Response of First Order RL and RC Circuits

First Order Circuits: Overview

In this chapter we will study circuits that have dc sources, resistors, and either inductors or
capacitors (but not both). Such circuits are described by first order differential equations. They
will include one or more switches that open or close at a specific point in time, causing the
inductor or capacitor to see a new circuit configuration. This in turn will cause a time-dependent
change in voltages and currents.

We will find that the equations describing the voltages and currents in these circuits (i.e., the
circuit responses) are exponential in time, and characterized by a single time constant. In other
words, we will have responses of the form

𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) ∝ 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡/𝜏𝜏

For the natural response, and

𝑣𝑣(𝑡𝑡) 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑖𝑖(𝑡𝑡) ∝ (1 − 𝑒𝑒 −𝑡𝑡/𝑡𝑡 )

for the step response, where τ is the time constant. These are single time constant circuits.

Natural response occurs when a capacitor or an inductor is connected, via a switching event, to a
circuit that contains only an equivalent resistance (i.e., no independent sources). In that case, if
the capacitor is initially charged with a voltage, or the inductor is initially carrying a current, the
capacitor or inductor will release its energy to the resistance.

The circuit below shows an inductor that was initially connected to a current source, which
establishes a current in the inductor. The switching event at t = t0 results in the inductor being
connected to only a resistance. In this case, the inductor current iL(t) will decrease exponentially
in time.

t = t0

RS iL(t)
L R
iS
We next consider a capacitor initially connected to a voltage source, which establishes a voltage
across the capacitor. The switching event at t = t0 results in the capacitor being connected to only
a resistance. In this case, the capacitor voltage vC(t) will decrease exponentially in time.

RS t = t0

a) b)

vS + R
vC(t) C

In the circuits above, L and C may be the result of combining inductors or capacitors in series or
parallel.

Note that the circuit connected to the inductor before t = t0 is a Norton equivalent, and the circuit
connected to the capacitor is a Thevenin equivalent. The resistance Rs may be interpreted as a
source resistance. Here is an example of the use of Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits to
help us think in general terms about circuit analysis. We could have had considerably more
complex circuits connected to the inductor or to the capacitor – and later we will have that - but
we can always reduce those circuits to a Norton or Thevenin equivalent.

After the switching event, the inductor and the capacitor are connected only to a resistance. That
resistance should be interpreted as the equivalent Thevenin equivalent resistance seen by the
capacitor. In more complex problems, there may be several resistors in series or parallel as well
as dependent sources, all of which combine to a single Thevenin equivalent resistance.

Note also that we could have chosen the Norton equivalent for the capacitor example, and the
Thevenin equivalent for the inductor example. These are equivalent by the source transformation
theorem, but making these choices now will make our later analysis easier.

Step response occurs when an inductor or capacitor is connected, via a switching event, to a
circuit containing one or more independent sources. Examples for the inductor and for the
capacitor are shown below.

RS t = t0
t = t0

iL(t)
L
iS
RS C vS
Again, we are using Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits to represent what gets connected to
the inductor and capacitor. Later we will consider more complex circuits.

The Natural Response of an RL Circuit

The circuit below shows the natural response configuration we introduced earlier. We specify
that the switch had been closed for a long time, and then opened at t = t0. After the switch
opened, the inductor was connected to the resistance R. We want to know what happens to the
inductor current after the switch is thrown.

Terminology When we write “t”, we mean the variable representing time. When we write t0, we
mean a particular moment time, e.g., t0 = 0, or t0 = 5 [ms].

The “natural response” is one in which the inductor, with current flowing through it, undergoes a
switching event that connects it to a resistance only. As we pointed out above, that resistance can
be a single resistor, or it can be an equivalent resistance that arises from a circuit containing
multiple resistors and/or dependent sources.

t = t0

RS iL(t)
L R
iS

A Long Time?
What do we mean that the switch had been closed “for a long time”? We will be specific later
about what that means, but it is important to know that before the switch opens, enough time had
passed that voltages and currents are no longer changing. Recall that we said that voltages and
currents will be decaying exponentially in time for circuits like this. Therefore, after enough time
has passed, voltages and currents will stop changing. Once that happens, we say the circuit is at
steady state.

Analysis

We begin the analysis at t < t0, i.e., before the switch opened. The circuit for this time domain is
shown below: the switch is closed.
Since we know the circuit was in steady state (because it has been like this a long time), we have

diL
=0 ⇒ vL =0 .
dt

From the current-voltage relationship for an inductor, we know that at constant current, the
inductor acts like a short. Thus, the resistors R and RS have no current flowing through them, so
the only current flowing is through the inductor, and iL = iS.

Now we look at the situation for t > t0. The switch has been
thrown, and the inductor sees only a resistance. We don’t
need to worry about the current source or the resistor RS at +
this point.
iL(t) R
We are no longer in steady state: currents and voltages now L
begin to change. To find out how, we do a KVL: vL
-
diL (t )
L + iL (t ) R =
0
dt

Note that the inductor current and voltage are in the active sign relationship. You should
convince yourself that the signs in this equation are correct.

This is a first-order differential equation for iL(t).

Solution
diL
i( t ) t R
∫(
i t0 ) i
L
= − ∫ dt
t0 L

iL ( t ) R
ln − ( t − t0 )
=
iL ( t0 ) L
−R
L(
t − t0 )
∴ iL ( t ) iL ( t0 ) e
= t ≥ t0

We have integrated over time from the switching time t0 to an arbitrary time t, and we have
integrated over current from its value at t0 to its value at t.
Initial Condition
For a complete solution, we need the initial condition iL (t0 ) . We found earlier that before the
switching event, the current in the inductor was iS. But that was the current flowing in the
inductor before the switch was thrown. We need to know the inductor current after the switch is
thrown, which is want the differential equation refers to.

To do that, we make use of the inductor property that we cannot have an instantaneous change
in current through an inductor. That means the inductor current flowing immediately before
the switch moved, iL (t0− ) is equal to the current flowing in the inductor immediately after the
switch moved, iL (t0+ ) . But iL (t0− ) is the current we found above, that is, iL (t0− ) = iS , and
iL (t0+ ) is what we have called iL (t0 ) in the equation above. So, i=L (t0 ) iL=(t0+ ) iS , which is
the initial condition we need in order to solve the equation.

Valid Time Range

To be clear about the validity of the solution, we indicate that t ≥ t0 , meaning that the solution as
written is valid at time t0 and later. It is not valid for t < t0 .

Typically, L and t0 will be known, and we need to find the initial condition and the resistance
seen by the inductor, R. As noted above, R will be the Thevenin equivalent resistance of
whatever the inductor is connected to. We have a natural response problem if the Thevenin
equivalent voltage is 0, that, the Thevenin equivalent is a resistance only.

To simplify notation, we will define the initial value of the current as iL (t0 ) ≡ I 0 . So in this case
we have, as an initial condition, I0 = iS (the value of the current source).

The Time Constant

The form of the response can be simplified by noting that the units of R/L are s-1 (inverse
seconds):

 R  ohm ⋅ Amp −1
 L  = volt ⋅ s = s .
We can then write
− ( t − t0 )
=iL ( t ) I 0e τL
t ≥ t0 .

L
τL =
R
Very often we have t0 = 0, in which case
 −t
iL ( t ) I 0e
= τL
t≥0 .

We can interpret this equation to mean that the inductor current starts at the initial value I0, and
then decays exponentially in time once it is removed from the current source and connected to
the resistor.

In the figure below we show a plot of iL ( t ) for a long enough time that the exponential has
decayed to 0 (or at least to a very small value). The initial current iS is chosen to be 10 [mA] and
the time constant is 10 [mS]. The plot also shows the point at which the time t is equal to the
time constant, i.e., t = τ L . At this point, the current has decayed to a value given by
−τ L
iL ( t =τL ) =I 0e τL
=e −1I 0 .

The numerical value of e-1 is approximately 0.368, or roughly 3/8.

iL(t = τL) = e-1I0

Long Time
We note that after five time constants, or t = 50 [ms], the current has decayed almost to 0. What
is left is less than 1% of the initial value: t = 5τ L ⇒ iL ( t ) = 0.0067iL (t0 ) . For that reason, we
can define a “long time” as five time constants.

The Inductor is a Short in Steady State

Earlier we defined steady state as the condition in which voltages and currents are no longer
changing. We said that in switching problems we will need to know that the switch has been in
its initial position for a long time so that we know the circuit is in steady state. Looking at the
solution for the inductor current, we see that after a long time, the inductor current becomes 0,
and again there is no longer any change in voltage or current. In other words, the circuit has
returned to steady state.

We also said above that in steady state, the inductor acts like a short circuit because although
there is current flowing in it, there is no voltage across it. The inductor behaves like a short while
the switch is in its initial position, and later returns to a short a long time after the switching
event. In between those times, the inductor current and voltage are changing exponentially.
These are important ideas that we will return to many times in this course and in future courses.

Power and Energy Delivered to R

We can find expressions for the power delivered to the resistor and the energy dissipated by it as
a function of time. Note that these equations are valid only for t ≥ t0 .

−2( t −t0 )
2 2
R (t ) (t ) R I 0 R e τL
pabs by= i= L
−2( t −t0 )
t 1  
abs by R (t ) ∫= L I 0 2 1 − e τL
w= pabs , R dt 
t0 2  

As we expect, after a long time, the total energy dissipated in the resistor is 1 L I 0 2 , i.e., it is the
2
total energy delivered by the inductor, which was initially carrying a current iL (t0 ) = I 0 .

Inductor Voltage
We can also find the voltage across the inductor as follows (recall we have an active sign
relationship between vL and iL.

diL d  − ( t − t0 ) τ L 
vL ( t ) =
−L − L  I 0e
=  t > t0 .
dt dt  

Then,
 1  − ( t − t0 ) τ L
vL ( t ) =− L I 0 ⋅  −  e
 τL 
= R I 0e ( 0 ) L .
− t −t / τ

Valid Time Range for the inductor voltage

Although the current through the inductor cannot change instantaneously, the voltage across the
inductor can change instantaneously, and in this case it does. Note that immediately before the
switch was moved, the voltage across the inductor was 0. However, at t = t0 in the expression
above, the voltage across the inductor is vL ( t0 ) = I 0 R . Therefore, the inductor voltage has
changed instantaneously.

Because the voltage changes instantaneously, we cannot say what its value is at t = t0. The
inductor voltage is indeterminate at t = t0, meaning it is not possible to say what it is. Therefore,
we have indicated the valid time range as being t > t0. This implies that the solution for the
voltage across the inductor is not valid at t = t0.

Find the Inductor Current First

We found the inductor current, and from that we found the inductor voltage. There was an
important reason for doing it in this order: it is straightforward to find the initial condition for the
differential equation that describes the current, which we have done. Although it is possible to
find the initial condition for the equation that describes the inductor voltage, this is less
straightforward. Therefore, it is a good idea to find the inductor current first, and then if
necessary, differentiate to find the inductor voltage.

The Natural Response of an RC Circuit

We now go through a similar analysis for the RC circuit.

The circuit below shows the natural response configuration for the RC circuit. In this case, a
switch is moving from position a to position b. We specify that the switch had been in position a
for a long time, and then moved to position b at time t = t0. After the switch moved, the capacitor
was connected to the resistance R, and we want to know what happens to the capacitor voltage
after the switch is moved.

The “natural response” is one in which the capacitor, with a voltage across it, undergoes a
switching event that connects it to a resistance only. As for the inductor, that resistance can be a
single resistor, or it can be an equivalent resistance that arises from a circuit containing multiple
resistors and/or dependent sources.

Analysis
We begin the analysis at t < t0, i.e., before the switch opened. The circuit for this time domain is
shown next: the switch is in position a.
Since we know the circuit was in steady state (because it has been like this a long time), we have

dvC
=0 ⇒ iC =0 .
dt

This follows from the current-voltage relationship for the capacitor. Since currents and voltages
are no longer changing, the capacitor is in steady state, and the capacitor acts like an open
circuit, because there is a voltage across it but no current flowing through it. Thus, the voltage
across the capacitor is vC = vS.

Now we look at the situation for t > t0. The switch has been
moved to position b, and now the capacitor sees only a resistance.
We don’t need to worry about the current source or the resistor
RS at this point.

We are no longer in steady state: currents and voltages now begin

to change. To find out how, we do a KCL:

dvC (t ) vC (t )
C + 0
=
dt R

Note that the capacitor current and voltage are in the active sign relationship. You should
convince yourself that the signs in this equation are correct. This is a first-order differential
equation for vC(t).

Solution
This equation has the same form as that for the inductor current, so we can write down the
solution directly. The only difference is that the constant in the exponent changes to the 1/RC.
 −
( t − t0 )
=vC ( t ) vC ( t0 ) e RC
t ≥ t0 .

Valid Time Range

As for the inductor current, the capacitor voltage is valid at the time t = t0, and at times greater
than this value.

Initial Condition
For a complete solution, we need the initial condition vC (t0 ) . We found earlier that before the
switching event, the voltage across the capacitor was vS. We then make use of the capacitor
property that we cannot have an instantaneous change in voltage across a capacitor.

That that means the capacitor voltage immediately before the switch moved, vC (t0− ) is equal to
the voltage across the capacitor immediately after the switch moved, vC (t0+ ) . But vC (t0− ) is the
voltage we found above, that is, vC (t0− ) = vS , and vC (t0+ ) is what we have called vC (t0 ) . So,
C (t0 ) C (t0 )
+
v= v= vS . This is the initial condition we need in order to solve the equation.

Typically, C and t0 will be known, and we need to find the initial condition and the resistance
seen by the capacitor, R. The resistance R will be the Thevenin equivalent resistance seen by the
capacitor. We have a natural response problem if the Thevenin equivalent voltage is 0, that, the
Thevenin equivalent is a resistance only.

To simplify notation, we will define the initial value of the voltage as vC (t0 ) ≡ V0 . So in this case
we have, as an initial condition, V0 = vS (the value of the voltage source

The Time Constant

The form of the response can be simplified by noting that the units of RC are in fact s-1 (inverse
seconds):

OhmVolt
[ RC ] Ohm
= = Farad = s −1 .
Amps
We can then write
− ( t − t0 )
=vC ( t ) V0e τC
t ≥ t0 .

As for the inductor current, we indicate that t ≥ t0 , meaning that the solution as written is valid
at time t0 and later. It is not valid for t < t0 .
If we simplify by setting t0 = 0, i.e., we have
 −t
vC ( t ) V0e
= τL
t≥0 .

We can interpret this equation to mean that the capacitor voltage starts at some initial value V0,
and then decays exponentially in time once it is removed from the voltage source and connected
to the resistor.

In the figure below we show a plot of vC ( t ) for a long enough time that the exponential has
decayed to 0 (or at least to a very small value). The initial voltage vS is chosen to be 10 [mV] and
the time constant is 10 [mS]. The plot also shows the point at which the time t is equal to the
time constant, i.e., t = τC . At this point, the voltage has decayed to a value given by
−τC
vC ( t =τC ) =
V0e τC
=e −1V0 .

The numerical value of e-1 is approximately 0.368, or roughly 3/8.

12

10

8
vC(t) [mV]

vC(t = τC) = e-1V0

6

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
t [ms]

As for the inductor, after five time constants, or t = 50 [ms], the voltage has decayed almost to 0.
What is left is less than 1% of the initial value: t = 5τC ⇒ vC ( t ) = 0.0067vC (t0 ) . As we
pointed out above, we define a “long time” as five time constants.

The Capacitor is an Open Circuit in Steady State

Just as in inductor problems, we need to know that the switch has been in its initial position for a
long time so that we know the circuit is in steady state. Looking at the solution for the capacitor
voltage, we see that after a long time, the voltage becomes 0, and again there is no longer any
change in voltage or current. In other words, the circuit has returned to the steady state.
We also said above that in steady state, the capacitor acts like an open circuit because although
there is a voltage across it, there is no current flowing in it. The capacitor behaves like an open
circuit while the switch is in its initial position, and later returns to an open a long time after the
switching event. In between these times, the capacitor current and voltage are changing
exponentially.

Power and Energy Delivered to R

We can find expressions for the power delivered to the resistor and the energy dissipated by it as
a function of time. Note that these equations are valid only for t ≥ t0 .

−2( t −t0 )
2 2
by R (t ) (t ) R V0 R e τC
pabs= v= C
−2( t −t0 )
t 1  
∫t0 abs,R 2 0 
2
w=
abs by R (t ) = p dt C V  1 − e τC



1
As we expect, after a long time, the total energy dissipated in the resistor is C V0 2 , i.e., it is the
2
total energy delivered by the capacitor, which was initially had a voltage vC (t0 ) = V0 .

We can also find the current through the capacitor as follows.

dvC d  − ( t − t0 ) τ C 
iC ( t ) C= C  V0e
= .
dt dt  

Then,
 1  −(t −t0 ) τC
iC ( =
t ) C V0 ⋅  −  e t > t0
 τC 
V0 −(t −t0 ) τC
= e t > t0 .
R
We note that although the voltage across the capacitor cannot change instantaneously, the current
through it can change instantaneously, and in this case it does. Immediately before the switch
was moved, the capacitor current was 0. However, at t = t0 in the expression above, the current
through the capacitor is iC ( t0 ) = V0 . Therefore, the capacitor current has in fact changed
R
instantaneously.
As we discussed in the case of the inductor voltage, the value of the capacitor current at t = t0 is
indeterminate, and we indicate this by saying that the valid time range for the solution t > t0.

Find the Capacitor Voltage First

In this analysis we first found the capacitor voltage, and from that we found the capacitor
current. We did this because it is straightforward to find the initial condition for the differential
equation that describes the voltage. Although it is possible to find the initial condition for the
equation that describes the capacitor current, this is less straightforward. Therefore, it is a good
idea to find the capacitor voltage first, and then if necessary, differentiate to find the current.

The Step Response of an RL Circuit

The step response occurs when a switching event results in connecting a capacitor or an inductor
to a circuit that contains an independent voltage source or an independent current source.
Whereas the natural response resulted in exponential decay of an initial current or voltage, the
step response will result in an exponential buildup of current or voltage from an initial value.

We follow a similar process here as for the natural response. That is, we examine the circuit
before the switching event, establish an initial condition, and then examine the circuit after the
switching event.

The circuit below shows an inductor in a switching circuit. Before the switch is thrown, the
inductor is not connected to anything, and therefore carries no current. When the switch closes,
the inductor is connected to a circuit containing an independent voltage source.

Analysis
Analysis of this circuit will again result in a first order differential equation, and therefore we
will need an initial condition. To do this, we will need to know that the switch has been open for
a long time, so that any changes in inductor current will have decayed to zero.
We will again use the property of an inductor that the current in it cannot change
instantaneously. Since the current before the switching event is 0, the current immediately after
(t0− ) iL=
the switching event will also be zero: iL= (t0+ ) 0 .

A KVL establishes the differential equation.

diL
iL RS + L =vS
dt
diL vS R
= − iL S
dt L L

iL ( t ) diL t R
∫iL (t0 ) vS ∫t0 LS dt
= −
iL −
RS

We want to know the inductor current at an arbitrary time t, so we integrate time from the
switching time t0 to time t, and we integrate current from its value at t0 to its value at time t.

 vS 
 Li (t ) − 
RS R
ln  =− S ( t − t0 )
 i (t ) − vS  L
 L 0 R 
 S 

Thus, the expression for the current as a function of time is as follows.

v  v 
iL (t ) =S +  iL (t0 ) − S  e − (t −t0 )/τ L t ≥ t 0
RS  RS 

L
We have defined the time constant τ L ≡ .
RS

Because the inductor current cannot change instantaneously, this solution is valid at time t = t0
and at values of time greater than this. We have indicated this in the solution.

Final Value
In the figure below we show a plot of iL ( t )
 iL ( t ) for t → ∞ .
The initial current iL ( t0 ) ≡ I 0 in the plot below is chosen to be 0, in which case the final value is
vS/R, which was chosen to be 10 [mA]. The time constant is 10 [mS]. The plot also shows the
point at which the time t is equal to the time constant, i.e., t = τ L . At this point, the current has
decayed to a value given by
vS −τ L
vS
iL (= )
t τ L= (1 − e τL= ) (1 − e −1 ) .
RS RS

The numerical value of (1-e-1) is approximately (1 - 0.368), or roughly 5/8.

-1
iL(t = τL) = (1-e )vS/ RS

t = τL

We can now use the current voltage relationship for the inductor to find the voltage across the
inductor.

diL ( t )
vL ( t ) = L
dt
t ) ( vS − I 0 RS ) e
vL (=
−( t −t0 ) /τ L
t > t0 .

We have indicated that the valid time range for this equation is t > t0, because the voltage across
the inductor is indeterminant at t = t0.

As for the natural response, we first found the inductor current, and then differentiated it to find
the inductor voltage.
We could find relationships for power and energy, but we will not do that here.

The Step Response of an RC Circuit

The RC circuit step response analysis is similar to the step response for the RL circuit. We will
again make use of the fact that the voltage across a capacitor cannot change instantaneously.

The circuit below shows a capacitor connected to a current source in parallel with a resistor when
the switch is thrown. The current source and resistor should be thought of as a Norton equivalent,
and therefore can represent a more complex circuit connected to the capacitor.

Before the switch is thrown, the capacitor is connected to a resistor. We specify that it has been
in that position for a long time, so the capacitor has no voltage across it. When the switch closes
at t = t0, the capacitor is connected to the Norton equivalent, and voltages and currents begin to
change.

Analysis

We again use the property of a capacitor that the voltage across it cannot change instantaneously,
C (t0 ) C (t0 ) vC (t0 ) . Since the voltage before the switching event in this case
− +
so we have v= v=
is 0, the voltage immediately after the switching event will also be zero.

The circuit after the switching event is shown below.

A KCL establishes the differential equation.

vC dv
+C C = iS
RS dt
dvC v iS
+ C =
dt RS C RS C

This equation has the same form as for the inductor current step response, so we can write the
solution directly.

vC (t ) = iS RS + (V0 − iS RS ) e − (t −t0 )/τ C t ≥ t 0

Note that the time constant τ C ≡ RS C is the same as it was for the natural response. Also, we
have defined vC (t0 ) = V0 , which we found above is 0 for this circuit.

Because the capacitor voltage cannot change instantaneously, this solution is valid at time t = t0
and at values of time greater than this.

In the figure below we show a plot of vC ( t ) for a long enough time that the exponential has very
nearly reached its final value. The initial voltage vC ( t0 ) ≡ V0 in the plot below is chosen to be 0,
in which case the final value is iSR, which was chosen to be 10 [mV]. The time of the switching
event t0 is also chosen to be 0, and the time constant is 10 [mS]. The plot also shows the point at
which the time t is equal to the time constant, i.e., t = τC . At this point, the current has decayed
to a value given by
−τC
( t τC=) iS RS (1 − e
vC = ) iS RS (1 − e −1 ) .
τC
=

The numerical value of (1-e-1) is approximately (1 - 0.368), or roughly 5/8.

-1
vC(t = τC) = (1 - e )iS RS
The capacitor current can be found from the current voltage relationship. As for the natural
response, the current in the capacitor can change instantaneously, and therefore its value at t = t0
is indeterminant. This is indicated as part of the solution.

dvC ( t )
iC ( t ) = C
dt
 V  − t −t /τ
iC (=
t )  iS − 0  e ( 0 ) C t > t 0 .
 RS 

As for the natural response, we first found the capacitor voltage, and then we differentiated it to
find the capacitor current.

General Solution for the Single Time Constant Response

We have derived solutions for capacitor voltage and inductor current for the natural and step
response cases. Here we note that the differential equations describing these cases all have the
same mathematical form, and we can find a general solution that is valid for all of them.

The differential equations we are interested in are enclosed in a box in the analyses above. If we
denote x ( t ) as either the inductor current or the capacitor voltage, we see that the boxed
equations all have the following form.

dx ( t ) x ( t )
+ κ.
=
dt τ

If x ( t ) represents the inductor current, then τ ≡ L . If x ( t ) represents the capacitor voltage,

R
then τ ≡ RC , where R is the Thevenin Equivalent resistance seen by the capacitor. The
parameter κ is (i) 0, for the natural response, (ii) the Norton current in a capacitor problem, or
(iii) the Thevenin voltage in an inductor problem.

We noted above that after a long time, any of the circuits we have studied will reach steady state,
the condition in which currents and voltages are no longer changing, and therefore time
derivatives are zero. If at that time the value of x is defined as the final value xf, then we see
from the equation above that

dx
→ 0 ⇒ x → xf =κτ .
dt
Then we can write the differential equation as

dx x
=− +κ .
dt τ
Solving:
dx dt
= −
(x − xf ) τ
x f  x(t0 ) − x f  e − (t −t0 )/τ .
x(t ) =+
This equation holds for the inductor current or the capacitor voltage in either natural response or
step response problems. It requires that we find the initial value x ( t0 ) of the variable we’re
interested in, the final value x f , and the time constant τ.

Summary of Natural and Step Response Problems

We can summarize the steps needed to solve a natural or step response problem using the general
solution just derived as follows.

• For problems involving an inductor, we identify x ( t ) as the inductor current. For

problems involving a capacitor, we identify x ( t ) as the capacitor voltage.

• Examine the circuit before the switching event.

o It is a good idea to redraw the circuit with the switch in its initial position.

• Find the initial condition x ( t0 ) in the circuit before the switch was thrown. It will always
be assumed that the switch was in its initial position for a long time.
o If the circuit contains an inductor, find the current in the inductor before the
switching event. If the circuit contains a capacitor, find the voltage across the
capacitor before the switching event.

• Examine the circuit after the switching event.

o It is a good idea to redraw the circuit with the switch in its new position.

• Find the Thevenin equivalent resistance seen by the inductor or capacitor in the circuit
created after the switch was thrown.
o To do this, remove the inductor or capacitor, and find the Thevenin equivalent
resistance at the terminals to which it had been connected.

• Find the appropriate time constant: τ L ≡ L ; τ C ≡ RC .

R
 • Using the general solution derived above, write the equation for the inductor current or
for the capacitor voltage using the appropriate initial condition and time constant.
o Be sure to indicate the time region over which the solution is valid.

• If needed, we can find other voltages or currents in the circuit.

o We can find the voltage across an inductor by differentiating the inductor current,
and we can find the current in a capacitor by differentiating the voltage.
o We can also find any voltage or current in the circuit using Kirchhoff’s laws, or
whatever tools we find appropriate.

Sequential Switching
We can have a situation in which there is a switching event at t = t0, and then sometime later
there is a second switching event at t = t1. We could have many switching events at t2, t3, …

If after the first switching event, the second switching event happens after the circuit has reached
steady state, then the sequential switching problem is no different from what we have been
studying here. We can simply solve the problem that arises from the first switching event, find a
new initial condition, and solve the problem for the second switching event. But if the second
switching event occurs before the circuit reaches steady state, we will have to be careful about
choosing initial conditions for the second switching event.

We will look at an example here to illustrate the idea of sequential switching in the case that the
second switching event happens before the circuit reaches steady state after the first switching
event. We will work the details in class, but give only the solutions here in the notes.

This is Problem 7.6 in Worked Problems

The circuit below shows an example of a sequential switching event. Switch 1 (SW 1) is
assumed to have been closed for a long time, and then it opens at t = 0. Switch 2 (SW 2) is
assumed to have been open for a long time, and then at t = 50 [ms], it closes.

Let's think about what happens here. The circuit below shows what is happening before t = 0.
Switch 1 is closed, and switch 2 is open. The current source and resistors create a voltage vC(t0)
across the capacitor.
After switch 1 opens, but before switch 2 closes, the capacitor is connected only to the 50 [kΩ]
resistor. This is a natural response problem.

Finally, after switch 2 closes, the circuit looks as follows. This is another natural response, but
now the Thevenin equivalent resistance seen by the capacitor has changed because of the
introduction of the 200 [kΩ] resistor, so the time constant will be different.
In the last two circuits we could have left the 30 [kΩ] resistor out, but we left it in to make it
clear what the circuit configuration is.

Here is our plan.

1. Find the initial condition for the first switching event from the circuit at t < 0.
2. Find the natural response for the circuit in the time range 0 < t < 50 [ms].
3. Find the value of the capacitor voltage at t = 50 [ms]. This will serve as the initial
condition for the second switching event.
4. Find the capacitor voltage for t > 50 [ms].

We start with the circuit shown for t < 0. Since the switches have been in their initial positions
for a long time, we know that the capacitor is at steady state, and therefore acts as an open
circuit. We can use the current divider rule to find that the voltage across the capacitor is 200
[V]. We have now established the initial condition for the first switching event, which is that
vC (t0 ) = 200 [V] . We can be explicit about this:

vC (t ) 200 [V] t ≤ 0 .
=

We now look at the circuit for 0 < t < 50 [ms]. This is the circuit configuration after the first
switch has opened, but before the second switch has closed. This is a natural response problem,
and the Thevenin equivalent resistance connected to the capacitor is 50 [kΩ]. Therefore, the time
constant is τ C = 50 [kΩ] * 2 [µF] = 0.1 [s]. To use our general formula, we assign τ C = 0.1 [s].
But we also need to know the final value of the capacitor voltage.

The final value of the capacitor voltage is determined by noting that after a long time, the
capacitor will be in steady state, and thus will behave like an open circuit. Therefore, the current
through it will be 0, and the voltage across it will be also be zero. In fact, the final value for
capacitor voltage or inductor current in any natural response problem will be zero.

Now, we know that there will be a another switching event at t = 50 [ms]. This is less than one
time constant, and therefore the capacitor voltage will not reach zero before the second switching
event. But the capacitor does not “know” this, and therefore behaves as if there will not be
another switching event. Therefore, the solution to the natural response problem is constructed
with a final capacitor voltage of 0. Applying our general formula with these parameters, we get
(with t0 = 0),

vC , f + vC (t0 ) − vC , f  e − (t −t0 )/τ C

vC (t ) =

0 + [ 200 [V] − 0] e − (t −0)/0.01 [s] .

vC (t ) =

Simplifying, and including the time range over which the solution is valid, we get
 =vC (t ) 200e − t /0.01 [s] 0 ≤ t ≤ 50 [ms] .

This solution is valid at t = 0, at t = 50 [ms], and at times in between these values.

When the second switching event occurs, the value of the capacitor voltage is

vC (t 50
= = [ms ]) 200e −0.05/0.01 [s] = 121.31 [V] .

This is the initial condition for the second switching event.

We now look at the circuit valid for t > 50 [ms]. This is also a natural response problem, but now
the Thevenin equivalent resistance is 200 [kΩ] in parallel with 50 [kΩ]. This gives a new time
constant τ C = 80 [ms]. Referring again to our general formula with the new time constant, the
initial condition calculated above, and a final value of 0, we have

vC , f + vC (t0 ) − vC , f  e − (t −t1 )/τ C

vC (t ) =

Note that the exponent is now (t − t1 ) / τ C , and that the second switching event at occurs at t1 =
50 [ms]. This information must be included in the solution.

0 + [121.31 [V] − 0] e − (t −50 [ms])/80 [ms]

vC (t ) =

=vC (t ) 121.31e − (t −50 [ms])/80[ms] [V] t ≥ 50 [ms]

The equations given in the boxes above constitute the solution to the sequential switching
problem. When writing these solutions, we need to be sure to include the range of time for which
each solution is valid.

As we have been pointing out, the voltage across the capacitor cannot change instantaneously,
and in fact these solutions reflect that. We can plug t = 0 into the equation that holds for
0 ≤ t ≤ 50 [ms] , and see from that equation that the voltage is 0, as it should be at t = 0.
Similarly, we can plug t = 50 [ms] into the equation t ≥ 50 [ms] ,and find that the capacitor
voltage is 121.31 volts, as it should be at that time. Thus, the three equations “connect” at the
boundaries of the time domains, so the capacitor voltage is always continuous.

Unbounded Response
We noted in the chapter on Thevenin equivalents that it is possible for a Thevenin equivalent
resistance to be negative. If the Thevenin resistance seen by a capacitor or an inductor in a single
time constant circuit is negative, the voltage across the capacitor or the current in the inductor
will increase exponentially:
 +t / τ
x f  x(t0 ) − x f  e
x(t ) =+

This is a valid result, but we have to wonder how to determine the final value. After a long time,
x ( t ) will go to infinity. It turns out that the solution is simple: the final value of x ( t ) is
determined just as it is in the case where the time constant is positive. One way to think about
this is that the final value occurs at a time t → −∞ . Thus, the only difference in problems where
the time constant is negative is that the solution is growing exponentially. The final value is
found in the same as it is for positive time constants. In real circuits, exponential growth will
have to stop at some point, since voltages and currents cannot be infinite. In real components,
either another switching event must occur to stop the exponential increase, or else some
components in the circuit will burn up!