulation model of the
environment and other system components is executed
alongside the hardware being tested. This setup creates a
"closed-loop" system where the hardware, such as an
embedded controller, can respond to simulated inputs and
outputs as though it were part of a complete system. The
essential components of HIL include:

A real-time computer for executing models.

A hardware interface to connect with the device under
test (DUT).
Signal conditioning units to ensure communication
between hardware and simulation.

HIL testing is critical for validating the performance and

robustness of embedded systems without needing the
entire system or exposing the hardware to potential
dangers in real-world environments.
 Benefits of HIL Simulation

Enhanced Testing Edge

Cost Efficiency Time Efficiency
Safety Cases
Application Areas
HIL simulation is widely used across various fields. Some examples include:

01 Automotive 02 Aerospace

03 Renewable Energy 04 Robotics

Challenges and Real-time Requirements

Limitations Complexity in Integration

While HIL offers significant
advantages, there are some
challenges: Potential for Model Fidelity
Issues
Numerical
Methods
for Control
System
Design
 1. Arduino Uno
Key Features:

The Arduino Uno R3 is one of the 4 digital I/O pins (6 with PWM), 6 analog
most popular microcontroller input pins
boards in the Arduino family, USB connection for programming and
widely used for DIY projects, power, with an option for a DC power jack
electronics prototyping, and Arduino uses a simplified C/C++
learning the basics of embedded programming environment.
systems. Best for: Beginners, basic electronics
projects, and general-purpose use.
Use Cases: LED control, basic sensor
Processor: ATmega328P
input/output, and simple robotics.

Home Automation:Control lights, fans, and

other appliances.

Robotics: Servo motors, sensors, and

control systems for robots.

Environmental Monitoring: Temperature,

humidity, light sensors, etc
 2. Arduino The Arduino Nano is a small, compact, and
versatile microcontroller board, ideal for
projects where size constraints are a Processor: ATmega328 or ATmega328P

nano
concern. It has most of the capabilities of the
Arduino Uno but in a smaller, breadboard-
friendly form factor.

Key Features:

Compact, breadboard-friendly, USB mini-B

connector

14 digital I/O pins, 8 analog input pins, 6 PWM pins

USB Type: Uses a mini-USB connection instead of

a full-size USB like the Uno.

Programming Language: Uses Arduino’s simplified

C/C++.

Best for: Projects requiring a small, breadboard-

compatible board.

Use Cases: Portable projects, wearable devices,

compact embedded applications.
3. Arduino
micro
The Arduino Micro is a compact microcontroller
board based on the ATmega32U4 microcontroller.
It is known for its small size, USB capability, and
flexibility in various projects, especially where
space is limited.

Key Features:
Processor: ATmega32U4
Similar to Leonardo but smaller and breadboard-compatible
20 digital I/O pins, 12 analog inputs, 7 PWM pins
Accepts 7-12V from an external power source, used for standalone applications.
Best for: Compact HID projects and embedded USB applications.
Use Cases: Portable USB devices, compact control panels, small robots.
Human Interface Devices (HID): Since it can emulate USB devices, it’s perfect for creating custom
keyboards, mice, or MIDI controllers.
Wearables: Its compact size makes it suitable for wearable tech projects.
Robotics and Automation: It’s popular in small robots and automation systems due to its flexibility
and compact size.
IoT Projects: Can be combined with Bluetooth or WiFi modules to create small IoT devices.
4. Arduino Leonardo
The Arduino Leonardo is a unique microcontroller board
that’s similar to the Arduino Uno but with additional USB
capabilities due to its ATmega32U4 microcontroller. This
board is particularly useful for projects that require USB
functionality, such as emulating a keyboard or mouse.

Processor: ATmega32U4

Key Features:

Built-in USB functionality, allowing it to emulate a keyboard or mouse

USB Cable (Micro-B): Connects to a computer or power source for
programming and powering the board, supplying 5V.

20 digital I/O pins, 12 analog input pins, 7 PWM pins

Best for: HID (Human Interface Device) projects where the board needs to
act as a USB keyboard or mouse.
Use Cases: Custom USB input devices, interactive installations, gaming
controllers.
5. Arduino
Mega
The Arduino Mega is a powerful and versatile
microcontroller board based on the
ATmega2560 chip, popular in both hobbyist
and professional electronics projects due to
its numerous features and greater memory
and processing capacity compared to smaller
Arduino boards.

Arduino Mega 2560

Processor: ATmega2560
5. Arduino
Mega
The Arduino Mega is a solid choice for
projects requiring complex processing and
multiple connections. Its versatility, paired
with the extensive Arduino ecosystem,
makes it a robust option for expanding
creative possibilities in electronics and
embedded systems.
 The Raspberry Pi Pico is a
microcontroller board powered
by the RP2040 chip. Unlike the
standard Raspberry Pi boards (like
the Pi 4 or Pi Zero), which are full-
fledged computers running a
Linux-based operating system, the
Pico is designed to run firmware
directly on the microcontroller,
making it suitable for embedded
systems and real-time
applications.
Power supply: The Pico is typically powered
via a micro-USB connection but can also be
powered through its VBUS pin (via 5V) or
through its VSYS pin (via a voltage between
1.8V and 5.5V).
MicroPython
C/C++: You can also program the Pico in C or C++ using the RP2040 SDK (Software Development Kit).

Application:

· DIY electronics: Building custom gadgets, like weather stations, home automation systems, or control
systems for models and robots.

· Internet of Things (IoT): Connecting sensors and devices to the internet (usually in combination with a
wireless module like the ESP8266 or ESP32).

· Control systems: Creating control systems for motors, robots, and other hardware.

· Data logging: Collecting and storing sensor data (e.g., temperature, humidity, motion) for later analysis.

· Wearables: Building small, wearable devices, particularly those that don't require a lot of processing
power.

· Learning and education: It’s a great platform for learning embedded programming and electronics
because of its low cost and vast community support.
 Arduino
Arduino uno Arduino Nano Arduino Micro Arduino Mega Raspberry Pi Pico (RP2040)
Leonardo

RP2040 (Dual-core ARM Cortex-

Microcontroller ATmega328P ATmega328P ATmega32U4 ATmega32U4 ATmega2560
M0+)

Operating 5V (regulated on
5V regulated 5V regulated 5V (regulated) 5V 3.3V (Logic Level)
voltage board)

7-12 V( via barrel 7-12V(external power via the

Input voltage 7-12V via Vin pin 7-12V via Vin 7-12V via Vin 1.8V to 5.5V (via VSYS pin)
jack or Vin pin) barrel jack or VIN pin

14 ( 6 of which 14 ( 6 of which 20 (7 of which

20 (7 with PWM 54 (of which 15 can provide 26 pins (can be used for GPIO,
Digital l/O Pins provide PWM provide PWM provide PWM
output) PWM output) PWM, I2C, SPI, UART, etc.)
output) output) output)

12 (A0 to A11, 10-

Analog Input 8 ( 2 more than 12 (10-bit 3 (3 ADC channels, 12-bit
6 bit resolution, 16
Pins the uno) resolution, 0-5V) resolution)
0- 5V

32KB (0.5 KB 32KB (0.5 KB 32KB (4 KB used 32KB (4 KB used

2MB (onboard Flash storage for
Flash memory used by the used by the by the by the 256 KB
firmware and user code)
bootloader) bootloader) bootloader) bootloader)

SRAM 2KB 2KB 2.5 KB 2.5 KB 1KB 264 KB

EEPROM 1KB 1KB 1KB 1 KB 4 KB NONE

Clock Speed 16 Mhz 16Mhz 16Mhz 16 Mhz 16 Mhz 133Mhz

Small,
breadboard-
Size 0.7 x 1.7 51mmx21mm
compatible form
factor
 Raspberry Pi Pico
(RP2040)

Advantages:

Very affordable (~$4).

Dual-core ARM Cortex-M0+ processor (133 MHz) for more processing power.

264KB of SRAM, which is much higher than most Arduinos.

2MB flash memory (large for a microcontroller).

Very low power consumption (great for battery-powered projects).

MicroPython support, which is great for beginners.

Flexible GPIOs with various I/O modes, including PWM, SPI, I2C, and ADC.
 Advantages:
Arduino Uno
(ATmega328P) Widely used in education and prototyping.

Great community support and extensive libraries.

14 digital I/O pins, 6 of which support PWM, and 6 analog

inputs.

Simple to use and well-supported with the Arduino IDE.

Popular choice for beginners and entry-level electronics

projects.
Arduino Nano (ATmega328P)
Advantages:

01 Small form factor, ideal for

tight spaces.
02 Lower price compared to the
Uno but offers similar
functionality.

03 Excellent for breadboard-

based projects.
04 Very similar to the Uno in
terms of capabilities but with a
more compact design.
Arduino Micro
(ATmega32U4)
Advantages:

Built-in USB host support (can emulate USB devices like

keyboards and mice).
Smaller form factor than the Uno, better for portable or
wearable projects.
Same features as the Uno but with added USB capabilities.
Great for projects that need USB communication directly on
the board (e.g., HID projects).
 Arduino Mega
(ATmega2560)
Advantages:

Much larger I/O capacity (54 digital I/O pins, 16 analog inputs).

More memory (256KB flash memory, 8KB SRAM), great for larger, more complex projects.

Ideal for robotics, large systems, and applications requiring many sensors or actuators.

Best suited for complex, larger-scale projects like multi-sensor systems or automation.
Arduino Leonardo
(ATmega32U4)

Advantages:

Similar to the Arduino Micro, but with more I/O options.

Built-in USB Host mode for emulating USB devices (keyboard, mouse, etc.).

Good for human interface device (HID) projects like custom keyboards and mice.

Ideal for USB-centric projects where direct interaction with a computer is needed.
Summary:

Raspberry Pi Pico stands out for its dual-core Arduino Micro adds USB host capabilities, making it
processor, low power consumption, and affordable suitable for projects like emulating keyboards or
price. It’s ideal for embedded systems, real-time controlling computers.
applications, and projects requiring high-speed processing
with multiple I/O options.

Arduino Uno is the classic board, offering simplicity and Arduino Mega is a powerhouse for projects with many
a large support ecosystem, great for beginners. I/O needs, such as robotics or automation.

Arduino Nano is a compact alternative to the Uno, ideal Arduino Leonardo also offers USB functionality, but with
for projects where space is limited. more I/O than the Micro.
Control System
Implementation
Part I: Applications of Control Systems

1. Temperature control
Thermostats - Commonly used in HVAC systems, thermostats maintain a room or
appliance temperature by switching heating or cooling devices on and off based on
a setpoint.
Industrial Ovens and
Furnaces - Use more
precise control (often PID)
to ensure a steady
temperature for consistent
results in manufacturing or
chemical processes.
 2. Motor
Speed and
Position
Control
DC/AC Motor Speed Control - Control
systems maintain a motor’s speed by
adjusting the voltage, current, or pulse
width modulation (PWM).
3. Power
Systems and
Grid control
Voltage and Frequency Regulation - Power
grids use control systems to manage voltage
levels and frequency stability, ensuring
consistent power delivery. Automatic voltage
regulators (AVRs) and load frequency control
(LFC) systems respond to load variations.
Renewable Energy Systems - In solar and wind energy, control systems adjust inverters,
pitch angles, and yaw positions to maximize energy capture and maintain grid stability.
4. Healthcare and Medical Devices

Infusion Pumps - Use

precise control to deliver
fluids or medications at
specific rates for patient
care.
Ventilators - Use
control systems to
regulate air
pressure, volume,
and timing, critical
for assisting or
controlling patient
breathing.
 Pacemakers - Maintain heart
rhythm by using closed-loop
control to adjust electrical
stimulation in response to heart
activity.
5. Home
appliances

Washing Machines and

Dishwashers - Use control
systems to manage cycles,
temperatures, and motor speeds,
based on water levels, loads, and
sensors.
 Smart Refrigerators
and Air Conditioners -
Use feedback to
regulate internal
temperature, humidity,
and efficiency based on
the user’s settings and
environmental
conditions.
Part II: Digital
Signal Processing
Techniques (DSP)
1. Fourier Transform Techniques

Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) - Breaks down a

signal into its frequency components, providing insights
into its spectral content. It’s the foundation of most DSP
analysis techniques.
Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) -
An efficient algorithm for
computing the DFT, widely used in
real-time applications like audio
and radar signal processing.
2. Modulation and Demodulation

Amplitude Modulation (AM), Frequency Modulation

(FM), and Phase Modulation (PM) are techniques to
encode information into a carrier signal for
transmission. Digital techniques like Quadrature
Amplitude Modulation (QAM) are used in data
communications.
Demodulation - Recovers the
original signal from the modulated
carrier. Techniques like digital
demodulation (e.g., ASK, FSK, PSK)
are essential in telecommunications
and wireless data transfer.
3. Time-Domain Processing

Convolution and Correlation - Used for detecting

patterns or similarities between signals. Convolution is
fundamental in applying filters to signals, while
correlation is often used in signal matching.
Cross-Correlation and
Autocorrelation - Cross-correlation
measures similarity between two
signals, often used in applications like
echo location. Autocorrelation
measures self-similarity, useful in
identifying repeating patterns or
signal periodicity.
Case
Studies
Designing embedded systems
using patterns: A case study
Michael J. Pont *, Mark P. Banner
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study

Embedded systems are often designed and

implemented as a collection of communicating tasks
(e.g.Nissanke, 1997; Shaw, 2001). Various studies
have demonstrated that, compared to pre-emptive
schedulers, co-operative schedulers have a number of
desirable features, particularly for use in safety-related
systems (Allworth, 1981; Ward, 1991; Nissanke, 1997;
Bate, 2000).
Designing embedded systems
using patterns: A case study
Michael J. Pont *, Mark P. Banner

INTRODUCTION
Objective and Significance of the Study

This case study entitled "Designing embedded systems

using patterns" aims to determine the effectiveness of
TTCS embedded systems compared to those
implemented using alternative architectures.

This case study lies in improving the design and

reliability of embedded systems, particularly for safety-
critical applications.
 METHODS

In order to illustrate how the PTTES patterns like LOOP TIMEOUT may be used to support the development of TTCS embedded systems.
The focus of this study will be on a common white good’ application: a washing machine.
RESULTS AND
DISCUSSION

The study demonstrates that using design patterns simplifies the implementation of the washing
machine control system by providing structured, proven solutions to common challenges in TTCS
systems.
CONCLUSION
In this paper, we have argued that the use of appropriate design patterns’ can greatly
simplify the process of creating TTCS systems, and we have illustrated how such
patterns can be employed in the creation of a non-trivial embedded application.
Activity:
Choose an example of an advanced embedded system, such as one used in
automotive, healthcare, or industrial applications. Provide the following details:

Detailed Description & Image: Real-World Application & Benefits:

Find or create a visual representation of the embedded Describe a real-world scenario where this embedded
system, along with a brief description of what it is and its system would be used. Explain why an embedded system
primary function. is ideal for this task, discussing factors like reliability,
efficiency, or integration with other systems.

Functional Breakdown: Potential Limitations & Improvements:

Explain how this system uses embedded technology to Identify one limitation or challenge this system might face
perform its tasks. Identify at least two specific components (e.g., processing power, energy efficiency) and propose a
(e.g., sensors, microcontrollers, wireless modules) and possible improvement to enhance its performance.
describe their roles within the system.