1

Course Outcomes
 CO1: Characterize a system mathematically and find its steady
state behaviour
 CO2: Analyze stability of a system using different tests
 CO3: Design various controllers
 CO4: Solve linear, non-linear and optimal complex control
problems
 CO5: Designing state model for a given system of equations
 Disclaimer
The contents used in this presentation are taken from the
text books mentioned in the references. I do not hold any
copyrights for the contents. It has been prepared to use in
the class lectures, not for commercial purpose.
Syllabus
UNIT-1
 OVERVIEW OF UNIT-1
 Course Outline
 Text & Reference Books
 Prerequisites of the subject
 Introduction of Control system
 Basic Terminology of Control System
 Classification of Control Systems
 Transfer Function & System with Dead Time
 Control System Hardware (Components)
 Block Diagram & Signal Flow Graph Analysis
 Examples

6
 Course Outline
Classical Control System Modern Control System
System
Translational
Modelling State Space Modelling
Transfer Function
Mechanical System Transfer Functions
Eigenvalue Analysis
Rotational Mechanical System
Block Diagrams Transfer Functions
Observability and Controllability
Signal Flow Graphs Solution of State Equations (state
System Analysis Transition Matrix)
Time Domain Analysis State Space to Transfer Function
Frequency Domain Analysis Transfer Function to State Space
Bode Plots, Nyquist Plots, Nichol’s Direct Decomposition of Transfer
Chart Function
 Root Locus Cascade Decomposition of Transfer
System Design Function
Parallel Decomposition of Transfer
Compensation Techniques
PID Control Function
State Space Design Techniques
 Ogata K, " Modern Control Engineering", Prentice Hall
 Kuo B. C , "Automatic Control System", Prentice Hall
 Norman S. Nise “Control System Engineering” Wiley Eastern
 Nagarath & Gopal, " Control System Engineering", Wiley Eastern
 U A Bakshi, “Control Engineering”, Technical Publication
 Solutions and Problems of Control Systems by A.K. Jairath, CBS

Publishers.

8
 PREREQUISITES
 For Classical Control Theory
 Differential Equations
 Laplace Transform
 Basic Physics
 Ordinary and Semi-logarithimic graph papers
 For Modern Control theory above &
 Linear Algebra
 Matrices

9
 Why Control System
 Control System is everywhere:- Power plants, robotics, socio-
economics, home heating system, automatic washing machine,
air conditioner etc.

 Historically, control system application started with process

industry (1900-1940 era).

 During world war-II:- Automatic airplane pilots, gun position

system, radar antenna control systems, and like, led to more
scientific approaches in the control engineering.
 What is Control System?
 System:- A system is an arrangement of or a combination of
different physical components connected or related in such a
manner so as to form an entire unit to attain a certain objective.

Input System Output

 Control:- It means to regulate, direct or command a system so
that the desired objective is attained.

 Control System:- It is an arrangement of different physical

elements connected in such a manner so as to regulate, direct or
command itself to achieve a certain objective.
Control
Input Output
System
Difference between System & Control System

Proper Output Desired

Input Input
System Control Output
System
May or may not be
desired
Difference between System & Control System
An example : Fan

230V/50Hz Air Flow

Inpu Fan Outpu
t (System) t
AC Supply

13
 A Fan: Can't Say System
 A Fan without blades cannot be a “SYSTEM” Because it cannot
provide a desired/proper output i.e. airflow

Input Output

230V/ No
50Hz Airflow
AC (No Proper/
Supply Desired Output)

14
 A Fan:- Can be a System
 A Fan with blades but without regulator can be a “SYSTEM”
Because it can provide a proper output. i.e. airflow

 But it cannot be a “Control System” Because it cannot provide

desired output i.e. controlled airflow.

Input Output

230V/ Airflo
50Hz w
AC (Proper
Supply Output)

15
 A Fan:-Can be a Control System
 A Fan with blades and with regulator can be a “CONTROL
SYSTEM” Because it can provide a Desired output.
i.e. Controlled airflow

Inpu Control Outpu

t t
Elemen
t Controlled
230V/
50Hz Airflow
AC (Desired
Supply Output)

16
Basic Terminology of Control System
Manipulated Variable
Input
or Output
Plant/
Set point Controller Or
or Process
Controlled Variable
reference

 Input: It is the signal or excitation supplied to a control system.

 Output: It is the actual response obtained from the control
system.
 Controller: The part or component of a system that controls the
plant.
 Plant or Process: The part or component of a system that is
required to be controlled.
 Cont…….
Controlled Variable– It is the quantity or condition that is
measured and Controlled. Normally controlled variable is the
output of the control system.
Manipulated Variable– It is the quantity of the condition that
is varied by the controller so as to affect the value of controlled
variable.
Disturbances– A disturbance is a signal that tends to
adversely affect the value of the system. It is an unwanted
input of the system.
• If a disturbance is generated within the system, it is
called internal disturbance. While an external disturbance is
generated outside the system.
 Classification of Control Systems
Based on some parameters, we can classify the control
systems into the following ways.
1.Natural and Man Made Control System
2.Manual and Automatic Control System
3.Linear and Non Linear Control System
4.Time Varying and Time Invariant Control System
5.Continuous time and Discrete time Control System
6.Deterministic and Stochastic Control System
7.SISO and MIMO Control Systems
8.Open Loop and Closed Loop Control Systems
9.Lumped and Distributed parameter Control System
 Classification of Control Systems

LT
I C
Control Systems

on
tr o
lS
yst
Natural Man-made

em
s (L
ine
ar
Manual Automatic

t im
ei
nv
ari a
Open-loop Closed-loop

nt
co
nt r
ol
Non-linear linear

sys
Non-linear linear

t em
s)
Time variant Time invariant
Time variant Time invariant
 Natural and Man Made CS

 Natural Control System

 Universe
 Human Body

 Manmade Control System

 Aeroplanes
 Chemical Process
 Manual and Automatic CS
 Manual Control Systems
 Room Temperature regulation Via Electric Fan
 Water Level Control

 Automatic Control System

 Home Water Heating Systems (Geysers)
 Room Temperature regulation Via A.C
 Human Body Temperature Control
 Linear Vs Nonlinear CS
Linear:- A Control System in which output varies linearly with
the input is called a linear control system.
Non Linear:- When the input and output has nonlinear
relationship the system is said to be nonlinear.
y=3*u(t)+5 Adhesion Characteristics of Road
35
0.4
30

Adhesion Coefficient
0.3
25

Linear Non Linear

20
y(t)

0.2

15
0.1
10
0
5 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
0 2 4 6 8 10 Creep
u(t)

Linear system follow the principle of superposition and

homogeneous property otherwise system is nonlinear
 Time Varying & Time Invariant CS
 Time varying Control system:- Time varying Control system are
those whose parameters of the system dependent of time.
 Ex:- Space vehicle whose mass decrease with time as its leaves earth, the
mass is a parameter of space vehicle system.

y(t )  2u(t )  3t
 Time Invariant Control system:- Time Invariant Control system
are those whose parameters of the system independent of time.
 Ex:- Electrical network circuit (R,L,C are time invariant)

y(t )   2u(t )  1

 Note:- Time Varying system are complex to design

Continuous time & Discrete-time CS
 In continuous time control systems, all the signals are
continuous in time.
x(t)

 In discrete time control systems, there exists one or more

discrete time signals.

X[n]

n
 Deterministic & Stochastic CS
A control System is deterministic if the response to input as
well as behaviors to external disturbance is predictable and
repeatable.
If not, the control system is a stochastic control system

Lumped & Distributed parameter CS

Dynamic systems with lumped parameters, such as the RLC
circuit, are typically represented by ordinary differential
equations .
Dynamic systems with distributed parameter, such as the
transmission line are represented by partial differential
equations.
 SISO & MIMO Control Systems
 SISO (Single Input and Single Output) control systems
have one input and one output.

Input Output
Controller Process

 MIMO (Multiple Inputs and Multiple Outputs) control

systems have more than one input and more than one
output.
Outputs
Temp
Humidity Comparator Controller Process
Pressure

Measurements
 Open Loop and Closed Loop CS
 In open loop control systems, output is not fed-back to the
input. So, the control action is independent of the desired output.
Examples:- Washing Machine, Toaster, Electric Fan, microwave oven, etc.
Input Controller Process Output

 In closed loop control systems, output is fed back to the input.

So, the control action is dependent on the desired output.
Examples:- Refrigerator, Electric Iron, Air conditioner

Input Controller Process Output

Comparator

Measurement
Difference Between OLCS & CLCS
 Transfer Function
 The transfer function provides a basis for determining
important system response characteristics without solving the
complete differential equation.

 Where x is the input of the system and y is the output of the system.

 As defined, the transfer function is a rational function in the

complex variable s = σ + jω, that is
 Definition of Transfer function
 Transfer Function is the ratio of Laplace transform of the
output to the Laplace transform of the input with all initial
conditions are zero.

X(S) G(S) Y(S)

 Key Point of Transfer Function
 It is only applicable in LTI system
 Transfer function of any system is unique
 Stability of the system can be determined
 It gives the information about the poles and zeros of the
system.
 It is used to study the transient and steady state behavior of the
system.
 Its value is dependent on the parameters of the system and
independent of the value of input.
 Order and type of the system can be determined.
 Poles and Zeros
 Poles:- It is defined as those complex or critical frequencies
which makes transfer function infinite. In pole zero graph it is
marked by Cross (×)
 Zeros:- It is defined as those complex or critical frequencies
which makes transfer function zero . In pole zero graph it is
marked by Circle (O).
 Pole Zero Plot of third order system
Transfer function of Electrical System
Transfer function of Mechanical System
Translational Mechanical Rotational Mechanical System
System Transfer Functions Transfer Functions
 Example of Transfer Function
 Find the transfer function electrical network.

vi( t) i(t)
vo(t)
C

 Apply KVL
1 1
vi (t ) i(t )R  i(t )dt vo (t )  i(t )dt
C C
 Taking Laplace transform of both equations, considering initial
conditions to zero.
1 1
Vi (s )  I (s )R  I (s ) V o ( s )  I (s )
Cs Cs
 Re-arrange both equations as:

1
Vi (s )  I (s )(R  ) CsVo (s )  I (s )
Cs
 Substitute I(s) in equation on left
1
Vi (s ) CsVo (s )(R  )
Cs
Vo (s ) 1

Vi (s ) 1
Cs( R  )
Cs
 Transfer function
Vo (s ) 1

Vi (s ) 1  RCs
 System with Dead Time
 Dead time is something we mostly don't want to have in
a control system.
 In the simplest of terms it is a delay in the response to a control
action.
 It is also called transportation lag
 The Laplace transform of dead time is
Control System Hardware(Components)
1. Potentiometers
2. Synchros
3. Linear Variable Differential Transducer (LVDT)
4. Servomotor
5. Tachogenerators
6. Electro Hydraulic valves
7. Hydraulic Servomotors
8. Electro Pneumatic Valves
9. Pneumatic Actuators.
 Potentiometers
 Potentiometers are simplest type of displacement sensors.
 It is an electromechanical transducer that converts mechanical
energy into an electrical energy.
 They can be used for linear as well as angular (rotational)
displacement measurement,
 Potentiometers can be used ,set reference input, error detectors
and transducers.
 The major problem with potentiometers is the contact problem
resulting out of wear and tear between the moving and the
fixed parts. As a result, though simple, application of
potentiometers is limited.
 Cont…
 When voltage is applied across fixed terminals of the
potentiometer, the output voltage is measured across variable
terminals.
 They are the resistive type of transducers and the output voltage is
proportional to the displacement and is given by:

 where is Xi the input displacement, Xt is the total displacement and E is the

supply voltage.

Linear Potentiometer Rotational Potentiometer

Cont…..
Potentiometers as an Error Detector

Linear Potentiometer as Error

Detector
 Synchros
 Synchros are electromechanical devices which produce an
output voltage depending on angular position of the rotor and
not on rotor speed and it is different from a DC generator.
 It’s principle is same as transformers whose primary to
secondary magnetic couplings may be varied by physically
changing the relative orientation of the two windings.
 The trade name for Synchros are Selsyn, Antosyn and Telesyn.
 It is widely used as a error detector in feedback control system.
 The basic types of Synchros
1. Synchros Transmitter
2. Synchros Control Transformers
3. Synchros Error Detector
 1. Synchros Transmitter

 The constructional features, electrical circuit and a schematic

symbol of synchro transmitter are shown in the below figure.
Cont…..
 The two major parts of the synchro transmitter are stator and
rotor. The stator is identical to the stator of the three-phase
alternator.
 It is made of laminated silicon steel and slotted on the inner
periphery to accommodate a balanced three-phase winding.
The stator winding is the concentric type with the axis of three
coils 120° apart. The stator winding is star connected ( Y-
connection).
 The rotor is of dumbbell construction with a single winding.
The ends of rotor winding are terminated on two slip rings. A
single-phase ac excitation voltage is applied to the rotor
through slip rings.
 2. Synchro Control Transformer
 Construction of Synchro control transformer
 It’s similar to that of synchro transmitter except the shape of rotor.
The rotor of the control transformer is made cylindrical so that the
air gap is practically uniform.
 This feature of the control transformer minimizes the changes in the
rotor impedance with the rotation of the shaft.
 Working of Synchro Control Transformer:
 The generated emf of the synchro transmitter is applied as input to
the stator coils of control transformer.
 The rotor shaft is connected to the load whose position has to be
maintained at the desired value.
 Depending on the current position of the rotor and the applied emf
on the stator, an emf is induced on the rotor winding.
 This emf can be measured and used to drive a motor so that the
position of the load is corrected.
 3. Synchro as Error Detector
 The synchro error detector is formed by the interconnection of
a synchro transmitter and synchro control transformer. In this
arrangement, the stator leads of the transmitter are directly
connected to the stator leads of the control transformer.
 The angular position of the transmitter-rotor is the
reference input (or the input corresponding to the desired output)
and the rotor is excited by ac supply with frequency, ω.
 A simple schematic diagram of synchros as error detector is
shown in the below figure.
Cont…..
 Initially, the shafts of transmitter and control transformer are
assumed to be in aligned position.
 In this position, the transmitter rotor will be in electrical zero
position and the control transformer rotor will be in null position
and the angular separation of both rotor axis in aligned position
is 90°.
 The null position of a control transformer in a servo system is
defined as position of its rotor for which the output voltage on
the rotor winding is zero with the transmitter in its electrical
zero position.
 When the transmitter rotor is excited, the rotor flux is set-up and
emfs are induced in stator coils, These induced EMFs are
impressed on the stator coils of control transformer.
 The currents in the stator coils set up flux in control transformer.
Due to the similarity in the magnetic construction, the flux
patterns produced in the two synchros will be the same if all
losses are neglected
Linear Variable Differential Transducer
 LVDT works on the principle of variation of mutual
inductance.
 It is one of the most popular types of displacement sensor.
 It has good linearity over a wide range of displacement.
Moreover the mass of the moving body is small, and the
moving body does not make any contact with the static part,
thus minimizing the frictional resistance.
 Commercial LVDTs are available with full scale displacement
range of ± 0.25mm to ± 25mm.
 Due to the low inertia of the core, the LVDT has a good
dynamic characteristics and can be used for time varying
displacement measurement range.
 Working and Construction
 The construction and principle of operation of LVDT can be
explained with the help fig .

Construction of LVDT Series opposition connection of secondary windings

 It works on the principle of variation of the mutual inductance
between two coils with displacement. It consists of a primary
winding and two identical secondary windings of a transformer,
wound over a tubular former, and a ferromagnetic core of
annealed nickel-iron alloy moves through the former.
Cont….
 The two secondary windings are connected in series
opposition, so that the net output voltage is the difference
between the two.
 The primary winding is excited by 1-10V r.m.s. A.C. voltage
source, the frequency of excitation may be anywhere in the
range of 50 Hz to 50 KHz.
 The output voltage is zero when the core is at central position
(voltage induced in both the secondary windings are same, so
the difference is zero), but increasing as the core moves away
from the central position, in either direction. Thus, from the
measurement of the output voltage only, one cannot predict,
the direction of the core movement.
 Compared with potentiometer, the LVDT offers higher
sensitivity, longer life, ruggedness and continuous motion
capability
 Servomotor
 Servo Motor is also called Control motors. They are used in
feedback control systems as output actuators and does not use
for continuous energy conversion.
 The principle of the Servomotor is similar to that of the other
electromagnetic motor, but the construction and the operation
are different.
 Their power rating varies from a fraction of a watt to a few
hundred watts.
 Servomotor are classified as
 AC Servomotor
 DC Servomotor
 Armature Controlled DC Motor
 Field Controlled DC Motor
 DC Servomotor
 DC motors are more commonly used in control systems, as AC
motors are more difficult to control and their characteristics are
highly nonlinear.
 „The most commonly used control configuration with dc
motors is the separately excited field windings. The control is
through the applied armature voltage, keeping field current
constant.
 For fixed field current, the torque produced by the motor is
proportional to armature current.
 When the armature rotates, a back emf or voltage is produced
in the armature.
 The speed of the motor is controlled by the armature voltage
which issue which is supplied an amplifier. For the armature
circuit :
Draw The Block Diagram
The Overall Transfer Function
 Tachogenerator
 The word Tachogenerator comes from Greek word
‘TACHO’.
 In Greek, Tacho means speed. Generator means an
instrument which generate power.
 Tachogenerator, is a device which is used for measuring
the speed of a shaft and converting into a voltage so that it
can be measured.
 In other words, it converts angular velocity into voltage.
 Types of Tachogenerator
 DC Tachogenerator - A DC Tachogenerator is a small DC
generator, which generate electrical voltage corresponding
to the speed of rotating machine.
 AC Tachogenerator - The AC tachogenerator is a small
brushless alternator with a rotating multi-pole permanent
magnet. The output voltage is again measured by a
voltmeter although the varying frequency will affect the
accuracy of this instrument.
 DC Tachogenerator
 A DC Tachogenerator is a small DC generator, which has to
generate electrical voltage corresponding to the speed of rotating
machine.
 The produced voltage is dynamically-induced EMF.
 When the conductor is in motion and the field is in stationary an
EMF is induced in the conductor and this type of EMF is called
Dynamically-induced EMF.
 The requirement of dynamically-induced EMF is to establish
necessary flux in field system.
 A system of conductors is required so that a relative motion
between the flux and conductor create rate of change of flux
linkage and generate the DC voltage.
 The field system may be in the form of electromagnet or
permanent magnet, and it is the stationary part of the DC
Tachogenerator.
Operating Principle & Schematic Diagram
 The operating principle of DC Tachogenerator is same as that of
DC generator and is based on the principle of Faraday’s Law of
Electromagnetic Induction.
 According to the law, when an conductor move in a magnetic
field it cuts the magnetic lines of force, due to which an EMF is
induced in the conductor.
 The magnitude of induced EMF depends upon the rate of change
of magnetic flux linkage with the conductor.
 Working of DC Tachogenerator
 The armature of the DC Tachogenerator is kept in the permanent
magnetic field.
 The armature of the Tachogenerator is coupled to the machine
whose speed is to be measured.
 When the shaft of the machine revolves, the armature of the
Tachogenerator revolves in the magnetic field producing EMF
which is proportional to the product of the flux and speed to be
measured.
 As the field of the Permanent magnet is fixed, the EMF generated
is proportional to the speed directly.
 The generated EMF is measured using moving coil voltmeter
with uniform scale calibrated in speed directly.
 The series resistance is used to limit the current under output
short circuit condition.
 The polarity of output voltage indicates the direction of rotation.
 The commutator collects current from armature conductors and
converts internally induced AC EMF into DC (unidirectional)
EMF.
 The brushes are used to collect current from commutator and
make it available to external circuitry of the DC tachogenerator.
 The output voltage of a Tachometer can be given as
V0 = Kɸω – Iara
Where,
 K is the generator constant
 ɸ is the flux and
 ω is the armature speed I is the armature current
a
 r is the armature resistance
a

 The output voltage varies linearly with the speed of rotation of

armature because the flux is constant for particular construction
where the flux is produced by permanent magnets.
 The generated output is ac, which is converted to dc by a split
commutator and generated harmonics are reduced using more segments
of commutator.
 To get a larger output signal, the tachometer is operated at the highest
possible speed.
 In servo system the tachometer is used as a transducer for
obtaining signals proportional to speed.
 The sensitivity or tachometer gain is defined as the output voltage
divided by the shaft speed in rad/sec.

 Taking Laplace transform

 Can be represented in transfer function form as

 Tachometer gain or sensitivity Kr is expressed in V/angular velocity.

Advantages
1. The output voltage is small enough to measure it with conventional d.c
voltmeters.
2. Waveform and phase shift problems are absent.
3. There is no transformer action firing residual voltage at zero speed.
4. Temperature compensation is simple.
5. The polarity of output voltage directly indicates the direction of rotation.
Disadvantages
1. The variations in contact resistance, considerable error is introduced in
the output voltage. Hence periodic maintenance of the commutator and
brushes is required.
2. Non-linearity in the output of the d.c tachogenerator occurs because of
distortions in the permanent magnetic field due to large armature
currents. Hence input resistance of meter should be very high as
compared to the output resistance of the generator.
3. Arcing at brush commutator contact due to brush wear make it unsuitable
for explosive condition.
What is Hydraulic and Pneumatic
System
 In the industry we use three methods for transmitting power from

one point to another.

 Mechanical transmission is through shafts, gears, chains, belts, etc.
 Electrical transmission is through wires, transformers, etc.
 Fluid power is through liquids or gas in a confined space.
 We will first discuss a structure, advantages, disadvantages of
hydraulic systems and pneumatic systems. Finally we will
compare hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical and mechanical systems.
 Fluid Power
 Fluid power is the technology that deals with the generation,
control and transmission of forces and movement of mechanical
element or system with the use of pressurized fluids in a confined
system.
 Both liquids and gases are considered fluids.
 Fluid power system includes a hydraulic system (hydra
meaning water in Greek) and a pneumatic system (pneuma
meaning air in Greek).
 Oil hydraulic employs pressurized liquid petroleum oils and
synthetic oils, and pneumatic employs compressed air that is
released to the atmosphere after performing the work.
 By the term “fluid” we refer to air or oil, for it has been shown
that water has certain drawbacks in the transmission of hydraulic
power in machine operation and control.
 Benefits of lubrication not afforded by water as well as increased
life and efficiency of packings and valves. It should be mentioned
that in some special cases, soluble oil diluted with water is used for
safety reasons
 Hydraulics and pneumatics have almost unlimited application in
the production of goods and services in nearly all sectors of the
country. Several industries are dependent on the capabilities that
fluid power affords.
Table summarizes few applications of fluid
power
 Basic Components of a Hydraulic System
 Hydraulic systems are power-transmitting assemblies
employing pressurized liquid as a fluid for transmitting energy
from an energy-generating source to an energy-using point to
accomplish useful work.
 The piping shown in Figure is of closed-loop type with fluid
transferred from the storage tank to one side of the piston and
returned back from the other side of the piston to the tank.
Fluid is drawn from the tank by a pump that produces fluid
flow at the required level of pressure. If the fluid pressure
exceeds the required level, then the excess fluid returns back
to the reservoir and remains there until the pressure acquires
the required level.
 Functions of the components shown in Fig. 1.1 are as follows:
1. The hydraulic actuator is a device used to convert the fluid
power into mechanical power to do useful work. The actuator
may be of the linear type (e.g., hydraulic cylinder) or rotary
type(e.g., hydraulic motor) to provide linear or rotary motion,
respectively.
2. The hydraulic pump is used to force the fluid from the reservoir
to rest of the hydraulic circuit by converting mechanical energy
into hydraulic energy.
3. Valves are used to control the direction, pressure and flow rate of
a fluid flowing through the circuit.
4. External power supply (motor) is required to drive the pump.
5. Reservoir is used to hold the hydraulic liquid, usually
hydraulic oil.
6. Piping system carries the hydraulic oil from one place to
another.
7. Filters are used to remove any foreign particles so as keep
the fluid system clean and efficient, as well as avoid damage
to the actuator and valves.
8. Pressure regulator regulates (i.e., maintains) the required
level of pressure in the hydraulic fluid.
 Figure shows the components of the hydraulic system using
symbols. The working fluid, which is the hydraulic oil, is stored in
a reservoir. When the electric motor is switched ON, it runs a
positive displacement pump that draws hydraulic oil through a
filter and delivers at high pressure. The pressurized oil passes
through the regulating valve and does work on actuator. Oil from
the other end of the actuator goes back to the tank via return line.
To and fro motion of the cylinder is controlled using directional
control valve.
 The hydraulic system discussed can be broken down into four main
divisions that are analogous to the four main divisions in an
electrical system.
1. The power device parallels the electrical generating station.
2. The control valves parallel the switches, resistors, timers, pressure
switches, relays, etc.
3. The lines in which the fluid power flows parallel the electrical
lines.
4. The fluid power motor (whether it is a rotating or a non rotating
cylinder or a fluid power motor) parallels the solenoids and
electrical motors.
 Electro Hydraulic Servo Valve
 The input to an electro-hydraulic (EH) servo valve is typically a
current or a differential current that powers an electromagnetic
torque motor. The differential current Δi is typically supplied by
an amplifier to avoid excess loading of the interface to the
computer or controller.

 Electro-hydraulic servo valve has the advantages of fast dynamic

response, high control precision and long service life. It has been
widely used in electro-hydraulic servo control system in the
fields of aviation, aerospace, ship, metallurgy and chemical
industry.
 Basic Components of a Pneumatic
System
 A pneumatic system carries power by employing compressed gas,
generally air, as a fluid for transmitting energy from an energy-
generating source to an energy-using point to accomplish useful
work.

 Air is drawn from the atmosphere through an air filter and raised to
required pressure by an air compressor. As the pressure rises, the
temperature also rises; hence, an air cooler is provided to cool the
air with some preliminary treatment to remove the moisture. The
treated pressurized air then needs to get stored to maintain the
pressure. With the storage reservoir, a pressure switch is fitted to
start and stop the electric motor when pressure falls and reaches the
required level, respectively.
Figure shows a simple circuit of a pneumatic system with
basic components.
 The functions of various components shown in Figure are as
follows:
1. The pneumatic actuator converts the fluid power into mechanical
power to perform useful work.
2. The compressor is used to compress the fresh air drawn from the
atmosphere.
3. The storage reservoir is used to store a given volume of
compressed air.
4. The valves are used to control the direction, flow rate and pressure
of compressed air.
5. External power supply (motor) is used to drive the compressor.
6. The piping system carries the pressurized air from one location to
another.
 Electro Pneumatic Valves
 Electro pneumatic is a pneumatic control system where air
pressure and direction of valve are controlled by an electrical
current.

 Both pneumatic & electro-pneumatic controllers have a

pneumatic power section. In an electro-pneumatics control, the
signal control section is made up of a electrical components such
as electrical input buttons, proximity switches, relays or PLC.
Comparison between Hydraulic and
Pneumatic Systems
 Electrical Analogies of Mechanical
Systems
 Two systems are said to be analogous to each other if the
following two conditions are satisfied.
 The two systems are physically different
 Differential equation modelling of these two systems are
same
 Electrical systems and mechanical systems are two physically
different systems. There are two types of electrical analogies
of translational mechanical systems. Those are force voltage
analogy and force current analogy.
 Force Voltage Analogy
 In force voltage analogy, the mathematical equations
of translational mechanical system are compared with mesh
equations of the electrical system.
  Consider the following translational mechanical system as
shown in the following figure.

The force balanced equation for this system is

F=Fm+Fb+FkF=Fm+Fb+Fk

⇒F=Md2xdt2+Bdxdt+Kx⇒F=Md2xdt2+Bdxdt+Kx (Equation 1)

This circuit consists of a resistor, an inductor and a capacitor. All these electrical
elements are connected in a series. The input voltage applied to this circuit
is V volts and the current flowing through the circuit is I Amps.
Mesh equation for this circuit is
V=Ri+Ldidt+1c∫idtV=Ri+Ldidt+1c∫idt (Equation 2)
Substitute, i=dqdti=dqdt in Equation 2.
V=Rdqdt+Ld2qdt2+qCV=Rdqdt+Ld2qdt2+qC
⇒V=Ld2qdt2+Rdqdt+(1c)q⇒V=Ld2qdt2+Rdqdt+(1c)q (Equation 3)

By comparing Equation 1 and Equation 3, we will get the

analogous quantities of the translational mechanical system and
electrical system. The following table shows these analogous
quantities.
Force Voltage Analogy
Similarly, there is torque voltage analogy for rotational mechanical
systems. Let us now discuss about this analogy.
Torque Voltage Analogy
In this analogy, the mathematical equations of rotational
mechanical system are compared with mesh equations of the electrical
system.
Rotational mechanical system is shown in the following figure.

The torque balanced equation is

T=Tj+Tb+TkT=Tj+Tb+Tk
⇒T=Jd2θdt2+Bdθdt+kθ⇒T=Jd2θdt2+Bdθdt+kθ (Equation 4)
By comparing Equation 4 and Equation 3, we will get the analogous
quantities of rotational mechanical system and electrical system. The
following table shows these analogous quantities.
Torque Voltage Analogy
 Force Current Analogy
 In force current analogy, the mathematical equations of
the translational mechanical system are compared with the nodal
equations of the electrical system.
 Consider the following electrical system as shown in the following
figure. This circuit consists of current source, resistor, inductor and
capacitor. All these electrical elements are connected in parallel.
Force Current Analogy
 Torque Current Analogy
In this analogy, the mathematical equations of the rotational
mechanical system are compared with the nodal mesh equations of the
electrical system.
 Block Diagram
 As we already know that control systems consist of mathematical
models. The transfer function is a mathematical representation of
the individual physical system. To show the function performed
by each component, we generally use a block diagram.
 Thus in order to analyze complex control systems (and hence
complex block diagrams), it is much desirable to reduce the block
diagram in simple terms(by means of block diagram reduction
techniques).
 Thus in simple terms, a block diagram is a pictorial
representation of the entire system. In this manner, it represents
the relationship between input and the output of entire system.
 Block diagram
A Block diagram is basically modelling of any simple or complex
system. It Consists of multiple Blocks connected together to represent
a system to explain how it is functioning
Transfer Function: Ratio between transformation of output to the
transformation of input when all the initial conditions are zero.

R(s) C(s)
G(s) G(s)=C(s)/R(s)
Simple system:
Complex System: G4
R(s) Y (s)
G1 G2 G3

H2

H1
 Block diagram Definitions:
1. Block diagram: This gives a pictorial relationship between
output and input of the system.
2. Output: It is defined as product of input and gain i.e Output = gain
x input
3. Summing point: A point where multiple signals can be subtracted
or added respectively.
4. Take off point: From this point, the output can be again fed back
to input, thus this point will be used for feedback purpose.
5. Forward path: This path represents the direction of the signal
flow in the system from the input side to output side.
6. Feedback path: This path represent direction of the signal flow in
the system from output side to input side.
 Basic Elements of Block Diagram
 a block,
 the summing point and
 the take-off point.
 Let us consider the block diagram of a closed loop control
system as shown in the following figure to identify these
elements.
 BLOCK
 The transfer function of a component is represented by a block.
Block has single input and single output. The following figure
shows a block having input X(s), output Y(s) and the transfer
function G(s).

Output of the block is obtained by multiplying transfer function of

the block with input.
 Summing Point
 The summing point is represented with a circle having cross
(X) inside it. It has two or more inputs and single output. It
produces the algebraic sum of the inputs. It also performs the
summation or subtraction or combination of summation and
subtraction of the inputs based on the polarity of the inputs.
 Let us see these three operations one by one.
 The following figure shows the summing point with two inputs (A,
B) and one output (Y). Here, the inputs A and B have a positive
sign. So, the summing point produces the output, Y as sum of A
and B.
i.e. Y = A + B

.The following figure shows the summing point with two inputs
(A, B) and one output (Y). Here, the inputs A and B are having
opposite signs, i.e., A is having positive sign and B is having
negative sign. So, the summing point produces the output Y as
the difference of A and B.
Y = A + (-B) = A - B

The following figure shows the summing point with three inputs
(A, B, C) and one output (Y). Here, the inputs A and B are having
positive signs and C is having a negative sign. So, the summing
point produces the output Y as
Y = A + B + (−C) = A + B − C.
 Take-off Point
 The take-off point is a point from which the same input signal can
be passed through more than one branch. That means with the help
of take-off point, we can apply the same input to one or more
blocks, summing points.

 In the following figure, the take-off point is used to connect the

same input, R(s) to two more blocks.
 Need for block diagram
reduction
It is normally required to reduce multiple blocks into single

block or for convenient understanding it may sometimes required

to rearrange the blocks from its original order.
For the calculation of Transfer function its required to be
reduced.
 Block Diagram Reduction Rules
We need to follow certain rules to reduce any given complex control
system into a simpler form. So following are the most widely used
block diagram reduction rules(each one will be discussed in detail)
Rule 1: Blocks in cascade/series
Rule 2: Blocks in parallel
Rule 3: Feedback loop elimination
Rule 4: Associative law for summing
Rule 5: Shifting a summing point before a block
Rule 6: Shifting a summing point after a block
Rule 7: Shifting take-off point before a block
Rule 8: Shifting take-off point after a block
Rule 9: Shifting a summing point before a block
Rule 10: Shifting a summing point after a block
For simplicity, we will write G(s) as ‘G’ and H(s) as ‘H’ . Now in the next
section, we will explore each of the above rules in detail and precisely
understand its application.
 Shortcut Rules For Reducing Any Complex
Block Arrangement !!
Rule 1: Blocks In Series
 Any finite specific number of blocks arranged in series can be
combined together by multiplication as shown below:

 The above blocks shown can be combined together and replaced

with single block as Output C(s) = G1 x G2 x R(s)
 If there is a take-off point or summing point between the blocks,
the blocks cannot be said to be in cascade/series.(the
take-off/summing point has to be shifted before or after the block
using another rule)
 Rule 2: Blocks In Parallel
 When the blocks are connected in parallel combination, they get
added algebraically (considering the sign of the signal) this can be
combined as(refer both the diagrams)

 The above blocks can be replaced with a single block as

C(s) = R(s)G1 + R(s)G2 – R(s)G3
C(s) = R(s) (G1 + G2 – G3)
 If any summing point/take-off point is present in between the
blocks, then that has to be shifted first.(in a parallel arrangement,
the direction of signal flow must be in the same direction through
all the blocks)
 Rule 3: Elimination of feedback Loop
 We can use Closed loop transfer function to eliminate the feedback
loop present.(Always remember for applying this method the
direction of flow of signals should be in opposite direction,
otherwise, if they are in the same direction, then we need to apply
parallel reduction technique discussed above)
 Rule 4: Associative Law For Summing Point
 This can be better explained by taking below diagram

Y= R(s) – B1 C(s) = y – B2 = R(s) – B1 – B2

This law is applicable only to summing points that are connected

directly to each other.

Note: If there is a block present between two summing points(and

hence they are not connected directly) then this rule can’t be applied.
 Rule 5: Shifting of a Summing Point before a block
 When we shift the summing point before a block, we need to do
the transformation in order to achieve the same result. Please refer
to the diagram below :

C(s) = GR(s) + X
After shifting the summing point, we will get
C(s) = [R +(X/G) ] G = GR + X
which is same as output in the first case.
Hence to shift a summing point before a block, we need o to add
another block of transfer function ‘1/G’ before the summing point as
shown in figure.
 Rule 6: Shifting of the Summing Point after a block
 When we generally shift the summing point after any block, we
required to do the transformation to attain the same (required)
result. Please refer the below diagram .

C(s) = (R + X)G
After shifting the summing point, we will get
C(s) = (R +X) G = GR + XG
which is same as output in the first case.
Hence to shift a summing point before a block, we need to add
another block having the same transfer function at the summing
point as shown in fig
 Rule 7: Shifting of Take-off point after a block
 Here we want to shift the take – off point after a block, as
shown in the diagram

Here we have X = R and C = RG (initially)

In order to achieve this, we need to add a block of transfer
function ‘1/G’ in series with signal taking off from that point.
 Rule 8 : Shifting of Take-off point before a block
 Here we want to shift the take – off point before a block, as shown
in the diagram

Here we have
X = R and C = RG (initially)

In order to achieve this, we need to add a block of transfer

function ‘G’ in series with X signal taking off from that point.
Rule 9 : Shifting a Take-off point after a Summing Point

 Before shifting take-off point, initially, we have:

C(s)=R±Y and Z = R ± Y (initially)

 Hence if we want to shift a take-off point after a summing point,
one more summing point needs to be added in series with take-
off point.
Rule 10: Shifting a take-off point before a summing point
 Suppose if we want to shift take-off point before a summing point,
then initially we have

C(s)=R±Y and Z = R ± Y (initially)

 In order to satisfy this condition, we need to add a summing point

in series with the take-off point.
 Notes
1. Rules 9 and 10 are critical rules, their usage should be
avoided as much as possible(i.e if there is no other
options present then only we should use them).
2. Always try to shift take-off points towards right and
summing points towards left.
3. If there are multiple inputs present, then we have to use
the superposition theorem(which means we have to
consider one input at a time and find out the output
considering all other inputs to be zero and finally taking
the summation of all the output thus obtained).
 Advantages Of Block Reduction Technique !!
 Though there are many other methods present to solve any
complex block arrangements (seen in the later posts) , this
block reduction rules often come handy due to the following
reasons :
1. With these blocks reducing shortcuts, you can easily break a
complex LTI (linear time-invariant) control system into simple
blocks and then reduce it to get the required output easily .
2. You can individually visualize the various components of any
given complicated control system easily , which can be helpful
while analyzing any issue or to study separate parts of any LTI
system .
 Finally, we reach the end of this wonderful(time-consuming :-
p) post. Block reduction technique is one of the many (other
methods discussed in later posts) methods available to deal
with complex block diagrams in the Control System.
 Example 1
Find the transfer function of the following block diagram

G4
R(s) Y (s )
G1 G2 G3

H2

H1
 I
G4
R (s ) B A
Y (s )
G1 G2 G3
H2
H1

Solution:

1. Moving pickoff point A ahead of block G2

2. Eliminate loop I & simplify

B
G4  G2G3
 G4
R (s ) B Y (s )
A
G1 G2 G3

H2

3. Moving pickoff point B behind block G4  G2G3

II
R (s ) B C
Y (s )
G1 G4  G2G3
H2
H1G2
 4. Eliminate loop III

R (s ) C C Y (s )
G1 G4  G2G3
H2
G2 H1
G4  G2G3

R (s ) G1 (G4  G2G3 ) Y (s )
1  G1G 2 H1  H 2 (G4  G2G3 )

Y (s ) G1 (G4  G2 G3 )

R(s ) 1  G1G 2 H 1  H 2 (G4  G2 G3 )  G1 (G4  G2 G3 )
 Introduction of SFG
 Alternative method to block diagram representation, developed
by Samuel Jefferson Mason.
 Advantage: the availability of a flow graph gain formula, also
called Mason’s gain formula.
Definition:-
 A signal flow graph is a graphical representation of the
relationship between variables of a set of linear algebraic
equation
 A signal-flow graph consists of a network in which nodes are
connected by directed branches.
 It depicts the flow of signals from one point of a system to
another and gives the relationships among the signals.
 Fundamentals of SFG
 Consider a simple equation below and draw its signal flow
graph:
y = ax
 The signal flow graph of the equation is shown below;

x
a y

 Every variable in a signal flow graph is designed by a Node.

 Every transmission function in a signal flow graph is designed
by a Branch.
 Branches are always unidirectional.
 The arrow in the branch denotes the direction of the signal flow.
 Terminologies
 An input node or source contain only the outgoing branches. i.e., X1
 An output node or sink contain only the incoming branches. i.e., X4
 A path is a continuous, unidirectional succession of branches along
which no node is passed more than ones. i.e.,
X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 X1 to X2 to X4 X2 to X3 to X4

 A forward path is a path from the input node to the output node. i.e.,
X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 , and X1 to X2 to X4 , are forward paths.
 A feedback path or feedback loop is a path which originates and
terminates on the same node. i.e.; X2 to X3 and back to X2 is a
feedback path.
 Terminologies
 A self-loop is a feedback loop consisting of a single branch. i.e.; A33
is a self loop.
 The gain of a branch is the transmission function of that branch.
 The path gain is the product of branch gains encountered in
traversing a path. i.e. the gain of forwards path X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 is
A21A32A43
 The loop gain is the product of the branch gains of the loop. i.e., the
loop gain of the feedback loop from X2 to X3 and back to X2 is A32A23.
 Two loops, paths, or loop and a path are said to be non-touching if
they have no nodes in common.
 SFG Terms Representation
input node (source)
transmittance
branch
x4
mixed node
node mixed node d
x1 a b path x3
1
x3
forward path x2 lo o
c
p

input node (source)

 Signal-Flow Graph Models
xo is input and x4 is output

x1  ax0  bx1  f
c
cx2 2 dx1 
x x0
a x1 d x2 x3 h x4
ex3 g
x3  fx0 
b e
gx2 x4  hx3
 Construct the signal flow graph for the following set of
simultaneous equations.

 There are four variables in the equations (i.e., x1,x2,x3,and x4)

therefore four nodes are required to construct the signal flow graph.
 Arrange these four nodes from left to right and connect them with
the associated branches.
 Another way to arrange this graph is shown in the figure.
 BD to SFG
Block Diagram Signal Flow Graph
 BD to SFG
Block Diagram

Signal Flow Graph

 Mason’s Rule (Mason, 1953)
 The block diagram reduction technique requires successive
application of fundamental relationships in order to arrive at the
system transfer function.
 On the other hand, Mason’s rule for reducing a signal-flow
graph to a single transfer function requires the application of
one formula.
 The formula was derived by S. J. Mason when he related the
signal-flow graph to the simultaneous equations that can be
written from the graph.
 Mason’s Rule:
 The transfer function C(S)/R(S), of a system represented by a
signal-flow graph is; n
 Pi  i
C (s ) i 1

R(s ) 
Where,
n= number of forward paths.
Pi = the i th forward-path gain.
∆ = Determinant of the system
∆i = Determinant of the ith forward path

∆ is called the signal flow graph determinant or characteristic function.

Since ∆=0 is the system characteristic equation.
 n
 Pi  i
C (s ) i 1

R(s ) 
∆ = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains) + (sum of the products of
the gains of all possible two loops that do not touch each other) –
(sum of the products of the gains of all possible three loops that do
not touch each other) + … and so forth with sums of higher
number of non-touching loop gains

∆i = value of Δ for the part of the block diagram that does not touch
the i-th forward path (Δi = 1 if there are no non-touching loops to
the i-th path.)

132
 Systematic Approach
1. Calculate forward path gain Pi for each forward path i.
2. Calculate all loop transfer functions.
3. Consider non-touching loops 2 at a time.
4. Consider non-touching loops 3 at a time.
5. Calculate Δ from steps 2,3,4 and 5
6. Calculate Δi as portion of Δ not touching forward path i
Example 1
 Cont …..
 In this system there is only one forward path between the input R(s) and the
output C(s). The forward path gain is
 𝑃 1 = 𝐺1𝐺2𝐺3
 we see that there are three individual loops. The gains of these loops are
 𝐿1 = 𝐺1𝐺2𝐻1
 𝐿2 = −𝐺2𝐺3𝐻2
 𝐿3 = −𝐺1𝐺2𝐺3
 Note that since all three loops have a common branch, there are no non-touching
loops. Hence, the determinant ∆ is given by

 ∆= 1 − (𝐿1+ 𝐿2 + 𝐿3)

 = 1 − 𝐺1𝐺2𝐻1 +𝐺2 𝐺3𝐻2 +𝐺1 𝐺2𝐺3

 There is no any non touching loop so we get,
 ∆𝑙= 1
 Therefore, the overall gain between the input 𝑅𝑠 and the output 𝐶𝑠 or the closed
 loop transfer function, is given by
𝐶𝑠 𝐺1𝐺2𝐺3

𝑅𝑠 1− 𝐺1𝐺2𝐻1 +𝐺2 𝐺3𝐻2 +𝐺1 𝐺2𝐺3

=
 Example 2
Apply Mason’s Rule to calculate the transfer function of the system
represented by following Signal Flow Graph

Therefore,
T  C(s)  P   P 
1 1 2 2

R(s)
There are three feedback loops 

L1  G1G4 H1, L2  G1G2G4 H2 , L3  G1G3G4 H2

There are no non-touching loops, therefore
∆ = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)
 1 L  L  L 
1 2 3

  1 G1G4 H1  G1G2G4 H2  G1G3G4 H2 

Eliminate forward path-1
∆1 = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)+...
∆1 = 1
Eliminate forward path-2
∆2 = 1- (sum of all individual loop gains)+...
∆2 = 1
 References
 Introduction of Control system, Basic Terminology, Classification of Control
System (U.K Bhakshi & S.C Goyal “Feedback Control System” Technical
Publication, Pune )
 Transfer Function & System with Dead Time (Norman S. Nise “Control System
Engineering” Wiley Eastern)
 Potentiometers & LVDT
“https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108/105/108105063/module 2/lecture.pdf “
 Synchors (U.K Bhakshi & S.C Goyal “Feedback Control System” Technical
Publication, Pune )
 Servomotor (Norman S. Nise “Control System Engineering” Wiley Eastern)
 https://www.slideshare.net/meenasundar/lecture-6-tachogenerators
 https://nptel.ac.in/content/storage2/courses/112106175/Module%201/Lecture
%201.pdf
 https://www.tutorialspoint.com/control_systems/
control_systems_block_diagram_reduction.htm
 https://www.slideshare.net/Chandreshsuthar/signal-flow-graph-72909573
Thank You