SHAH AND ANCHOR KUTCHHI ENGINEERING

COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT
OF
ELECTRONICS & TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
presentation
on
Introduction to control system Analysis
by
Dr. Kalpana L Chaudhari
(Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering)
Email: kalpana.chaudhari@akec.ac.in
 A control system is a system, which provides the desired response by
controlling the output. The following figure shows the simple block
diagram of a control system.

➢Continuous time and Discrete-time Control Systems: Depend on

type of the signal used

➢SISO and MIMO Control Systems: Number of inputs and outputs

Introduction to Control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Open Loop C.S

Output is not fed-back to the input. So, the control action is independent of the desired
output.

Introduction to Control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Examples of Open Loop CS
1 Traffic lights control system :
➢ Open loop CS
➢Sequence of input signal is applied to this control system and the output is
one of the three lights that will be on for some duration of time.
➢ During this time, the other two lights will be off.
➢Based on the traffic study at a particular junction, the on and off times of
the lights can be determined.

➢Accordingly, the input signal controls the output. So, the traffic lights
control system operates on time basis.

Introduction to Control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Examples of Open Loop CS
2 Automatic washing machine

➢ The operator manually sets the operating time of the machine.

➢The machine stops operating after the set time, even the desire cleanliness
of clothes are not obtained.
➢This happens because the machine has no feedback system which signals
the control action of the system for desired output.
Introduction to Control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
 Practical example of Open loop CS
1.Electric Hand Drier – Hot air (output) comes out as long as you keep your
hand under the machine, irrespective of how much your hand is dried.
2.Automatic Washing Machine – This machine runs according to the pre-set
time irrespective of washing is completed or not.
3.Bread Toaster – This machine runs as per adjusted time irrespective of
toasting is completed or not.
4.Automatic Tea/Coffee Maker – These machines also function for pre
adjusted time only.
5.Timer Based Clothes Drier – This machine dries wet clothes for pre-
adjusted time, it does not matter how much the clothes are dried.
6.Light Switch – Lamps glow whenever light switch is on irrespective of light
is required or not.
7.Volume on Stereo System – Volume is adjusted manually irrespective of
output volume level.

Introduction to Control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Advantages of Open Loop Control System
1.Simple in construction and design.
2.Economical.
3.Easy to maintain.
4.Generally stable.
5.Convenient to use as output is difficult to measure.
Disadvantages of Open Loop Control System
1.They are inaccurate.
2.They are unreliable.

Introduction to Control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Closed Loop Control System

In closed loop CS, output is fed back to the input. So, the control action is
dependent on the desired output.

Introduction to Control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

➢The error detector produces an error signal, which is the difference
between the input and the feedback signal.
➢This feedback signal is obtained from the block (feedback elements) by
considering the output of the overall system as an input to this block. Instead
of the direct input, the error signal is applied as an input to a controller.
➢So, the controller produces an actuating signal which controls the plant.
➢In this combination, the output of the control system is adjusted
automatically till we get the desired response. Hence, the closed loop CS are
also called the automatic control systems.

Introduction to Control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Examples of closed loop CS
1 closed dryer :
➢we are using the transducer which senses the dryness of the clothes and
provides the feedback signal to the controller relating to dryness.
➢Here the dryness is the output of the system.
➢The sensor act as a feedback of the system.
➢The sensor gives the signal to the controller of the machine, and hence the
dryer provides the desired output.
2 The air conditioner : closed-loop system.
➢The air conditioner regulates the temperature by comparing it with the
surrounding temperature.

➢The comparison of temperature is done with the help of the thermostat.

➢When the AC provides the error signal which is the difference between the
surrounding temperature and room temperature the thermostats turn on or off
the compressor.
Introduction to Control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
Practical Examples of Closed Loop Control System
1.Automatic Electric Iron – Heating elements are controlled by output
temperature of the iron.
2.Servo Voltage Stabilizer – Voltage controller operates depending upon
output voltage of the system.
3.Water Level Controller – Input water is controlled by water level of the
reservoir.
4.Missile Launched and Auto Tracked by Radar – The direction of missile is
controlled by comparing the target and position of the missile.
5.An Air Conditioner – An air conditioner functions depending upon the
temperature of the room.
Cooling System in Car – It operates depending upon the temperature which
it controls
 Advantages of Closed Loop CS
1. More accurate even in the presence of non-linearity.
2. Highly accurate as any error arising is corrected due to presence of
feedback signal.
3. Bandwidth range is large.
4. Facilitates automation.
5. The sensitivity of system may be made small to make system more
stable.
6. This system is less affected by noise.

Disadvantages of Closed Loop CS

1.They are costlier.
2.They are complicated to design.
3.Required more maintenance.
4.Feedback leads to oscillatory response.
5.Overall gain is reduced due to presence of feedback.
6 Stability is the major problem and more care is needed to design a stable
closed loop system
Introduction to Control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
 Open Loop Control Closed Loop Control
Systems Systems
Control action is Control action is dependent
independent of the desired of the desired output.
output.
Feedback path is not Feedback path is present.
present.
These are also called as non- These are also called
feedback control systems. as feedback control systems.
Easy to design. Difficult to design.
These are economical. These are costlier.
Inaccurate. Accurate.
Introduction to Control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
 control Systems - Feedback

If either the output or some part of the output is returned to the

input side and utilized as part of the system input, then it is
known as feedback

Types of Feedback: two types of feedback

•Positive feedback
•Negative feedback

Introduction to Control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 control Systems - Feedback
Positive Feedback
The positive feedback adds the reference input, R(s) and feedback
output. The following figure shows the block diagram of positive
feedback control system.

consider the transfer function of positive feedback control system is,

T=G /1−GH
Where,
•T is the transfer function or overall gain of positive feedback control system.
•G is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency.
•H is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency.

Introduction to Control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 control Systems - Feedback
Negative Feedback
Negative feedback reduces the error between the reference input, R(s) and
system output.

Transfer function of negative feedback control system is,

T=G/G+GH equation2
Where,
•T is the transfer function or overall gain of negative feedback control system.
•G is the open loop gain, which is function of frequency.
•H is the gain of feedback path, which is function of frequency.
Introduction to Control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
Effect of Feedback on Overall Gain T=G/G+GH & T=G/G-GH

• we can say that the overall gain of negative feedback closed loop control
system is the ratio of 'G' and (1+GH). So, the overall gain may increase or
decrease depending on the value of (1+GH).

•If the value of (1+GH) is less than 1, then the overall gain increases. In this
case, 'GH' value is negative because the gain of the feedback path is negative.

If the value of (1+GH) is greater than 1, then the overall gain decreases. In this
case, 'GH' value is positive because the gain of the feedback path is positive.

Introduction to Control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

Top 10 Examples of Closed Loop Control Systems

Thermostat Heater
The thermostat heater is an example of closed loop control system.
The thermostat senses the temperature of the system and maintains
the temperature.

Thermostat heater
Input Temperature
Plant Heater
Controller Thermostat
Output Temperature
Sunseeker solar system

Sunseeker solar system is an automatic tracker which uses LDR to sense

the sunlight. A microcontroller reads the LDR voltage and signals the
connected motor which rotates the panel towards the sun.

Sunseeker solar system

Input Sunlight
Plant Solar Panel
Controller µC
Output Position change
Voltage stabilizer
The voltage stabilizer stabilizes the supply voltage in case of fluctuations.
Modern voltage stabilizers utilize solid state electronic components which
measure the fluctuation in voltage and reduce/increase (buck/boost) the
voltage to the desired level.

Voltage Stabilizer
Input Voltage
Plant Stabilizer
Controller Electronic Circuit
Output Voltage Buck/Boost
 Missile Launcher
A missile launcher detects the position of the plane using radar tracking unit
and then

Missile Launcher

Input Position
Plant Launcher
Controller Computer system
Output Target
Auto Engine
The tachometer in auto engine generates a voltage proportional to the speed
of the shaft. The voltage is subtracted from the input voltage to calculate an
error voltage that provides information about current speed and desired speed.
The error voltage is then used to arrange the throttle after amplification.

Auto Engine
Input Desired speed
Plant Auto Engine
Controller Cruise system
Output Change in speed
Inverter AC
The inverter air conditioner uses an inverter for controlling the compressor
speed. Sensors measure the ambient air temperature and then adjust
compressor to the required level.

Inverter AC
Input Temperature
Plant AC
Controller Inverter inside VFD
Output Change in speed
 Automatic toaster
The automatic toaster measures the temperature, moisture vs dryness
level of toast and adjusts the heat setting of toasts.

Automatic toaster
Input Moisture level
Plant Toaster
Controller Heat setting circuitry
Output Heat level
Turbine Water Control System at power Station

In modern hydroelectric power stations, the level of water coming

from the nozzles and gate is adjusted using automatic controls.

Turbine water control

Input Flow rate of water
Plant DAM
Controller Governor sets
Output Change of flow rate
 Automatic Clothes Iron
The automatic clothes iron adjusts the required temperature for proper
pressing.

Automatic clothes iron

Input Temperature
Plant Iron
Controller Heat elements
Output Temp adjustment
A human traveling on the road

The human body itself is the perfect example of closed-loop control systems.
He looks around for traffic and changes his position accordingly.

Human traveling on the road

Input Information about surrounding
Plant Human
Controller Brain
Output Position adjustment
 Exercise

Define control system

Explain the effect of feedback in the CS
Watch control system examples in surrounding /your home
 ➢A transfer function represents the relationship between the output
signal of a CS and the input signal, for all possible input values.

➢CS has reference input known as excitation or cause which operates

through a transfer operation (i.e. the transfer function) to produce an
effect resulting in controlled output or response.

➢Thus the cause and effect relationship between the output and
input is related to each other through a transfer function.

Transfer function Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

In a Laplace Transform, if the input is represented by R(s) and the output is
represented by C(s), then the transfer function will be:

That is, the transfer function of the system multiplied by the input function gives the
output function of the system.
What is a Transfer Function : The transfer function of a control system is defined as
the ratio of the Laplace transform of the output variable to Laplace transform of the
input variable assuming all initial conditions to be zero.

Transfer function Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Methods of Obtaining a Transfer Function(TF)

➢Block Diagram Method: It is not convenient to derive a complete

transfer function for a complex control system. Therefore the TF of each
element of a CS is represented by a block diagram. Block diagram
reduction techniques are applied to obtain the desired transfer function.

➢Signal Flow Graphs: The modified form of a block diagram is a signal

flow graph. Block diagram gives a pictorial representation of a control
system. Signal flow graph further shortens the representation of a control
system.

Transfer function Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

For Phasor domain, the Laplace variable s = jω
where ω is the radian frequency of the sinusoidal signal.
The TF of a circuit is defined as:
➢The middle column here shows the constraints of the passive devices in the time-domain being
converted to the s-domain.
➢The left column shows initial conditions modeled as voltage sources in the s-domain,
➢The right column shows initial conditions modeled as current sources in the s-domain.
Concept of Transfer Function : Electrical circuit

The TF is generally expressed in Laplace Transform and it is nothing but

the relation between input and output of a system.

Let us consider a system consists of a series connected resistance (R)

and inductance (L) across a voltage source (V).

•current ‘i’ is the response

due to applied voltage (V)
as cause.
•Hence the voltage is input
• current is output

Transfer function Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 From the circuit, we get,

Now applying LT we get

Transfer function Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 TF of Electrical circuits

Transfer function Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 The differential equation is

Transfer function Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

Where,
•vi(s) is the Laplace transform of the input voltage vi
•vo(s) is the Laplace transform of the output voltage vo
The above equation is a transfer function of the second order electrical system.
The transfer function model of this system is shown below.

Transfer function Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

Transfer Function of Electrical Circuit

Procedure for finding the transfer functions of electric networks:

1. First draw the given electrical network in the s domain with each
inductance L replaced by sL and each capacitance replaced by 1/sC.
2. Replace all sources and time variables with their Laplace transforms so
that v(t) is replaced by V(s) and i(t) by I(s) respectively.
3. Use KVL,KCL , mesh analysis, node analysis to write the network equations
4. Solve the equations simultaneously for getting the output.
5. Form the transfer function
 Example: Find out transfer function of the given circuit

Solution: convert the network in s-domain

By KVL in the left hand- mesh,

By KVL in the right-hand- mesh

The transfer function from the above two equations is given by,
Example : To find out the transfer function the given network
Exercise: Find out TF of the following circuits/Network
https://controlsystemsacademy.com/0011/0011.html
 Two blocks having transfer functions G(s) and H(s).
It is also having one summing point and one take-off point.
Arrows indicate the direction of the flow of signals..

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Block:

Summing Point
The summing point is represented with a circle having cross (X) inside

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Take-off Point:
The take-off point is a point from which the same input signal can be
passed through more than one branch. That means with the help of take-
off point, we can apply the same input to one or more blocks, summing
points In the following figure, the take-off point is used to connect the
same input, R(s) to two more blocks.

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Rules for reduction of block diagram
Reduce the block diagram, which is having many blocks, summing points and
take-off points.
•Rule 1 − Check for the blocks connected in series and simplify.
•Rule 2 − Check for the blocks connected in parallel and simplify.
•Rule 3 − Check for the blocks connected in feedback loop and simplify.
•Rule 4 − If there is difficulty with take-off point while simplifying, shift it
towards right Or left
•Rule 5 − If there is difficulty with summing point while simplifying, shift it
towards left or right
•Rule 6 − Repeat the above steps till you get the simplified form, i.e., single
block.
Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
 Rule 1: If the blocks are in cascade in series then

Rule 2: if the blocks are in parallel then, the blocks are added or subtracted depending on
the summing point signal.

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Rule 3 − Check for the blocks connected in feedback loop and simplify

Rule 4: Moving the take-off point after the block (right side )

Rule 5 −Moving the take-off point before the block ( Left side)

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Rule 6: Moving summing point after the block

Rule 7: Moving the summing point before the block

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Rule 8 Swap Two adjacent summing points

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Rule 9 Splitting the summing point
A summing point having 3 inputs can be split into a configuration having 2
summing points with separated inputs without disturbing the output. Or
three summing points can be combined to form a single summing point
with the consideration of each given input.

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Rule 10 Combining the summing point

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Example1 : Using block diagram reduction techniques find C(s) / R(s)
as in figure below:

Step 1: eliminating feedback loop I

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Step2: eliminating feedback loop II

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Find out TF of the given block diagram

Shift Summing point before G1

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
 Example : Find out transfer function

Reducing the 3 directly connected blocks in series into a single block, we will
have:

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Further, we can see 3 blocks are present that are connected parallel.
Thus on reducing blocks in parallel, we will have:

Further on simplifying the internal closed-loop system, the overall internal

gain will be

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 So, we will have:

Now reducing the two blocks in series:

So, this is the reduced canonical form of a

closed-loop system. We know gain of the
closed-loop system is given as:

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Therefore,

On simplifying the equation

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Example : Find out transfer function

Shift takeoff or pickoff point before block G2

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Eliminate loop I &simplify

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Move pick off point B behind G4+G2G3

Eliminate loop II

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Simplify inner loop

Remove unity feedback using G(s) /1+G(s) H(s )

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Example : Find out transfer function

Step 1: Combine the blocks G1 &G2 which are in cascade and combine the
blocks G2 &G3 which are in parallel

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Step 2: Eliminate feedback loop I and combine the blocks (G1G4 /
1+ G1G4H1) & (G2 + G3) which are in parallel as shown

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Step 3: eliminate feedback loop II

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Exercise

Hint : shift takeoff point after G4

Final Answer

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
 Example : Find out transfer function

Step:1. Shifting the summing point S2 before the block G1 and

shifting the take off point T2 after the block G4.

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 We get

Step:2. Exchange the summing points and take off points using associative
law and combining the series blocks we get

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 We get

Step:3: Eliminating inner feedback loops I, II

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 We get

Step:4 Combine the blocks in series

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Step 5:Eliminate the feedback loop III

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Example : Find out transfer function

Step 1 − Use Rule 1 for blocks G1 and G2. Use Rule 2 for blocks G3 and G4.
The modified block diagram is shown in the next slide or figure.

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Step 2 − Use Rule 3 for blocks G1G2 and H1. Use Rule 4 for
shifting take-off point after the block G5. The modified block
diagram is shown in the next slide or figure.

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Step 3 − Use Rule 1 for blocks (G3+G4) and G5. The modified block
diagram is shown in next slide

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Step 4 − Use Rule 3 for blocks (G3+G4)G5 and H3. The modified block
diagram is shown in the following figure.

Step 5 − Use Rule 1 for blocks connected in series. The modified block
diagram is shown in next slide
Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
 Step 6 − Use Rule 3 for blocks connected in feedback loop. The
modified block diagram is shown in the following figure.

Therefore, the TF of the system is

 Exercise Reduce the block diagram shown in fig. and obtain C(s) /
R(s)

1 Move take off point A behind G3

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 We get

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
Transfer function Using BDRT Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
 A graphical method of representing the control system using
the linear algebraic equations is known as the signal flow
graph. (SFG) 1. Nodes:X1-X8
X1 I/P source node ,X8
is o/p node
Other nodes are mixed
node
2 Branch: between two
nodes
3 Transmittance :Gain of
the branch a,b,c,e,g,I,j
7. Forward path: A path
proceeding from input to
output is known as
forward path. Here one
of the paths is x6 – x7 –
x8.
Transfer function Using SFG Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
 8. Feedback loop: A loop which is formed
through a path starting from a specific
node and ending on the same node after
travelling to at least one node of the
graph is known as a feedback loop. It is
to be noted that in the feedback loop, no
node should be traced twice. Here the
loop is x2 to x6 then back to x2.
9. Self-loop: A self-loop is the one which
has only a single node. The paths in such
loops are never defined by a forward
path or feedback loop as these never
trace any other node of the graph. Here
it is formed at node x5 having gain f.
Transfer function Using SFG Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
 10. Path gain: When the signal flows in a
forward path then the product of gains of
each branch gives the overall path gain.
Here , i*j is path gain for forward path, x6
to x8.

11. Loop gain: The product of individual

gains of the branches that are in the form of
loop is said to be the overall loop gain.
For the loop forming between x3 and x4 the
gain is c*d.

12. Non-touching loops: When two or more

loops do not share common nodes then
such loops are called non-touching loops.
For this SFG, the two non-touching loops
are x2-x6-x2 and x3-x4-x3.

Transfer function Using SFG Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 SFG from system equations
The steps are as follows:
•First represent each variable of the equation by an
individual node.
•Further, we know the value of the variable at a node is
obtained by summing up all the signals that are coming
to that node. So, draw the branches to that node
accordingly.
•The coefficient of the variables present in an equation
will be the gain of the branches that are joining the
nodes.
•Furthermore, locate the input and output variables of
the equations in the signal flow graph.
Transfer function Using SFG Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
 SFG from system equations
Example: Consider the equations

So, here Vi and Vo are the input

and output variables respectively.
While V1, V2 and V3 are the
system variables. Hence first, all
the variables will be represented
as nodes and further
interconnection between the
nodes using branches will be
done

Transfer function Using SFG Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 SFG from Block Diagram
The following are the steps to draw a signal flow graph:

•Here the summing and take-off points are represented by the nodes.
Thus, all the summing and take-off points of the block diagram should be
named and must indicate a specific node.

•Now, interconnect the various nodes using branches which was earlier
connected through blocks in the block diagram representation.
Also, the block transfer function will now act as branch gain of the
corresponding branch.

•Further, show the input and output nodes individually in the signal flow
graph to complete it.

Transfer function Using SFG Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 SFG from Block Diagram
Example :

Transfer function Using SFG Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Mason’s Gain Formula. Suppose there are ‘N’ forward paths in a
signal flow graph. The gain between the input and the output
nodes of a signal flow graph is nothing but the transfer
function of the system. It can be calculated by using Mason’s gain
formula.

Transfer function Using SFG Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

Transfer function Using SFG Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
 Example : Find out TF using SFG

Here the total number of forward paths are two.

T1 = G1G2G3G4G5
T2 = G1G2G6

Also, the above signal flow graph contains, 2 individual feedback loops
L1 = – G1H1
L2 = – G4H2

Transfer function Using SFG Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 These two loops of the SFG are also the two non-touching loops.

Therefore, substituting the values in the formula to calculate Δ,

we will get,
Δ = 1 – (L1 + L2) + (L1L2)
Δ = 1 – (- G1H1 – G4H2) + [(- G1H1) (- G4H2)]
So,

Δ = 1 + G1H1 + G4H2 + [(G1G4 H1H2)]

Further, we will now calculate ΔK

Transfer function Using SFG Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 So,
Δ1 = 1 – (loops that are not touching first forward
path)
And here there is no such loop which is not
touching the first forward path, hence,
Δ1 = 1 – (0)
Δ1 = 1
Now,
Δ2 = 1 – (loops not touching the second forward
path)

And here L2 is not touching the second forward

path, therefore,

Δ2 = 1 – (L2)
Δ2 = 1 – (- G4H2)
On simplifying
Δ2 = 1 + G4H2

Transfer function Using SFG Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Example: Find TF using SFG

•Number of forward paths, N = 2.

•First forward path is - y1→y2→y3→y4→y5→y6.
•First forward path gain, p1=abcde.
•Second forward path is y1→y2→y3→y5→y6.
•Second forward path gain,p2=abge.
•Number of individual loops, L = 5.
Transfer function Using SFG Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
Transfer function Using SFG Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
•Gain product of second non-touching loops pair is - l1l5=bjf
•Higher number of (more than two) non-touching loops are not present in
this signal flow graph. We know,
 Example:

Transfer function Using SFG Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

Transfer function Using SFG Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
Transfer function Using SFG Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
 Convert BD into SFG

Transfer function Using SFG Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Revise SFG components

Non-Touching Loops: Loops with no common nodes

Examples: L1 and L2 are touching loops
L1 and L3 & L2 and L3 are non-touching loops,
Input node (Source): node having only outgoing
branches
Output node (Sink): node having only incoming
branches
Mixed node: A node that has both incoming and
outgoing branches.
Transfer function Using SFG Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
 Construction of SFG from Equations
SFG of a system can be constructed from the describing equations:

Transfer function Using SFG Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Convert BD to SFG

Transfer function Using SFG Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Convert BD to SFG

Transfer function Using SFG Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Convert BD to SFG

Transfer function Using SFG Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

Transfer function Using SFG Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
Example: Find out TF of given SFG
Transfer function Using SFG Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
 Example: Find out TF of given SFG

Transfer function Using SFG Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

Transfer function Using SFG Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
 Using Mason's Formula, Find the T.F.

Transfer function Using SFG Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

Transfer function Using SFG Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
 Find the T.F.

Transfer function Using SFG Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

Transfer function Using SFG Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
Transfer function Using SFG Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
 Steady State Errors for Non-Unity Feedback Systems

Consider the following block diagram of closed loop control system, which is
having non unity negative feedback.

We can find the steady state errors only for the unity feedback systems.
So, we
have to convert the non-unity feedback system into unity feedback
system. For this, include one unity positive feedback path and one unity
negative feedback path in the above block diagram.
 The new block diagram looks like as shown below.

Simplify the above block diagram by keeping the unity negative feedback as
it is. The following is the simplified block diagram.
Necessary of Compensation
➢In order to obtain the desired performance of the system, we use compensating
networks. Compensating networks are applied to the system in the form of feed
forward path gain adjustment.
➢Compensate a unstable system to make it stable.
➢A compensating network is used to minimize overshoot.
➢These compensating networks increase the steady state accuracy of the system.
An important point to be noted here is that the increase in the steady state
accuracy brings instability to the system.
➢Compensating networks also introduces poles and zeros in the system thereby
causes changes in the transfer function of the system. Due to this, performance
specification
Methods of Compensation

1. Connecting compensating circuit between error

detector and plants known as series
compensation.

Series Compensator
2 . When a compensator used in a feedback manner called feedback
compensation.

Feedback Compensator
3.A combination of series and feedback compensator is called load
compensation.

Load Compensator
A compensating network is one which makes some adjustments in
order to make up for deficiencies in the system.

Compensating devices are may be in the form of electrical,

mechanical, hydraulic etc.

Most electrical compensator are RC filter.

The simplest network used for compensator are known as lead,

lag network.
Phase Lead Compensation
A system which has one pole and one dominating zero (the zero which is
closer to the origin than all over zeros is known as dominating zero.) is
known as lead network.
If we want to add a dominating zero for compensation in control system
then we have to select lead compensation network.

The basic requirement of the phase lead network is that all poles and zeros
of the transfer function of the network must lie on (-)ve real axis
interlacing each other with a zero located at the origin of nearest origin.
 Equating above expression of I we get,

Find TF by finding the ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage.
So taking Laplace transform of both side of above equations,
On substituting the α = (R1 +R2)/ R2 and T = {(R1R2) /(R1 +R2)} in the above
equation.
Where, T and α are respectively the time constant and attenuation constant,
we have

The above network can be visualized as an amplifier with a gain of 1/α.

 draw the pole zero plot for the above transfer function.

Clearly we have -1/T (which is a zero of the transfer function) is closer to

origin than the -1/(αT) (which is the pole of the transfer function).
Thus we can say in the lead compensator zero is more dominating than the
pole and because of this lead network introduces positive phase angle to
the system when connected in series.
 Let us substitute s = jω in the above transfer function and also we have α < 1.
On finding the phase angle function for the transfer function we have

Now in order to find put the maximum phase lead occurs at a frequency let us
differentiate his phase function and equate it to zero. On solving the above
equation we get

Where, θm is the maximum phase lead angle. And the corresponding

magnitude of the transfer function at maximum θm is 1/a.
Effect of Phase Lead Compensation
1. The velocity constant Kv increases.
2. The slope of the magnitude plot reduces at the gain crossover
frequency so that relative stability improves and error
decrease due to error is directly proportional to the slope.
3. The slope of the magnitude plot reduces at the gain crossover
frequency so that relative stability improves and error
decrease due to error is directly proportional to the slope.
4. Phase margin increases.
5. Response become faster.
Advantages of Phase Lead Compensation
1.Due to the presence of phase lead network the speed of the
system increases because it shifts gain crossover frequency to a
higher value.

2.Due to the presence of phase lead compensation maximum

overshoot of the system decreases.

Disadvantages of Phase Lead Compensation

•Steady state error is not improved.

 Phase Lag Compensating Network
We will have the output at the series combination of the resistor R2 and
the capacitor C.
From the above circuit diagram, we get
 Now let us determine the TFfor the given network .
TF can be determined by finding the ratio of the output voltage to the input
voltage.
Taking Laplace transform of above two equation we get,

in the above equation (Where, T and β are respectively the time constant and DC gain), we have
Phase Lag Lead Compensation
With single lag or lead compensation may not satisfied design specifications.
For an unstable uncompensated system, lead compensation provides fast
response but does not provide enough phase margin whereas lag
compensation stabilize the system but does not provide enough bandwidth.
So we need multiple compensators in cascade.
Given below is the circuit diagram for the phase lag- lead compensation
network.
 Now let us determine TF for the given network and the transfer function can be determined by
finding the ratio of the output voltage to the input voltage.

On substituting the αT1 = R1C1, R2C2 = βT2, R1R2C1C2 = αβT1T2 and T1T2 =
R1R2C1C2 in the above equation (where T1, T2 and α, β are respectively the time
constants and attenuation constants). We have
 Let us draw the pole zero plot for the above transfer function.

Pole Zero Plot Lag Lead Network

Clearly we have -1/T (which is a zero of the transfer function) is far to the origin than
the -1/(βT)(which is the pole of the transfer function). Thus we can say in the lag-
lead compensation pole is more dominating than the zero and because of this lag-lead
network may introduces positive phase angle to the system when connected in series.

Advantages of Phase Lag Lead Compensation

•Due to the presence of phase lag-lead network the speed of the system increases
because it shifts gain crossover frequency to a higher value.
•Due to the presence of phase lag-lead network accuracy is improved.
https://www.numerade.com/books/chapter/steady-state-
errors/?gclid=CjwKCAjwq9mLBhB2EiwAuYdMtdL6kFu5i0HMZjJUiEw1g3lJLO
bQaISZWOS_OUvf-Q0gTz6vyYYM5RoCwlYQAvD_BwE
 What is Time Response?
If the output of control system for an input varies with respect to
time, then it is called the time response of the control system.

The time response consists of two parts.

Transient response
Mathematically, we can
Steady state response
write the time response
c(t) as
c(t)=ctr(t)+css(t)

Where,
ctr(t) is the transient
response
css(t) is the steady state
response

Response of control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Transient Response
After applying input to the control system, output takes certain
time to reach steady state. So, the output will be in transient state
till it goes to a steady state.
Therefore, the response of the control system during the transient
state is known as transient response.

The transient response will be zero for large values of ‘t’. Ideally,
this value of ‘t’ is infinity and practically, it is five times constant.
Mathematically, we can write it as

Response of control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Steady state Response
The part of the time response that remains even after the transient
response has zero value for large values of ‘t’ is known as steady state
response. This means, the transient response will be zero even during the
steady state.
Example
Let us find the transient and steady state terms of the time
response of the control system
c(t)=10+5e -t

Here, the second term 5e-t will be zero as t denotes infinity. So,
this is the transient term.
And the first term 10 remains even as t approaches infinity. So,
this is the steady state term.

Response of control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Standard Test signals
1. Impulse,
2. step,
3. ramp
4. parabolic.

•These signals are used to know the performance of the control systems using time
response of the output

Response of control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Unit Impulse Signal
A unit impulse signal, δ(t) is defined as

•So, the unit impulse signal exists only at ‘t’ is equal to zero.
•The area of this signal under small interval of time around ‘t’ is equal
to zero is one.
•The value of unit impulse signal is zero for all other values of ‘t’.
Response of control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
 Unit Step Signal
A unit step signal, u(t) is defined as

•So, the unit step signal exists for all positive values of ‘t’ including zero. And
its value is one during this interval.
• The value of the unit step signal is zero for all negative values of ‘t’.
Response of control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
 Unit Ramp Signal
A unit ramp signal, r(t) is defined as

•So, the unit ramp signal exists for all positive values of ‘t’ including zero.
And its value increases linearly with respect to ‘t’ during this interval.
•The value of unit ramp signal is zero for all negative values of ‘t’.
Response of control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
 Unit Parabolic Signal
A unit parabolic signal, p(t) is defined as,

•So, the unit parabolic signal exists for all

the positive values of ‘t’ including zero.
And its value increases non-linearly with
respect to ‘t’ during this interval.
•The value of the unit parabolic signal is
zero for all the negative values of ‘t’.

Response of control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 Consider the following block diagram of the closed loop control
system. Here, an open loop transfer function, 1/sT is connected
with a unity negative feedback.

Response of control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

Where,
•C(s) is the Laplace transform of the output signal c(t),
•R(s) is the Laplace transform of the input signal r(t), and
•T is the time constant.
Follow these steps to get the response (output) of the first order system
in the time domain.
Let us now find out the responses of the first order system
for each input, one by one.
The name of the response is given as per the name of the
input signal.
For example, the response of the system for an impulse input is called as impulse
response
 The unit impulse response is shown in the
following figure

The unit impulse response, c(t) is an exponential decaying signal for positive
values of ‘t’ and it is zero for negative values of ‘t’.
Step Response of First Order System

Consider the unit step signal as an input to first order system.

So,
r(t)=u(t)

Apply Laplace transform on both the sides.

R(s)=1/s
 the following figure shows the unit step response.

The value of the unit step response, c(t) is zero at t = 0 and for all
negative values of t.
It is gradually increasing from zero value and finally reaches to
one in steady state. So, the steady state value depends on the
magnitude of the input.
Ramp Response of First Order System

Consider the unit ramp signal as an input to the first order system

r(t)=t u(t)
Do partial fractions of C(s)
Parabolic Response of First Order System
Consider the unit parabolic signal as an input to the first order system.
From these responses, we can conclude that the first order control
systems are not stable with the ramp and parabolic inputs because
these responses go on increasing even at infinite amount of time.
The first order control systems are stable with impulse and step
inputs because these responses have bounded output. But, the
impulse response doesn’t have steady state term. So, the step signal
is widely used in the time domain for analyzing the control systems
from their responses.
 o

Time response of second order system.

is connected with a unity negative feedback.

Response of control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

 The power of ‘s’ is two in the denominator term. Hence, the above
transfer function is of the second order and the system is said to be
the second order system.
The characteristic equation is -

Response of control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

Response of control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
Response of control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
 Step Response of Second Order System
Consider the unit step signal as an input to the second order system.
Laplace transform of the unit step signal is,
R(s)=1/s

Response of control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering

Response of control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
Response of control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
Response of control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
Response of control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
Response of control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
Response of control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
Response of control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
Response of control system Electronics & Telecommunication Engineering
The step response of the second order system for the under damped case is shown in the following figure.

All the time domain specifications are represented in this figure. The
response up to the settling time is known as transient response and the
response after the settling time is known as steady state response.
•Delay Time: time required for the response to reach half of its final
value from the zero instant. It is denoted by td.
•Rise
.
Time: time required for the response to rise from 0% to 100% of its final
value. This is applicable for the under-damped systems. For the over-damped
systems, consider the duration from 10% to 90% of the final value. Rise time is
denoted by tr
•Peak Time: time required for the response to reach the peak value for the first
time. It is denoted by tp..
Peak Overshoot: Peak overshoot Mp is defined as the deviation of the
response at peak time from the final value of response. It is also called
the maximum overshoot
Settling time: time required for the response to reach the steady state and stay
within the specified tolerance bands around the final value. In general, the
tolerance bands are 2% and 5%. The settling time is denoted by ts.
Delay Time
It is the time required for the response to reach half of its final value from the zero instant. It is denoted
by td
Consider the step response of the second order system for t ≥ 0, when ‘δ’ lies between zero and one.
From the above equation, we can conclude that the percentage of peak overshoot %Mp will
decrease if the damping ratio δ increases.
 Settling time
It is the time required for the response to reach the steady state and stay within the
specified tolerance bands around the final value. In general, the tolerance bands are
2% and 5%. The settling time is denoted by ts.
The settling time for 5% tolerance band is –

Both the settling time ts and the time constant τ are independent of the system gain.
That means even the system gain changes, the settling time ts and time constant τ will
never change.
Example
Let us now find the time domain specifications of a control system having the
closed loop transfer function 4 /s2+2s+4 when the unit step signal is applied as
an input to this control system.
Substitute the above necessary values in the formula of each time domain specification and
simplify in order to get the values of time domain specifications for given transfer function
.
The following table shows the formulae of time domain specifications, substitution of necessary values
and the final values.
What is Steady State Error?
Steady-state error is defined as the difference between the
desired value and the actual value of a system output in the
limit as time goes to infinity
(i.e. when the response of the control system has reached
steady-state).
 steady state error
The deviation of the output of control system from desired response during steady
state is known as steady state error.
It is represented as ess. We can find steady state error using the final value
theorem as follows.

Where,
E(s) is the Laplace transform of the error signal e(t)
Steady State Errors for Unity Feedback Systems

Consider the following block diagram of closed loop control system, which is
having unity negative feedback.

Where,
•R(s) is the Laplace transform of the reference Input signal r(t)
•C(s) is the Laplace transform of the output signal c(t)
We know the transfer function of the unity negative feedback closed loop
control system as
C(s)/R(s)=G(s)/1+G(s)
C(s)= G(s) R(s) /1+G(s)
The output of the summing point is -
E(s)=R(s)−C(s)

Substitute C(s) value in the above equation.

 Substitute E(s) value in the steady state error formula

Effects of standard inputs on steady state errors:

Step Input : Consider step of magnitude A is applied as reference input to the
system
Ramp input: Consider ramp input having slope A is applied .This
ramp input is expressed as
 Parabolic input: Consider a parabolic reference
input of slope A/2 .It is expressed as
Where Kp, Kv and Ka are position error constant, velocity error constant and acceleration error
constant respectively.
Note − If any of the above input signals has the amplitude other than unity, then multiply
corresponding steady state error with that amplitude.
The given input signal is a combination of three signals step, ramp and parabolic.
The following table shows the error constants and steady state error values for these
three signals.
We will get the overall steady state error, by adding the above three
steady state errors.
ess=ess1+ess2+ess3
⇒ess=0+0+1=1
E(s)= R(s) –T(s)