Geo-spatial Information Science

ISSN: 1009-5020 (Print) 1993-5153 (Online) Journal homepage: www.tandfonline.com/journals/tgsi20

Coastal zone management in India − present

status and future needs

Shailesh Nayak

To cite this article: Shailesh Nayak (2017) Coastal zone management in India −
present status and future needs, Geo-spatial Information Science, 20:2, 174-183, DOI:
10.1080/10095020.2017.1333715

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/10095020.2017.1333715

© 2017 Wuhan University. Published by

Taylor & Francis Group

Published online: 22 Jun 2017.

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Geo-spatial Information Science, 2017
VOL. 20, NO. 2, 174–183
https://doi.org/10.1080/10095020.2017.1333715

OPEN ACCESS

Coastal zone management in India − present status and future needs

Shailesh Nayak
Earth System Science Organization, New Delhi, India

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

The coastal zone is a region where land, ocean and atmosphere interact and hence it is dynamic Received 5 March 2017
in nature. India has a long coastline which was not adequately monitored until the advent of Accepted 2 April 2017
the satellite remote sensing era in the 70s. India has a very robust remote sensing program that
KEYWORDS
the Indian Remote Sensing Satellite (IRS) series of satellites were effectively used to monitor Coastal zone; India; habitats;
coastal habitats, landforms, shoreline, water quality, etc., and changes were identified during the processes; water quality;
last 40 years. The classification system for coastal habitats and the classification and geometric living resources; coastal
accuracies of products were standardized. Detailed information for mangroves communities management
and characteristics of coral reefs were generated. The high and low tide lines were delineated
seamlessly for the entire coastline using satellite data. All these data were organized in a GIS
and the coastal database for the entire country was created. Impacts of various hazards on
such as cyclones, tsunami and sea level changes on coastal habitats were documented. Based
on topography, shoreline changes and tides, coastal multi-hazard vulnerability maps were
characterized by employing the elevation data derived from satellite data and were prepared for
the coastline of India. The information on ocean color and sea surface temperature was used to
generate potential fishery advisories, which are provided daily to fishermen. The coastal database
was utilized effectively to identify coastal regulation zones, marine protected areas, vulnerable
zones, etc. Various services for tsunami, fishery and coral reef bleaching were generated for
societal benefits. It is planned to develop models for the coastal zone, so that impeding dangers
and likely changes in the coastal zone can be predicted and suitable actions can be undertaken.
It is necessary to integrate socio-economic data with the knowledge database of coastal zone
to understand the impact of anthropogenic activities and the changing climate on the coastal
zone.

1. Introduction management, so that they continue to provide various

goods and services for future generations, as well.
The Indian coast is about 7500 km long and character-
The information requirement for managing the coastal
ized by varied landforms and ecosystems. In the context
of India, the coast is a place where geosphere, ocean, zone comprises up-to-date and comprehensive data on
biosphere, and atmosphere interact. Mass and energy are coastal habitats, ecosystems, landforms, shoreline condi-
continuously exchanged among these components and tions, water quality, living resources as well as impacts of
thus, such interactions created a unique ecosystem. In natural hazards and anthropogenic activities on coastal
view of such exchanges, coastal regions are of remarkable environment. Remote sensing has greatly enhanced our
biological productivity and diversity and hence, have knowledge on spatial pattern, extent, physical structure,
become center of human activities. Coastal regions pro- and conditions of coastal habitats and on rates of changes
vide fish, shellfish, seaweeds, and host ports for trading in coastal landscape. Satellite remote sensing data for
and commerce. In addition, many biota are sources of high spatial resolution (CARTOSAT, IRS LISS IV, and
fertilizer, drugs, cosmetics, and household products. IKONOS), temporal resolution (OCEANSAT, OCEAN
Coastal wetlands also store and cycle nutrients, filter COLOUR MONITOR (OCM), MODIS, and SEAWiFS),
pollutants and help to protect the shoreline from ero- multispectral (IRS LISS II, III, SPOT, LANDSAT MSS,
sion and storms. People are attracted to coasts because of and TM) and hyper-spectral (HYPERION) have been
their beauty, and thus, provide recreation and facilitate utilized to derive physical, geological, and ecological
tourism. These products and services support human life parameters. It is very important to understand the char-
and thus, impact the economy of a country and in turn acteristics of each satellite data sets and spectral behav-
its socio-economic conditions. Hence, we need to ensure ior of the targets, so that accurate information can be
robust health of coastal ecosystems through sustainable derived.

CONTACT Shailesh Nayak shailesh@moes.gov.in

© 2017 Wuhan University. Published by Taylor & Francis Group.
This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted
use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
 GEO-SPATIAL INFORMATION SCIENCE  175

Coastal landforms and shoreline are the results of

geomorphic processes such as erosion, sediment trans-
port and deposition as well as sea level changes. Satellite
data provided an excellent record of landforms and
changes due to their repetitive nature. Such data also
help us to understand changes occurring due to natural
and anthropogenic activities. Coastal vulnerability maps
showing likely areas to be inundated have been prepared
for the entire coastline using both satellite and ground-
based data. Coastal quality is an important parameter
and monitored at 24 locations along the Indian coast.
Coastal ecosystems, such as mangroves and coral
reefs, have been classified based on community- and Figure 1. Various coastal landforms in East Coast of India (IRS
geomorphology, respectively. The long length of records LISS III and PAN merged Image of the Subarnrekha Estuary).
of satellite data allowed to effectively monitor such eco-
systems and the changes were detected and mapped.
However, such information on changes may not be suf- and Nayak 2001; SAC 2011). All these maps and out-
ficient to interpret as a climate signal. puts can be downloaded from www.vedas.sac.gov.in.
The information on marine species is collected to The classification accuracy of these maps was 85% at
understand ecosystem structure and function. In order 90% confidence level. In many regions, mangroves and
to facilitate fishermen searching for fishing grounds effi- coral reefs have degraded and as well as reclamation of
ciently, an advisory service for locating potential fishing lagoons and mudflats have been observed (Desai et al.
zones has been provided. 1991; Nayak et al., 1992).
The timely and accurate information provided by Coral reef, a keystone ecosystem of tropical region,
remote sensing and along with developments of GIS and is a highly productive area and exhibits distinctive eco-
GPS systems, has paved a way to develop an effective logical and geomorphological patterns. Such zones were
strategy for the selection of brackish water aquaculture mapped for all coral reef areas of the country. It was
sites, regulation zones, warning systems for hazards and possible to identify types of reefs, characteristics of reef
ultimately sustainable management practices. In India, flats, lagoon, etc. (Deshmukh et al. 2005). Submerged
the application of remote sensing for the coastal envi- coral reef features were identified using OCEANSAT
ronment has matured during the last 40 years, and been OCM and RESOURCESAT LISS III data (Chauhan and
effectively used to manage the coast. A review of the Nayak 2005; Mahendra et al. 2010a). The extent of live
same is presented in this article. corals was delineated only in a few cases. This is the
limitation of these datasets. Hyperion hyper-spectral
data in VNIR region are able to distinguish morpho-
2. Coastal and marine habitats and biodiversity
logical features such as healthy (live) and degraded cor-
The baseline information on coastal and marine hab- als, reef flat, algal cover, algal ridges, sea grass, lagoon,
itats is vital. The first inventory of coastal habitats in knolls, and sandy areas (Velloth, Mupparthy, and Nayak
India, with emphasis on coral reefs and mangroves, was 2012; Velloth et al. 2014). An approach, Coupled Ocean
carried out using IRS LISS II and LANDSAT TM data Atmosphere Radiative Transfer (COART) to correct for
(1989–1991) at 1:250,000 and 1:50,000 scales (Jagtap, atmospheric and oceanic effects has been developed and
Naik, and Nagle 2001; Nayak et al. 1991, 1992). These applied to correct Hyperion data (Velloth et al. 2014).
maps show high tide line and low tide line (HTL and Fusion of high spatial resolution images from IRS LISS
LTL) and landform/wet land features such as mudflats, IV, IKONOS, QUICK BIRD, etc. can further improve
beach, mangroves, coral reefs (as shown in Figure 1). classification of coral reefs (Velloth, Mupparthy, and
Coastal land use maps showing HTL and LTL and land Nayak 2015).
use features were also prepared at a scale of 1:25,000. It was observed that coral reefs are generally in good
The details of methodologies have been given by Nayak condition, except those in the Gulf of Kachchh, Western
(1994a, 2009). The distinctive patterns of ecological India. This unique system is facing both natural and
and morphological zones of these two ecosystems were anthropogenic stress. The high suspended sediment
identified using IRS LISS III and Panchromatic (PAN) load in the Gulf of Kachchh and anthropogenic activi-
merged data (Bahuguna and Nayak 1998; Nayak et al. ties have adversely affected coral reefs (Bahuguna and
1996; Shah et al. 2005). All the thematic maps related Nayak 1998; Sharma et al. 2008). The tsunami of 2004
to coastal land use, wetland, mangroves, coral reefs, destroyed almost 400 km2 of coral reef areas and 130 km2
and shoreline changes have been organized in a GIS of reef were covered with backwash in the Andaman and
and Query Shell has been developed to create a data- Nicobar Islands (Nayak and Bahuguna 2008). However,
base and generate output maps (Gupta, Krishnarajan, it was observed that coral reefs have been recovering
176  S. NAYAK

slowly and showing its resilience capacity (Bahuguna, developed based on canopy cover, floral diversity, frag-
Nayak, and Roy 2008). Mesoscale processes such as mentation and hydrological parameters and applied in
cyclonic eddy can affect coral reefs. It is inferred based the selected areas to assess the health of mangroves (SAC
on model outputs that cyclonic eddy observed in South- 2011). This model is yet to be applied for the coastline
west (SW) of Sumatra, though it generally enhances of the entire country.
primary productivity, it can significantly damage corals The extent and condition of coral reefs and man-
through asphyxiation caused by massive phytoplankton groves, mapped by using satellite data, is useful as an
blooms (Reddy et al. 2010). input to identify boundaries of the protected areas and
Incidences of coral bleaching have increased during biosphere reserves as well as to monitor them to detect
the last two decades, especially in 1998 and 2010, due changes, if any. About 128 marine protected areas have
to warming of the sea. Coral reefs are made of many been identified, and monitored using IRS LISS III and
species of corals, each of which has a symbiotic relation- IV data. It is demonstrated that the degradation of man-
ship with algae living in their tissues. These algae supply groves and coral reefs can be halted and the recovery of
vital nutrition to the host but are sensitive to environ- these ecosystems can take place by suitable conserva-
mental changes including increase in seawater temper- tion measures as observed in marine protected areas in
ature. However, we know that in the Persian Gulf, corals the Gulf of Kachchh (Nayak et al. 1989). The sustained
withstand high temperature, probably because of high conservation measures in the Gulf of Kachchh led to
thermal tolerance by algae (Hume et al. 2013). In view substantial increase in both density and extent of man-
of increased warming of sea, corals may be quite differ- groves despite increased industrial activities (SAC 2011).
ent in the future (Normile 2010). The associated loss of However, degradation of these two key ecosystems was
algae is known as coral bleaching. Hence, monitoring the observed in many other protected areas.
health of order coral reefs is very vital. NOAA AVHRR The degradation of coastal habitats also results in
Sea Surface Temperature (SST) data were used to iden- loss of biodiversity. The information on biodiversity
tify cumulative temperature anomalies and thermal is very crucial, and is likely to be affected by anthro-
stress over coral reef regions. These two products were pogenic activity and impact of global warming of sea.
used to identify probable areas of bleaching (Mohanty The impact of the loss of marine biodiversity on other
et al. 2013). It was observed that soft corals such as processes needs to be understood. The detailed records
Acropora are affected significantly, unlike hard corals of marine life and changes need to be meticulously
such as Porites. Using this concept, Coral Bleaching Alert recorded. The Indian Ocean Biogeographic Information
System (CBAS) has been introduced and regular bulle- System (IndOBIS) and Census of Marine Life programs
tins are issued for coral reef areas (www.incois.gov.in). have been launched to pool all the information, which
The estimate for mangroves based on satellite data made it available through a portal and internationally
was 4460 km2 (Nayak and Bahuguna 2001). The iden- accepted data protocol. At present, IndOBIS has records
tification of dominant communities, viz. Avicenna, of over 122,000 species, including new records of several
Rhizophora, Ceriops, Heritiera, Excoecaria, Sonneratia, species (www.indobis.org), for the Indian Ocean. The
Xylocarpus, etc. was accomplished using a combination focus is on the understanding of the structure, function
of red, infrared, and middle-infrared bands of IRS 1C and vulnerability of ecosystems. We need to ensure a
LISS III data (Nayak et al. 1996). The community-wise healthy ocean environment for the sustained benefit of
classification of mangroves for the entire Indian coast our successive generations. Similar information systems
was carried out (Ajai et al. 2013; SAC 2011). The man- for coastal areas need to be developed.
grove area along the Indian coast has increased to Brackish water aquaculture is one of major activities
4956 km2 (SAC 2011). The increase in mangrove extent along most coastal regions of India. The selection of suit-
was observed on the coasts of Maharashtra, Goa, Tamil able sites is an important step towards efficient manage-
Nadu, Orissa, and West Bengal, essentially due to con- ment and reducing environmental impacts. The coastal
servation measures. The major decrease in mangroves habitat data created for the entire coast were utilized
was noticed on the Gujarat coast. In most cases the deg- to select the probable areas. Coastal habitat, drainage,
radation in mangrove habitat was due to their conversion transportation network, salinity, pH and other param-
for agriculture, aquaculture or industrial use. Significant eters were used to develop a criteria-based GIS model to
decrease in mangrove areas (150 km2), on the Andaman prioritize sites (Gupta, Krishnarajan, and Nayak 2001).
and Nicobar Islands was due to the damage caused by the
tsunami in 2004 (Nayak and Bahuguna 2008). Cyclones 3. Coastal processes and natural hazards
do damage mangroves and such damage is visible in
NDVI images generated from OCEANSAT-1 OCM and Geomorphic processes of erosion, sediment transport,
IRS WIFs (Nayak, Sarangi, and Rajawat 2001). It can also deposition and sea level changes continuously modify
be observed in subsequent NDVI images that mangroves the shoreline. The understanding of coastal processes
are very resilient and they recover within six months. A is vital to plan effective coastal protection measures.
model for assessing the health of mangroves has been It is also vulnerable to various natural hazards such
 GEO-SPATIAL INFORMATION SCIENCE  177

net suspended sediment movement towards estuarine

mouths resulted in the formation of mudflats (Nayak
et al. 2012). In the same region, the presence of all types
of spits, viz. paired, single and wing like, suggested that
the role of sea level changes and tectonics along with
long-shore currents in their formation (Hegde et al.
2012). The presence of submerged bars is also very crit-
ical in formation of spits. The divergent spits are formed
due to reversal in a long-shore drift and wave divergence
which favor the movement of sediment in opposite
directions (Hegde et al. 2015).
An artificial mouth was created on the Chilika lagoon
in 2000. Remote sensing data were effectively used to
assess the impacts of such an artificial mouth on the
Chilika lagoon in the East of India (Rajawat et al. 2007).
The original 80 m-wide mouth was widened to 680 m
over a period of time and erosion of the coast occurred.
Figure 2. Erosion between 1966 and 1998 in IRS LISS III Image of However, there was an improvement in tidal flux and
the West Coast of India. mixing resulted in increased salinity levels and reduced
weeds. This ultimately improved brackish water fishery
in the lagoonal area. The repetitive satellite data proved
as cyclones, storms, tsunamis which impact the coast. to be quite useful in monitoring the impacts of engi-
Multi-date high-resolution satellite data were used to neering structures.
detect long-term changes in shoreline and landforms. The coastal regions are regularly affected by cyclones
The information on shoreline changes along with near- and storm surges and occasionally by tsunamis. We must
shore water flow provide important insight into causes live with such hazards, and prepare ourselves to respond
of shoreline changes. The shoreline-change maps using to hazards to save lives. It is essential to identify vulnera-
topographical maps (1966–1968) and satellite data of ble areas, so that associated risks can be recognized and
1985–1989, 1990–1992, and 2004–2006 were prepared necessary mitigation measures can be taken up.
(Nayak et al.1992; SAC 2011). The areas under erosion, Coastal topography is one of the critical factors in
deposition and relatively stable areas were mapped (as defining vulnerability because its characteristics signif-
shown in Figure 2). The construction of breakwaters icantly affects the inundation due to storm surge or tsu-
and jetties for ports have increased erosion, generally nami. The accurate information on topography improves
in the direction of the long-shore currents as witnessed the estimation of inundation. The evaluation of eleva-
on the east coast of India (Chauhan et al. 1996; Nayak tion data derived from CARTOSAT and Airborne Laser
et al. 1992, 1997). Similarly, the construction of dams Terrain Mapper (ALTM) was carried out (Nayak et al.
on rivers also introduces erosion, immediately after 2013). It was observed that the elevation accuracies of
commissioning of dams (Nayak and Sahai 1985). It is CARTOSAT and ALTM are ±2 m and ±0.6 m, respec-
observed that the coast stabilizes after few years. The tively. This inaccuracy affects the extent of inundation
role of sea level changes, neotectonics, and sediment up to a certain extent. Considering the cost and time
transport was evaluated because they are shaping the required for acquiring and analyzing ALTM data, its use
present landforms in the Gulf of Khambhat, Western may be restricted to urban areas. CARTOSAT data are
India (Shaikh et al. 1989). Shoreline change and land- quite suitable to be used in coastal regions.
form maps for the coastline of the entire country are now Coastal vulnerability maps (cyclone, tsunami, and sea
available (www.vedas.sac.gov.in). level rise) for the entire Indian coast, based on projected
Geomorphic processes of erosion, sediment trans- long-term rise in sea level, and climatological data on
port and deposition in the vicinity of river mouths on tidal range and wave height, coastal elevation and slope,
the West coast of India were studied by using satellite long-term shoreline changes (rate of erosion and accre-
data as well as ground observations and sediment anal- tion) along with geomorphological setting have been
ysis. The sedimentation in the river mouth essentially produced (Kumar et al. 2010). The vulnerability has been
takes place during pre-monsoon period (April–May), defined in terms of an index indicating likelihood of
while beaches grow during post-monsoon (October– physical changes that may occur and the natural ability
December) period (Nayak et al. 2010). On the same of coastal system to change environmental conditions.
coast, OCEANSAT-1 OCM data showed the north- Such maps can provide base level information for coastal
ward and southward movement of suspended sediments management. Vulnerability maps of the entire country
along the coast during monsoon (June–September) have been prepared (www.incois.gov.in). In another pro-
and post-monsoon (October–December) period. The ject, a slightly different approach was used to prepare
178  S. NAYAK

the multi-hazard and risk maps for part of the tsunami- countries through web-based services. The performance
affected area on the East coast of India (Mahendra et al. of the tsunami warning system is as per design speci-
2011, 2010b). fications (Kumar et al. 2012a, 2012b). The system has
Rising sea levels are already eroding shorelines, slowly provided very useful advisories during last ten years.
drowning low-lying areas, and changing shoreline con- It is now recognized as the Regional Tsunami Service
figuration of the coast. These changes in sea level cou- Provider for the Indian Ocean.
pled with high tides and waves and storm surges can The prediction of cyclone tracks and landfall, 24 h
cause excessive episodic flooding. Such flooding affects before the event, has been improved to 140 km and
the ecosystems, settlements, and port operations, and 70 km, respectively (Mohapatra et al. 2013, 2015). The
ultimately the livelihood of coastal communities as assimilation of OSCAT data improved the location of
well as leads to migration of local people to other areas the center and track predictions (Prasad et al. 2013). The
(Nayak 1994b). Human modification of the shoreline information on storm surges and associated inundation
has altered currents and sediment delivery, resulting in is very important for disaster management authorities.
the advancement of the coast in some areas and eroding A simulation of both these aspects was carried out using
beaches in others regions. We know that the evolution of the ADCIRC model (Kumar et al. 2015). The simulated
coast depends on regional tectonics, sea level rise, vege- and observed surge heights matched well, but were
tation, and wave activity. One view is that the slow rise in underestimated. The extent of inundation matched rea-
the sea level will advance the coasts while rapid rise will sonably well but an improved topographic model using
erode them (Stutz and Pilkey 2011). Recently, a distinct CARTOSAT and ALTM data can further enhance the
reversal of the Northern Indian Ocean (North of 5°S) accuracy of delineation of inundation boundaries.
sea-level decadal trend between 1993 and 2013 by using
satellite and in situ observations, ocean analysis products 4. Water quality
and model simulations was reported (Srinivasu et al.
2017). We need to model the impact of such changes Many national and regional monitoring programs exist
in sea-level rise on coasts and islands. We should make for monitoring a variety of pollutants. In India, coastal
people aware of the changing environment and take water quality is being monitored for last 25 years at 24
adaptive and mitigation measures. Healthy mangrove priority sites. Various physical, chemical and microbio-
and coral reef ecosystems can significantly mitigate the logical parameters (total 54) for water and sediments are
impact of sea-level rise on coastal areas (Baba and Nayak measured seasonally. Increased nutrient inputs to coastal
2002). waters due to rise in coastal population and agriculture
Cyclones over the oceans trigger strong biological intensification have been observed at many sites. This
response and induce phytoplankton blooms (Vinay led to decreased levels of dissolved oxygen in coastal
Chandran and Mathew 2003). In the Bay of Bengal, waters, although they are not at the alarming levels. This
cyclones are very frequent and cause lots of damage data helped to take mitigating action wherever pollution
to infrastructure and life. The super cyclone which levels crossed threshold values. The data is available on
occurred during October 1999 in the Bay of Bengal, www.incois.gov.in/portal/comaps/home.jsp.
induced meso-scale phytoplankton bloom as evidenced Suspended sediments movement along with shore-
from satellite data and persisted for over a month (Reddy, line change information helps to understand rela-
Salvekar, and Nayak 2008). It was observed that produc- tionships between sediment input, transport, and
tivity increases substantially along the track of a cyclone. deposition (Nayak 2009). In tide-dominated areas,
Such blooms were observed during subsequent cyclones such as the Gulf of Khambhat and the Hooghly estuary,
as well. However, the magnitude of productivity varies tides play very critical role in movements of sediments
during such events (Lotlikar et al. 2014; Masuluri 2009). and fronts (Nayak and Sahai 1985; Nayak et al. 1996).
Since phytoplankton plays a very significant role in the OCEANSAT-1 Ocean Colour Monitor (OCM) provides
global carbon cycle, it is necessary to compute the uptake extremely useful information on decay of fronts, eddies,
of carbon dioxide during such blooms. gyres, plumes, etc. Due to its high temporal resolution
A tsunami is a system of ocean waves formed as a (as shown in Figure 3), OCM data were used to com-
result of large scale disturbances of the ocean floor. pute the advective velocity of surface currents and thus,
A state-of-the-art tsunami warning system has been to understand movement of sediments (Nayak 2009;
designed around GIS and implemented after the dev- Prasad et al. 2002). Such information is very useful in
astating tsunami in December 2004 (Nayak and Kumar modeling the path of waste effluents.
2008, 2009, 2011). The system is capable of receiving and The frequency of Harmful Algal Blooms, resulting
analyzing seismic and sea level, both on coast and deep in mass mortality and morbidity of marine organisms,
sea, received from the Indian and global stations, in real has increased significantly. In the North Arabian Sea,
time. It provides advisories about travel time, and run- we have observed the shift from diatom to green dino-
up-height at 1800 coastal forecast points within 10 min flagellates (Gomes et al. 2008). The increase in extreme
to all concerned within India and the Indian Ocean Rim rainfall also increases river run-off, polluting coastal
 GEO-SPATIAL INFORMATION SCIENCE  179

capacity of producing fish for human consumption. It

was also discovered that populations of phytoplankton
and copepods are also changing, threatening food sup-
ply of fishes as well as many marine mammals that in
turn prey on fish (Sanjeevan, Smitha, and Padmakumar
2014). Such a shift can transform the biodiversity and
functioning of marine ecosystems. There are many exam-
ples where changes in ocean climate contribute to shifts
in abundances and seasonal cycles of variety of species.
The increased availability of Sardines on the East coast
and on the Maharashtra coast while reduced supply on
the Kerala coast is an example (Sanjeevan, Smitha, and
Padmakumar 2014). Annual stock assessments of fish
are necessary to identify Maximum Sustainable Yield
(MSY) for various commercially important species. This
assessment will help to manage fishery for sustainable
yield.
Figure 3. Suspended concentration in Oceansat-1 OCM Image
of the North Coast of India.
6. Summary and outlook
waters with more nitrogen and phosphorus, sediments Coastal zone management depends on the information
and other contaminants. Increased direct monitoring of available on varied aspects of coastal habitats, coastal
water quality parameters, coupled with satellite data, will processes, natural hazards and their impacts, water qual-
improve our knowledge of health of coastal and ocean ity, and living resources. The effective management prac-
waters. tices depend on such knowledge and suitable response
by concerned government agencies.
5. Living resources The loss of coastal habitat areas reduces key ecolog-
ical services. Fish and shell fish stocks may decline and
Marine fishery catch in India is about 3.5–4.0 million shoreline may be destabilized. The relationship between
tonnes. Fishermen used to spend considerable time health of wetlands and fish stocks is generally linear.
in locating fish schools and thus, cost-per-unit efforts The ecological services are provided by wetlands, i.e.
were high. A satellite-based technique was developed to the wave attenuation service that protects coasts from
locate potential fishing grounds using NOAA AVHRR storms and tsunamis. The relationship between this
SST (Narain et al. 1990). This system was based on the service and wetland area is non-linear (Barbier et al.
detection of oceanographic features such as upwelling, 2008). Such relationships have consequences for man-
divergent fronts, eddies, gyres, rings, meanders. Because agement and should be taken into account. Hence, the
the temperature variation in tropical waters is only about optimal land use option should include the integration
3 °C, this technique was not very successful. During late of development and conservation activities and should
90s, the availability of satellite-derived chlorophyll infor- be consistent with ecosystem-based coastal zone man-
mation and its integration with SST further improved agement goals.
forecasts (Solanki, Dwivedi, and Nayak 1998). A suc- The identification of areas suitable for brackish water
cessful GIS-based fishery forecast system was developed aquaculture was accomplished based on coastal land-
by integrating chlorophyll, SST, surface currents and forms and land use derived from satellite images for
bathymetry (Nayak, Kumar, and Nagarajakumar 2007). the coastline of the entire country. The movement of
Daily advisories for more than 350 fishing harbors are sediments along the coast, onshore–offshore sediment
being generated and disseminated through electronic transport, impact of tides on sediment movement, and
boards at fishing harbors, web (www.incois.gov.in), and impact of engineering structures on sediment movement
e-mails. At present, about 93% of fishermen are adopting and areas under erosion and deposition, were studied
these advisories, which direct fishermen to the produc- using high temporal resolution satellite data. Based on
tive areas and hence avoid exploitation of fishery in low this information, the alternative methods to restore
to moderately productive areas. This technique helped beach such as beach nourishing and construction of an
fishermen to reduce catch-per-unit effort and hence artificial reef are being attempted.
brought economic benefits to fishermen. In order to preserve coastal ecosystems, the
Overfishing caused degradation of coastal and marine Government of India has declared areas between high
ecosystems, and destructive trawling techniques led to and low tide lines (HTL, LTL) and 500 m from HTL
loss of nursery areas of commercial fishery in some as the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ) and prohibited
regions. Hence, loss of coastal habitats affected the or restricted construction and industrial activities. The
180  S. NAYAK

accurate delineation of HTL and LTL is very critical. have significantly affected our coastal environment and
They have been delineated based on tonal discontinuity have also become major driver of influencing the earth
on satellite images (Nayak 2009). This regulation has system. The earth system processes, especially carbon
undergone too many changes over last 25 years, mainly cycle, ocean acidification, sea level changes, loss of bio-
due to incorrect interpretation of HTL and conflicting diversity, and modern agriculture-induced pollution of
laws of state and central governments. In view of this, it reactive nitrogen and phosphorous, have reached a level
was suggested that such anomalies should be removed. at which they can cause damage to the entire earth sys-
CRZ regulation needs to focus on protecting ecologically tem (Rockström et al. 2009). We need to model impacts
sensitive areas, while urban and rural areas are governed of these processes and design adaptive and mitigation
by existing laws of state and central governments with strategies for the sustainable development of the coastal
few conditions (Nayak et al. 2015). Local communities zone. Geospatial information technology can contribute
may be allowed to take up traditional aquaculture, orna- greatly to develop such models.
mental fisheries, etc. In a separate report, it was also sug-
gested to draw HTL using ALTM and high-resolution Acknowledgments
satellite data for the coastline of the entire country and
use it as a construction setback line to draw boundaries The author is extremely grateful to Dr. M. Rajeevan, Secretary,
Ministry of Earth Sciences (MoES), Government of India,
of CRZ. However, these suggestions are yet to be imple- and Dr. A. S. Kiran Kumar, Chairman, Indian Space Research
mented. Despite these limitations, this regulation has Organization (ISRO) and Secretary, Department of Space,
helped to conserve most of the protected areas, ensure Government of India, for encouragement and useful sugges-
livelihood security of fishermen, provide resilience to tions. My deep sense of gratitude are to Dr. Tapan Mishra,
impacts of hazards and promote socio-economic devel- Director, Space Applications Centre, ISRO and Dr. Satheesh
Shenoi, Director, ESSO – Indian National Centre for Ocean
opment based on scientific principles.
Information Services (INCOIS), for their keen interest in
The effects of anthropogenic activities on ecosystems this study. My colleagues, both at ISRO and ESSO-MoES,
have not been well-understood. We need to carry out deserved special thanks for their support and discussions.
predictive modeling, using existing climatic, coastal, and
topographic data combined with ecological information,
Notes on contributors
where historical data is available. We also know that the
current climate impact models have been showing very Shailesh Nayak is the distinguished scientist in the Ministry
large uncertainty. We need to improve the understand- of Earth Sciences (MoES) and the President of the 36th
ing of likely impact of anthropogenic activities on the International Geological Congress. He obtained his PhD
coastal environment. degree in Geology from the MS University of Baroda in 1980.
The advisory services for the cyclone and tsunami He was the Secretary of MoES, Government of India, during
August 2008–2015, and provided leadership for programs
have been provided to all stakeholders. The response related to earth system sciences. He set up the state-of-the-
of the government to such events at the local, state and art tsunami warning system for the Indian Ocean in 2007,
national levels has been exemplary. In the last century, and provided tsunami advisories to the Indian Ocean rim
a super cyclone struck the Orissa coast and more than countries. He has pioneered the development of algorithms
10,000 people died. During the last 10 years, loss of and methodologies for the application of remote sensing to
the coastal and marine environment, generated the baseline
lives has been minimized because of the availability
database of the Indian coast, and developed services for fish-
of accurate and timely information on track, landfall ery and ocean state forecast. This coastal database has formed
point, velocity of wind, storm surge, etc. (Mohapatra the basis of managing the coasts in India. He is fellow of the
et al. 2013, 2015), the suitable response and actions of Indian Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy
the government and the trust of local people in the fore- of Sciences, India, fellow of the International Society of
cast and government. The tsunami warning center has Photogrammetry & Remote Sensing (ISPRS) and elected
member of the International Academy of Astronautics (IAA).
performed very well (Kumar et al. 2012a) and there has He was conferred the prestigious ISC Vikram Sarabhai
been no false warning during the last 10 years. Such Memorial Award 2012, as well as Bhaskara Award 2009, for
systems have definitely helped to reduce risk from these his outstanding contributions in remote sensing and GIS. He
hazards. Though coral reef bleaching alert bulletins have has published about 150 papers in peer-reviewed journals.
been issued, it is not clear how one can respond to such
an event. We need to address the issue of developing a
response mechanism. References
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